Chapter. 1 System Concepts .|_Introduction A system is an array of components that work together to achi or mulitple > goals, by accepting input, processing it, and prod organized manner. Consider the following examples 4. Computer is a system with physical components viz. keyboard, monitor memory chips, circuits and connecting cables and the basic goal is processing of a data. 2. Accounting is a system with elements Journal, ledgers, people and basic goal is recording of financial transactions, preparation of balance sheet and reporting on financial operations of an entity. 3. Human body is a system with elements viz. organs, tissues, bones, blood, nerves network and basic goal is homeostasis. A system consists of several subsystems - components of a larger system - with subgoals, all contributing to meeting the main goal. Subsystems can receive input from and transfer output to, other systems or subsystems. Figure 1.1 shows an accounting system consists of several ‘subsystems : () Accounts payable records information about money that the organization owes to other organizations and individuals. Gi) (iii) (iv) Accounts receivable records sums owed to the organization and by whom A general ledger records current transactions. Areport generator generates reports reflecting the company's financial statu: Each subsystem has a well-defined [Link], the subsystems make up tf organizations accounting system. feAccounts Receivable Report Generator FIGURE 1.1 The subsystems, elements of the system to which they belong, are themselves defined by their boundaries. The interconnections and interactions between subsystems are called as interfaces The interfaces occur at the boundary of the subsystem through the inputs and outputs Fig. 1.2 illustrates the concept of interfaces. SYSTEM Sub-systemA Oulput Sub-systemB Output sub rom from B [| kee toB ea toc Inputs: INTERFACES FIGURE 1.21.2 1.3 To ensure that output from one subsystem is acceptable to another sub-system, certain standards have to be maintained. If two different subsystems are very tightly interfaced then a very close coordination between the two will be required. Quite often this close co-ordination becomes very difficult and certain amount of flexibility is required. This generally is achieved by providing either buffers between the systems or maintaining excess capacities. The following points are supposed to form the basics of general system theory. 1. Asystem must be designed to achieve a predetermined objective. 2. The objectives of the organization as a whole have a higher priority than the objectives of its subsystems. 3. Interrelations! 1S and interdependence must exist among the components. Definition of A System A system is an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together according to a plan to achieve a specific objectives. Basi ally, there are three major components in every system, namely, input, processing and output as shown in fig. 1.3. INPUT. PROCESSING UTPUT FIGURE 1.8 For example, a business system combines policies, personnel, equipment and computer facilities to co-ordinate the activities of a business organisation. Characteristics of A System In general, all systems have the following common characteri in figure 1.4. 3]Input Enviornment a Interrelationship Output FIGURE 1.4 These are as follows : 1. Specific Objectives The basic objective of a system is to achieve some goal. A business system, for example, may have profit-making as its corporate goal. 2. Components These are the sub-systems which collectively function to achieve goals of '" system. 3. Organization Organization implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of compone” that helps to achieve objectives. For example Example I (Computer System) The components of the Computer System are : (Input UnitGi) Central Processing Unit (a) Memory Unit (b) ALU (c) Control Unit Output Unit When linked together they work as a whole system for producing information. General arrangement of various units is shown in fig. 1.5 cPU Input Unit Memory Unit ry ‘Secondary Storage Unit or Auxiliary Storage Unit or Mass Storage Unit Output Unit —> Flow of data & instructions (data Signal) + Control Signal FIGURE 1.5 Example 2 (Business System) In the design of a business system the hierarchical relationships starting with the President on top and leading downward to the blue-collar workers represents the organization structure. Such formal structure defines nominal reponsibilities and mee in relation to the use of resources. A typical organisation structure is shown in fig. 1.6. ts]Vice-President ee Sa Vice-President! oro = Production Accounting Personi Sales Purchase Head of Department (inventory) ‘Head of Department (Assembly) WORKERS WORKERS FIGURE 1.6 Interaction Interaction refers to the manner in which each component functions with oth components of the system. For example (a) In a computer system, the central processing unit (CPU) must intera with the input unit to solve a problem. interact with sales, purchasir (b) Ina business system, adver with production and payroll with personnel. Interdependence Interdependence means that components or subsystems of the system depe" on one another. One subsystem depends on the input of another subsyste! for proper functioning; that is, the output of one subsystem is the requif? input for another subsystem. For example : A decision to computerize an application is initiated by the user, analyzed 2" designed by the analyst, programmed and tested by the programmer and © by the computer operator as shown in fig. 1.7, none of these persons perform properly without the required input from others in the computer baS* system. (61.4 ‘System Analyst Programmer FIGURE 1.7 Integration Integration is concerned with how a system is tied together. It means that components of the system work together within the system [Link] each component performs a unique function. Successful integration will typically produce a better result as a whole rather than if each component works independently. Behaviour A system reacts to inputs from its environment (The external element of a system are called its environment) and these responses determine its behaviour. The responses, in turn, are governed by the rules or instructions which the components or sub-systems are expected to follow in a particular set of circumstances. For example, a person ( a human system), may instinctively look left and right before crossing a road Self-regulating Assystem tends to maintain itself it a self-regulating and self-adjusting. Life Cycle Every system has its life cycle birth, a steady state. In other words, a system is fe and death. Elements of A System A simple way of looking at a system is FIGURE 1.8 71A system's objectives are expressed in terms of the outputs it needs to produce, feeds inputs, which are processed to generate the outputs. In addition to the above elements (or components), four more elements play = important role. These are e Control © Feedback © Environment © Boundaries and interface Therefore, the key elements of a system are : (a) Outputs First of all, we must determine what the objectives or goals are, what do we intend to achieve, what is the purpose of our work; i main aim behind the system. Once we know our in the best possible way. (©) Inputs other words, what is the , we can try to achieve it Once we know the output, we can easily determine what the inputs should be The essential elements of inputs are : 1. Accuracy If the data is not accurate, the output will be wrong. 2. Timeliness If data is not obtained in time, the entire system falls into arrears. Proper format The inputs must be available in proper format. 4. Economy The data must be produced at the least cost. (c) Processes Here we come to the details of how the inputs and files are converted into outputs. This involves the programs and the way in which data is processe? through the computer. Processes may modify the input totally or partially, depending on the specifications of the output as shown in fig. 1.9 cel ae(d) (O} FIGURE 1.9 Control Control of the system is the decision-maker that controls the activities of accepting input, processing and producing the output. For example, in an organizational context, management as a decision-making body controls the inflow, handling and outflow of activities that affect the welfare of the business Hence, each system should have the element control, which makes the system to operate within tolerable performance levels. For example, the normal temperatures of human body is 98.6°F. When there is a slight deviation in this temperature there is imbalance in the health condition Feedback In feedback, the output is fed back to input and / or to the control. The feeding back of the output allows it to be measured against some standards and making adjustments in the processing accordingly as shown in fig. 1.9. Hence feedback is information on how well a system is performing and it is essential for system modifications (9]w (g) Feedback may be positive or negative, routine or informational. Posi feedback increases the peformance of the system. It is routine in naty Negative feedback generally provides the controller with information for act Environment The environment is the source of external elements that have an effect on| system. In fact, it often determines how a system must function. As shown Figure1.9, the organization's environment, consisting of vendors, competi banks, government and others, may provide constraints and, consequen' influence the actual performance of the business. Boundaries and Interface A system should be defined by its boundaries - the limits that identify components, processes, and interrelationships when it interfaces with anot system. For example, a teller system in a commercial bank is restricted to | deposits, withdrawals, and related activities of customers checking and saw! accounts. It may exclude mortgage foreclosures, trust activities and the li 1.5 Types of Systems Systems have been classified in different ways. Common classifications are : wi di) ii) (iv) Open and Closed Systems Deterministic and Probabilistic systems Physical or Abstract systems Man-made information systems 1.5.1 Open and Closed Systems A closed system is one which is self contained. It has no interaction with | environment. No known system can continue to operate for a long period of ti without interacting with its environment. An example of a relatively closed syste” a computer program which processes predefined inputs in a predefined WY relatively closed system is one which control its inputs, and so is protected fro environmental disturbance. An open system is a system that interacts freely with its environment. This °° system can adapt to changing internal and environmental con organization is an excellent example of an open system. jons. A busine i —41.5.2 are usually A human being is another example of an open system. Open systems : ‘ir continued adaptive, i.e. their interaction with the environments such as to favour their co 3 existence. Main characteristics of open systems are : @ — Equitinatity An open system can reach the same final result from different initial conditions and by various routes. In other words a system can accomplish its objectives with varying inputs and varying processes. (i) Input from outside An open system is self-adjusting and self-regulating. For example, in a firm, an increase in the cost of goods forces a comparable increase in prices or decrease in operating costs. (ill) Entropy (or loss of energy) All dynamic systems tend to rundown energy. Open systems resist entroy Processes to retum to a steady (iv) Process, Output and Cycles Open systems produce useful ot continuous flow path. (¥) Differentiation Open systems have a tend functions and a greater differ. over time, resulting in entropy or loss of by seeking new inputs or modifying the state or equilibrium. utput and operate cycles, following a lency towards an increasing specialization of ‘entiation of their components. Deterministic and Probabilistic Systems The behaviour of a deterministic system is completely known. There is no uncertainity uts. This implies that can not be predicted with certainty, only Probabilistic estimates can be given. In this case, the interactions between various Subsystems cannot be defined with certainty. An example of such a system is a warehouse and of the contents at one time, and of the average d orders, etc, the contents at the next point in time its contents. Given a description lemand, length of time to process could not be perfectly predicted. (1)1.5.3 Physical and Abstract Physical systems are tangible or visible systems. That is, tangible system cant, seen, touched, counted etc. Physical systems may operate statically or dynamicaiy For example, a programmed computer is a dynamic system because data, prograrr and output change as the user's demand changes. In contrast, the physical parts the computer centre are the tables, chairs, monitor, keyboard etc. which can t, seen and counted, they are static. Abstract systems are conceptual or nonphysical entities. Such systems just involv abstract conceptualization of physical situations. For example, a model is an abstrac system as it is a conceptualization and a representation. Another example is a algorithm or an equation. 1.5.4 Man-made Information Systems It is generally believed that information reduces uncertainty about a state or even For example, information that the weather will be good tommorrow reduces ove uncertainty about whether or not a football game will be played. An information system is an arrangement of people, data, processes, interface: and communications that interact to support and improve day-to-day operations ir a business as well as support the problem-solving and decision-making needs ¢ management and users. An information system exists with or without a computer. But when informatior technology is used, it significantly expands the power and potential of most informatic systems. The major information systems are : (a) formal information systems (b) _ informal information systems (c) computer based information systems [Link] Formal Information Systems A formal information system is based on the organization represented by th: organization chart. The chart is a map of positions and their authority relationships indicated by boxes and connected by straight lines. It is concerned with the pate” of authority, communication and work flow. Information is formally disseminated instructions, memos, or reports from top management to the intended user in **: organization. 2Types or Categories of information ‘There are three types or categories of information. @) ‘Strategic Information is used by top management to plan the objectives of their organisation and to assess whether the objectives are being met in Practice. Such information includes overall profitability : the profitability of different segments of the business, future market prospects, the availability and cost of rai 1g New funds, total cash needs and capital equipment needs. etc. Information requirements of top management are met by strategic information tier by arranging information from internal and external sources. (b) Tactical or manageri: Information is used by middle management to ensure that the resources of the business are employed to achieve the strategic objectives of the organisation. Such information includes productivity measurement (output per man-hour or per machine-hour). Budgetary control or variance analysis reports and cash flow forecasts, manning level and Profit results within a particular department of the organisation, labour tumover statistics within a department, short-term purchasing requirements etc. A large Proportion of this information will be generated from within the organisation. Another important function of tactical level is to supply information to strategic tier for the use of top management. (©) Operational Information is used by operation level of management such as. foremen or head clerks to ensure that specific tasks are planned and carried out properly within a factory or office etc. In the payroll office, for example, operational information relating to day rate labour will include the hours worked each week by each employee, his rate of pay per hour, details of his deductions, Operational level require information for implementing and regulating operational Plans for the purposes of conversion of inputs into outputs. Also it supplies routine and other information to tactical tier in summarised form. The management and information levels in a typical organization is shown in fig. 1.10. (13]Management Information Level Level Strategic Top Information Middle Operational Information Lower FIGURE 1.10 [Link] Informal Information Systems An informal information system is an employee-based system designed to meet personnel and vocational needs and to help in the solution of work-related problems. It also funnels information upward thorugh indirect channels. In this way, it is considered to be a useful system because it works within the framework of the business and its stated policies. [Link] Computer-based Information Systems formation system depends mainly on the computer for handling business applications. Computer based information systems are further classified Transaction Processing Systems (TPS) Management Information System (MIS) Decision Support Systems (DSS) Office Automation Systems (OAS) [Link].1 Transaction Processing Systems (TPS) The system required to obtain operatignal. information is known as TPS. Thes® systems are concerned with carrying out relatively simple, but repetitiv® computations on a large number of records involved, say, in payroll preparation maintenance of inventory records, sales accounting and the like. (141 ogFIGURE 1.11 [Link].2 Management Information System (MIS) The system required to obtain tactical information is known as MIS. It will be obvious that the processing requirements in the MIS can be quite voluminous and complex. For example, in ticket reservation system, a TPS is used to take orders and print tickets. An MIS is used to measure and report the performance of each of the agents who sell tickets. Such an MIS keeps track of the number and amount of each agent's sales and it regularly produces reports about agent effectiveness. DATA FROM TRS. 2 & FIGURE 1.12 REPORT (15)[Link].3 Decision Support System (DSS) The system required to obtain strategic information is known as DSS. Unlike which is regular and recurring, the need for DSS can be irregular. In DSSs mode: are sturctures to represent an operation with its more important uncertainties etc. expected in real life situations. Thereafter, using mathematical statistical techniques answers/ alternatives are four: to such problems as optimum product mix for manufacturing, what to buy, how: buy, etc. at the minimum prices, finding out the optimal profit plan for the compar and the like. it features and variable, FIGURE 1.13 [Link].4 Office Automation System (OAS) ‘an office automation system can be described as a multi-function, integrate ‘computer based systems that allows many office activities to be performed in computer node. They are being developed with the hopes and expectations va they will increase the ef fficiency and productivity of office-workers-typists, secretarie= administrative assistants, staff professionals, managers and the like. Ma” organisations have taken the first step towards automating their offices. Often '" step involves the use of word processing equipment to facilitiate the typing, stor!n? revising and printing of textual materials. Another development is a computer bas communications system such as electronic mail which allows people to communice" in an electronic mode through computer terminals.Chapter-. System Developmen Life Cycl 2.1 2.2 Introduction Every computer based system has a life cycle. Just as all living beings follow a ii cycle. Commercial programs such 4s payroll accounts, inventory and other softwa share a common life cycle pattern. One method of doing things may work well for period of time. This may last for several years. However, owing to expansion « changes in the nature of the business, the economic environment, the need to kee up with new technology or other factors, the program may be inadequate for futu use. At this point investigations are made, requirements are analyzed, and ne’ specifications are proposed and a new system is developed. The life cycte of th new system thus starts again. System development starts when management or sometimes system developme’ personnel feel that a new system or an improvement in the existing system is require: The systems development life cycle is classically thought of as the set of activitie that analysts, designers and users carry to develop and implement an informatio system. Phases of the System Development Life Cycle System Development life cycle (SDLC) is a well-defined process by which a syste" is conceived, developed and implemented. The system development life cy¢! consists of the following phases as shown in fig. 2.1. 1: Preliminary survey or Investigation 2. Feasibility Study 3. System Analysis .4. Design of System 5. Development of Software 6. System Testing 7. Implementation and evaluation 8. Maintenance Design of System, FIGURE 2.1 2.2.1 Preliminary Survey One of the most difficult tasks of the system analyst is identifying the real problem of the existing system. Without clear understanding of the problem in the system, any further work done will lead to wastage of effort at a later stage. The purpose of the preliminary survey or investigation is to evaluate project requests. It is not a design study nor does it include the collection of details to describe the business system in all respect. Rather, it is the collecting of intormation that helps committee members to evaluate the merits of the project request and make an informed judgement about the feasibility of the proposed project. (19) és2.2.2 —— Analysts working on the preliminary investigation should accomplish the folloy, 4. Objectives : What the new system must achieve; for example, cost redu- better service to customers, better management information, etc. Constraints : The restrictions on cost, equipment to be used, areas of busi which are to be left unchanged etc. Time Scale : What is the time limit for designing the new system. 4. Size : Determine the size of the project. 5. _ Reports or output needed. Problems that have been identified with the current system. 7. Suggested solutions considered by the [Link]. Feasibility Study The next step is to examine the feasibility of the proposed system. This invos evaluating the costs and benefits of the system. Initially a rough cost-benefit analy will be sufficient for the top management to take a decision either in favour o against the proposed system. Costs include costs of design, development, implementation and maintenance the system. Benefits will be realised from the timely and accurate generatior required information to meet the stated objectives of the organisation. It is te realised that a data base created for a particular system application usually sen other applications as well to a certain extent. For example, a data base for pay accounting can be used for applications such as Provident Fund (PF) accounti Retirement Benefits accounting, Personnel Information Systems etc. Such indir benefits is also should be considered in the feasibility analysis. The feasibility st is concerned with three aspects. These are : 1. Technical Feasibility During this study, the analyst identifies the existing computer syst? (hardware and software) of the concerned department and determines whe" these technical resources are sufficient for the proposed system or n° they are not sufficient, the analyst suggests the configuration of the comp: systems that are required.®y conducting this study the analyst can ascertain the following : (@) Whether the project can be carried out with the existing equipment. (6) Whether the existing software is enough? te) (a) If anew technology is required, how best can it be implemented? Economic Feasibility Can the work be done with the existing personnel? Economic feasibility is the most important study that determines the cost and benefits of the proposed system and compares with the budget. The cost of the project should not outweigh the budget. The cost of the project includes the cost of hardware, software, development and implementation. Cost-benefit analysis is performed to determine the benefits and servings that are expected. If benefits are found to be more than costs, then the analyst decides to continue the development of the proposed system otherwise considers it economically not feasible. By conducting this study the analyst can ascertain the following : (a) (b) Whether there are sufficient benefits as compared to the costs incurred? Operational Feasibility Whether the project is economically feasible? During operational feasibility study, it is determined whether the system will operate in the way that user wants or not. This test of feasi system will work when it is developed and installed. asks if the Operational feasibility must determine how the proposed system will fit in with the current operations and what, if any, job reconstruction and re-training will be needed to implement the system. The analyst should determine (a) Whether the system can be used if it is developed and implemented? (b) Will there be resistance from users that will cripple the possible application benefit? After the feasibility study, a document is prepared that is known as Feasibility ‘Study Report. Besides this report, the analyst also gives the oral presentation of feasibility study to the management.2.2.3 System Analysis When the systems analyst decides that the requested system is feasible ang management agrees to continue the development process, the next phase of § is determination of systems requirements. This phase includes studying of exi system in details and collecting data in order to find out the requirements o users. The key questions are : © What is being done in the organization? © How is it being done? © How frequently does it occur? © What is the volume of transactions or decisions? © How well is the task being performed? e Does a problem exist? ¢ Ifa problem evists, how serious is it? What is the underlying cause’ To answer these questions, the system analyst must consult a variety of perso He has to understand the whole details about the business, the processes inv in it and the problems faced by the staff. He should also identify the reasons fot problems that have occured and the preventive measures to avoid them. During analysis, data are collecton on the available files, decision points | transactions handled by the present system. Some tools are used in analysis interviews, on-site observations and questionnaires. Detail investigations also req the study of manuals and reports. Once the structured analysis is completed, ana has a firm understanding of what is to be done? 2.2.4 Design of System In the system design phase, the primary objective is to identify user require and to build a system that satisfies these requirements, systems special often refer to this stage as logical design, in contrast to the process of develo program software, which is referred to as physical design. The main act! of the phase are : ~ t(a) (b) (ce) (d) fe) we (g) (hy ‘The analyst begin the design process by identifying reports and other outputs system will produce. Identify data requirements. The systems design describes the data to be input, calculated or stored. The analyst should specify the file structures, storage devices such as magnetic disk, magnetic tapes etc. The database is designed in this phase. Changes to be made in the organizational structure of the firm are outlined. Input, output, files, forms and procedures are planned. Finally, standards for testing, documentation and system control are formulated. 2.2.5 Development of Software In this phase, the system is actually programmed. The analyst should decide whether to buy a commercial software or to develop new customized programs with the help of programmers. The choice depends on the cost of each option, the time available to develop software and the availability of programmers. In large organizations the work is entrusted to programmers, whereas in small organizations, the job is assigned to outside organizations. Programmers are also responsible for documenting the program, providing an explanation of how and why certain procedures are coded in specific ways. Documentation is essential to test the program and carry on maintenance once the application has been installed. 2.2.6 System Testing The mi purpose of this phase is to find the errors and correct them. A successful test is one which finds an error. The main objectives of system testing are as follows: (a) (b) To make sure that the system during operation will perform as per the specfication laid down initially at the time of system analysis. To make sure that the controls incorporated in the program system and the system function as intended. (23)(c) To ensure that during the operation, incorrect inputted data and Proce, will be detected. The system is tested with special test data and the results are examined fo, , validity. Some of the users may be permitted to operate on the system so tha, analyst can ascertain that the system can work in the specified environment, 2.2.7 Implementation and Evaluation Implementation consists of installing hardware, software, training of all the us and collecting data needed to use it. In this phase, user actually starts using system. Therefore, this phase involves training of the users for using the sys and also providing them friendly documentation to refer to. Implementation can be done in three ways : (a) New System is implemented and the old system is completely dropped ou one particular date (b) New system is implemented and both old and new system are operate: parallel. When ..ew system is accepted, old system is dropped out. (c) The new system is implemented in many phases. Each phase is carried: only after successful implementation of previous phase. Once the system is implemented it should be evaluated. Evaluation of the sys! is performed to identify its strength and weaknesses. The actual evaluation can occur along any of the following dimensions (a) Operational Evaluation Assesment of the manner in which the system functions, including ease use, response time, overall reliability and level of utilization. (b) Organisational Impact Identification and measurement of benefits to the organisation in such a‘ as financial concerns, operational efficiency and competitive impact. (c) User Manager Assessment Judge the attitudes of senior and user manager within the organisation. well as end-users. (d) Development Performance Evaluation of cost, time and effort taken for the overall project. sees 3.8 Maintenance Correction After implementation, the systems need to be maintained in order to adapt the changing business needs. There are three types of maintenance. @ (p) (c) Correction means correcting the errors in the existing software. Adaptation Adaptation means customizing the software to run in the new environment. Enhancement Enhancement means ad ding new functions or additional capabilities to the system. If the system needs major modification, then life-cycle start s again.2.4 Role of Systems Analyst The success of system projects depends on careful Planning and thoughtful Preparation. This is the job of the systems analyst, because he/ she is the person Who plans and guides the design as well as implements and maintains a modified or New system. System analyst plays the following important roles. 1. Problem Definition (Investigator) The first and most difficult task of systems analyst is to understand the Organization's requirements. He/she studies the problems and needs of a : i i interviewi rs and finding out what information organization. It involves interviewing use! [27]a, they use in the current system and how they use it. They are then asked y, information they feel they lack. The analyst has to then determine hows, information can be generated, from the available inputs, or some other in; are to be collected. Hence, the analyst works as an investigator by extrac real problems from existing systems. Setting Priorities Among Requirements In any organization there are many types of users. Each user has diffe types of information needs. It may not be possible to satisfy the requireme of every one, due to limited availability of resources. So, it would be necess to give priority to them. So, the priorities are to be set based on the urge and importance of the user's need. Gathering Data or Facts (Researcher) Initially a system analyst does not know how to solve speci problem. must consult with managers, users and other data professionals in defir problems and developing solutions. He uses various methods for d: gathering to get the correct solution of a’ problem. To collect the data, ¢ analyst does the following : © interviews personnel © prepares questionnaires © observes the current system © gathers forms and documents currently in use. During fact finding, an analyst acts as a researcher, gathering facts, figu" and documents and coming to g! s with the entire scope of the problem. Analysing and Evaluation After gathering data and facts, the analyst analyses them and thinks of pla" solve it. He tries to find the best characteristics of a new or modified syst Agood analyst rejects duplicate and unnecessary data and focus on impor data. Various graphical means of data analysis help him in this task. Problem Solving (Problem Solver) The analyst is called Problem Solver because he analyses and S°" ing a problems. He may not come up personally with the best way of solv aproblem but pulls together other people's ideas and refines them until a workable solution is achieved Since many problems have number of solutions, the system analysed must evaluate the merit of such proposed solution before recommending one to the management. Drawing Specifications (Planner) Main job of an analyst is to obtain the input and outputs (specification) for optimal functioning of a system to be developed. The system should be easily understood by managers and users and accrue benefits for the organization as a whole. The specification should be precise and clear for easy implementation. ‘Systems analyst is also referred to as planner. A key part of his job is to develop a plan to meet the management's objectives. Designing System (Architect) Once the specifications are accepted by the management, system analyst is responsible for designing it so that management's goal could be achieved. ‘System design is time consuming, complex and precise task. So, the analyst must be aware of the latest design tools for system design. As part of design he should create a test plan for the system. System analyst Is also called Architect because he/ she design and implement new systems. Evaluating System System must be thoroughly tested. An analyst must critically test the performance of the designed system with specifications after it has been in eon tor a reasonable period of time, The time at which evaluation is to be done, hee enplementation is to be done, and how users’ comments are to be gathered and used need to be decided by the analyst. implement the New System (Motivator) Finally, the analyst presents the proposed system to the management and the vers, Here, the analyst's role as a motivator becomes obvious during the fret few weeks after implementation and during times when turnover results in new people being trained to work with the new system. [29]2.5 Qualities of Systems Analyst An analyst must possess various skills to effectivély carry out the job. Skills, be divided into two categories : (a) Interpersonal Skills Interpersonal skills deal with relationships and the interface of the analyst, people in business. (b) Technical skills Technical skills focus on procedures and techniques for operations analy system analysis and computer science. The analyst must possess the follow An analyst must have both types of ski qualities. (a) Interpersonal Skills Include 1. Communication An analyst is required to give presentations about the new design t group of users. Such presentations are often created for non-technic personnel. He must thus be able to organize his thoughts and prese them in a language easily understood by average educated worke' Good oral presentations and satisfactory replies to questions are esset to convince management and users about the usefulness of informat! systems. 2. Understanding The analyst must understand people using the system and be able influence them to adopt the new methods and attitude. 3. Teaching Educating people in use of computer systems, selling the system to! organization and giving support when needed. 4. Selling Selling ideas and promoting innovations in problem solving us! computers.. (b) ‘Technical Skill Includes 1. Knowledge of people Since a systems analyst works with others so closely, he or she must understand their needs and what motivates them to develop systems Properly. Knowledge of Business functions systems analyst must know the environment in which he or she works. He must be aware of the peculiarities of management and the users at his installation and realize how they react to systems analyst. Knowledge of Data Processing Principles Most systems today are computer based. The systems analyst must fully aware about the potential and limitations of computers. Flexibility ‘Systems analysts must be flexible in their thinking not get their own way. Di ferent fractions in an organisation have conflicting needs and most systems are the result of compromise. An Analytical Mind Ittakes an unusual person to see through problems facing an organisation and develop solutions that will work. Systems analysts often find themselves with more data than they can cope with. It requires an analytical ming to select pertinent data and concentrate on them in defining Problems and forming solutions. Well educated with sharp mind He must know how to work with people at all levels virtually in every aspect of business and gain their confidence. Analysts must have sharp mind to learn quickly how people do their jobs and develop ways for them to do it better. Creativity helping users model ideas into concrete plans and developing new systems to match user requirements. [31]8. Problem Solving The analyst must understand the problems and solve problems. Redy. problems to their elemental level for analysis, developing altems solutions to a given problem and find the pros and cons of new sys; 9. Project Management : scheduling, performing well under t constraints, coordinating team efforts and managing costs ; expenditures. 40. Dynamic interface Blending technical and non-technical consideration in functic specifications and general design System analysts must possess both skills, although the necessity for t skills depends on the phases of system development as shown in fig. 2.: Technical Interpersonal Skills 4 skills : z 5 & S 5 S qj 4 _ > Analysis Phase Design Phase | Implementation Maintenance Phase Phase FIGURE 2.3 1y2.7 Analyst / User Interface An important aspect of system development is a viable interface between the an: and the user. Analysts must devote as much skill and effort to achieve a produ, relationship with the user as they devote to the tehnical requirements of the sys, Much research has been done to study users and their relationships with sys analysts. Most research indicates that as the number of users increases, probability of system failure increases without close analyst/ user interface. | examine the following behavioral issues : 1. User Motivation The motivational approach in system deve: ~ ‘ent states that the new sys should satisfy the users' needs ifthey are. _ig to se it. Motivational perspective is that the impact of the computer on the user's | work is important. Systems design is essentially task design. A new sys must be tailored to the user's tasks to be accepted. Analyst/ User Differences On the surface, differences in education, experience and language are q obvious. The analyst's impatience with the user's ignorance about technol like chip and CRT and the user's impatience with the analyst's lim understanding of the business, however, often lead to conflict during sys development. On the other hand, most systems analysts feel limited responsibility for effects of new systems they implement. The result is ignorning | suggestions and producing analyst-oriented rather than user-oriented syste Two implications may be drawn for system design. First, there is a nee’ mutual understanding between the analyst and the user. Second, 0 difference are understood and accepted. alleviating them may be pos through a deeper involvement of the user and support of the analyst. The political factor Since information is a source of organizational power, the process of 9¥5 development may be viewed as a coritest for power where analysts havé initial advantage. A system that is simple to explain and easy to understé" more readily accepted than a technical presentation; it also makes the ‘ feel less vulnerable. ee a ereConflict Resolution . The role of the analyst requires coordinating a vast network of people's ideas and integrating them into a systemeering process design. Taggart suggests that the concerns-of the user be integrated into the system life cycle and recommends systemeering.OO Chapter. System Planning An Initial Investigatio 3.1 3.2 Introduction To start a system investigation, we need a master plan detailing the steps to taken, the people to be questioned, and the outcome expected. Aims of ir investigation are 1. defining user requirements. 2. _ studying the present system to verify the problem. 3. defining the performance expected by the candidate system to meet u requirements. After completion of initial investigation the user receives a system prope summarizing the findings and recommendations of the analyst. Bases for Planning in System Analysis Bases for planning in System Analysis are : 1. Information is very important resource and must be managed. 2. As computer systems are becoming integral to business operations, ! management is paying more attention to their development. 3. There is a growing need for formal long-range planning with information syste that are complex, require months or years to build, use common data bas" or have a greater competitive edge.3 Dimensions of Planning 3.4 ‘The following conditions dictate today's business strategies : 1 5. 6. Due to high interest rates, it becomes very important that business earns a good return on investment. inflation occurs then there is pressure on profit. Guaranteed employment suggests that costs are becoming fixed and the commitment to business expansion may not be easily changed. Resource shortages put pressure on expansion. Due to regulatory constraints, slow entry into the market. Increased productivity paves the way for expansion. Why System Projects Systems projects are initiated for different reasons. The most important are : 1. Capability Information systems add capability in three ways : (a) Improved Processing Speed (b) Process a greater amount of activity (c) Faster retrieval of information Control! (a) Greater accuracy and consistency (b) Better accuracy Communication (a) Enhanced communication (b) _ Integration of business activities Cost (a) Reduce Monitor costs (costs of labour, goods & overhead) (b) Reduce costs to process data (37)3.5 Sources of Project Requests ___ Competitiveness (a) Lock in customers (b) Leck out competitors (ce) Improve arrangements with suppliers (d) New product development There are mainly four primary sources of project requests : @ (b) (ce) () Requests from Department Managers Department managers who deal with day-to-day business activities, are loo for assistance within their departments. They are often not satisfied with amount of time that the staff takes to complete the job. Accuracy is ano problem. In this case, the manager will discuss these problems with 0} administrators recarding their clerical as well as processing work and persu: higher authority to approve the development of a computer based system office administration. Requests from Senior Exec: Senior executives like presidents, vice-presidents usually have 7 information about the organisation as compared to department managers. S* these executives manage the entire organisation, so naturally they have bros jes. Obviously, systems project requests submitted by them ¢ broader in scope also. responsibi more weightage and are generall Requests from System Analysts Sometimes System Analysts find areas where it is possible to develop pro In such cases, they may prefer either writing systems proposal thems?! or encouraging a manger to allow the writing of a proposal on their behalt Requests from Outside Groups Developments outside the organisation also lead to project requests: ' example, government contractors are required to use special cost accou” systems with government stipulated features.Initial Investigation One of the most difficult tasks of the system analyst is identifying the real problem of the existing system. Without clear understanding of the problem in the system, any further work done will lead to wastage of effort at a later stage. Users submit a request to change, improve or enhance an existing system to the management or IT department. In each organisation, there is a standard procedure to deal with these requests. The ial investigation is one way to handling this. The objective is to determine whether the request is valid and feasible before a recommendation is reached to do nothing improve or modify the existing system, or build a new one. The user's request form specities the following : 1. User-assigned title of work requested. 2. Nature of job like new or revision. 3. Submition date. 4. Desired Completion date. 5. Purpose of request. 6. Expected benetits 7. InpuVoutput specifications like quantity (number of copies or pages) and frequency (daily, weekly, etc) of inputs and outputs of propose change. 8. Requester's signature, designation and phone number. 9. Signature, Designation, department and phone number of person approving the request Therefore, A user's (or project) request form should contain the following : © Whatis a problem? © What are the details of the problem? How significant is the problem? ° © What does user feel in the solution? © How will the information systems help? ° Who else knows about this and could be contacted?3 Steps in the initial investigation Steps in the initial investigation are = ac Fact - finding is the first step in the initial investigation. It includes a revie: written documents, on-site observations, interviews, and questionnaires. ‘The second step is fact analysis, which evaluates the elements related t¢ inputs and outputs of a given system. Data flow diagrams and other ct are prepared during this stage. 3. Third step is feasibility. A feasibility study is carried out to select the! system that meets users requiremens. system. The outcome of the initial investigation is to determine whether an alternative syS ive document initiates a feasibility study, which leads to. : the selection of the best candi¢ is feasible. The proposal details the findings of the investigations. Approval 0’ - Approval 04.1 4.2 [2P. Chap Fact Finding Proce and Techniqu Introduction The analyst must know what information to gather, where to find it, how to o and what to make of it. The proper use of tools for gathering information is the successful analysis. The specific methods that an analyst uses for collecting data about the require of the new system are called information gathering or fact finding techniq: data collecting techniques. These techniques include interviews, discus questionnaires, record inspection and observations. What kinds of Information do we need? Much of the information we need to analyse relates to the organization, the staff and the work flow. 4. Information about the Organization Organization information includes : (@) Policies Organization's policies are guidelines that determine the con business. (b) Goals A statement of goals describes management's commitment to 0b and the direction system development will follow. (c) Objectives Objectives are milestones of accomplishments towards achieving(4) Organization Structure The organization structure via the organization chart, indicates management directions and orientation. Information from employee manuals, orientation Pamphlets, annual company Feports and the like helps an analyst form opinion about the goals of the organization. Information about user staff Information about user staff includes : (@) People's job functions and status (b) Authority relationships (©) (a) Interpersonal relationships Information requirements. The major focus is to find out what people the analyst is going to be dealing with and what each person expects to get out of a proposed system before it goes through design and final implementation. Information about work flow Information about work flow includes : (2) Work flow Work flow focuses on what happens to the data through various points in a system. This can be shown by a data flow diagram or a system flowchart. (b) Methods and Procedures ‘The information available from Data flow diagram or from ‘system flowchart explains the procedures used for Performing desired tasks. (c) Work schedules The information available from Data flow diagrams also explains the work schedules. [47]Where does Information Originate? or Source Information There are two sources of Information : (a) Internal Sources (within the organization) (b) External Sources (outside the organization) (@) Internal Sources The main internal sources are : (a) Financial reports (b) System manuals or documentation (c) User manuals (d) User or user staff (e) Reports and transaction documents (f) Personnel staff (g) Professional staff (b) External Sources The primary external sources are : (a) Government documents (b) Newspapers and professional journals (c) Vendors Fact Finding Techniques Many tools and techniques are used for information gathering, which are also « ae fact-finding techniques. Each tool has a spe information needed The com! cial function, depending © monly used fact finding techniques are vi pections. interviews, questionnaire and observation. Record Inspections Organizations have a large volume of documents in the form of organisation ° administrative proces ; ooo se procedure menus, standard operation procedures, web sites : escription documents, account books, sales analysis ‘P™Up-to- information-gathering time. Record inspection is the best source of quantitative information, Like an investigative reporter trying to discover the who, what, when, why and how of a story, the analyst should conduct the interview in such a way that people provide honest descriptions of their jobs. Interviews help gather vital facts about existing Problems, such as lack of quality control or sufficient security, but they also allow the analyst to involve people in change, easing them into it. 4.2.1 Advantages of Interviews @ Interviews allow the analyst to discover areas of ©xpectations and even indications of resi isunderstanding, unrealistic istance to the Proposed system. ative inf (ii) Interviews are the best source of qualit and subjective descriptions of activitie 2rmation (opinions, policies S and problems). (iv) Interviews give the analyst an oppor (¥) Its flexibility makes the interview a superior technique for exploring areas where not much is known about what questions to ask or how to formulate questions. [49]OY (vi) Interviews give the analyst an opportunity to motivate the users of p:, system. (vil) This method can also be helpful for gathering information from individuz. do not communicate effectively in writing. [Link] Disadvantages of Interviews (i) It is very time-consuming technique. Success of interviews is highly dependent on analyst's human relations Interviewing may be impractical due to the location of the interviewees Gil) [Link] Types of Interviews There are two types of interviews as shown in figure. 4.1 Interviews Structured Unstructured Close-ended Open-ended FIGURE 4.1 (a) Unstructured interviews The unstructured interview is a relatively nondirective infromation 92 technique. It allows respondents to answer questions freely in their own The interviewer can ask questions which may not be directly relate objectives. Unstructured interviews are conducted with only a general subject on mind, with few specific questions. Advantages of Unstructured interviews : Offers greater flexibility in conducting an overall interview. Unstructured interview may produce information about areas th overlooked is not thought to be important. Facilitates deeper understanding of the feelings and sta! @ Gi) (ii) nine interviewee. el(b) Disadvantages of Unstructured interviews : @ _Itis more time consuming. Therefore, it is costly also. (i) Requires training and experience for effective results. (il) In this type, interviewee frequently gets off the track and the analyst must be prepared to redirect the interviewee back to the main goal or subject. Structured interviews In structured interviews, the interviewer has a specific set of questions to ask from the interviewee. All these questions are prepared in advance. Structured interviews are further classified into the following two types @ > Open-ended interviews An interview that poses questions that do not require a specific or brief response. Open questions are general questions that establish a person's viewpoint on a particular subject. Example : @ What is your opinion of the current state of business-to-business commerce in your firm? What are the cri al objectives of your department? What are some of the common data-entry errors made in your department? (ii) Closed-ended interview An interview that poses questions that require specific answer. Closed- ended questions are those in which the responses are presented a set of alternatives. Closed ended questions are more specific and usually require a specific answer. Example : (i) Are you personally using PC in your business? (ii) Which of the following sources of information is most valuable to you : (a) Completed customer complaint forms. (b) Email complaints from consumer. (c) Face-to-face interaction with customers (styAdvantages of Structured interview (i) (i) Ensure uniform wording of questions for all respondents, (ii) Requires limited training. 4.3 Easy to administer and evaluate the answers, (iv) Easy to train new staff. Disadvantages (i) High cost. (ii) Standardization of question tends to reduce spontaneity. (iii) Mechanizes interviewing which makes it impractical for allinté settings. Se ee ie aa3 Questionnaire Questionnaire is a structured and formal method of collecting data. It is mainly used, when there is a scattered group of users and it is not possible to conduct interviews of all the users. It allows the analyst to collect information from a large number of persons. Questionnaire are made up of questions and information sought by the analyst. The questionnaire is then sent to user and replies are analyzed by the analyst. [Link] Advantages o Gi) ii) (iv) Less expensive than conducting interviews. Require less skill to administer than the interview. ime saving as compared to other techniques. Unlike the interview, which generally questions one person at a time, a questionnaire can be administered to larger numbers of individuals simultaneously. (v) Responses from questionnaires can be tabulated and analyzed more quickly. (vi) With questionnaire, respondents give opinions without fear that the answer will not be connected to their names, if so desired. (vii) wii) (x) Provide qualitative information like detailed factual data. More useful to ask personal and controversial questions. Answers can be compared with documents. [Link] Disadvantages w@ i) (i (iv) (wv) (wi) Incorrect conclusions may be drawn if response rate is low. Good questionnaires are difficult to prepare. Cost of developig and distributing questionnaires is also very high. Question may be interpreted differently by different users. No discussion can be made on controversial answers. It is also not possible for the analyst to observe and analyse the respondent's body language. [53][Link] Type of Questionnaire There are two types of questionnaire as shown in fig. 4.2 Questionnaire >—————_1 Unstructured Structured Open-ended close-ended FIGURE 4.2 @ Unstructured Questionnaire fen without any choice of an: In this type of questionnaire, questions are giv and the user has to write the answers in own words on the space given. questions are upen-ended. Example = What modifications would improve the working Structured Questionnaire questionnaire respondent has to select from pos: 12 oP" ver structured questionnaire ¢ of your department? In a structured and the range of answers is limited. Howe’ be open-ended or close ended. Open-ended Questionnaire @o Open-ended questions simply ask @ question and leave an aded space for the response. For Example : What modification would improve the working of your department? (ii) Close-ended Questionnaire In close-ended questionnarie, a choice of answers is given with question and the user has just to mark the correct response. There five types of closed questions. I dg(@) (b) (ec) (A) Fill-in-the blanks questions request specific information. Example Last year, the departmental budget was .. Dichotomous questions offers a two-answer choice (Yes/ No, true/ false) Example Do you process graphic data? (please circle one) yes no Multtiple-choice questions ask for specific answer choices. Example The database structure which | favour is @ relational database Gi) (i A network database A hierarchical database Ranking scales questions ask the respondent to rank a list of items in order of importance or preference. Example Please rank the four statements in each group on the basis of how well they describe his/ her present job. Write a "1" by the statement that best describes the job, write a "2" by the statement that provides next best description and continue ranking all four statements. Workers on this job... have opportunities for promotion. are paid well are busy all the time try out their own ideas (551(e) Rating scales questions ask the respondent to rank various along a single dimension (scale). Example Please rate the monthly Budget Summary. out of date | 1 7 | 8 | 9 Timely{ On-site Observation Ee On-site observation provides close view of the working of the real system. 7 analyst can observe people, objects, documents and occurences of events. This technique is used to study people in groups, to study processes. What is be done, how it is to be done, who does it when, how long it takes, why it is done, ¢ this step also helps in studying the attitude of employees, characteristics Supervision and background of the department.He [Link] Advantages of Observation (a) Data gathered by this method can be highly reliable (©) Observation is relatively inexpensive as compared with other techniques. (c) The system analyst is able to see exactly what is being done. Complex tasks are sometimes difficult to clearly explain in words. [Link], Disadvantages of Observation (@) People usually feel uncomfortable when being watched. They may unwittingly perform differently when being observed. (b) Interruptions may occur due to observation. (c) Some system activities may take place at odd inconvenience for the system analyst. imes, causing a scheduling (d) Ina complex situation, on-site observation can be very time-consuming. [Link] Points to be Observed for Site Visits (a) While maki (b) (c) g observations, analyst should be ready to listen more than talk. While making observations, the analyst should avoid giving advice. Take notes during or immediately after the observation. (d) Don't interrupt the individuals at work. (e) Obtain permission from appropriate authorities, before conducting visits. () Don't make assumptions. (9) Written summary of the observation should be prepared, during or immediately after the observation.