PETROLOGY

PRESENTED BY GROUP IV
TOPICS:

PETROLOGY
The description and systematic
classification of rocks, aided by
the microscopic examination of
thin sections).

3
The study of the origin, occurrence,
structure and history of rocks, much
broader process/study than
petrography).

4
A branch of petrology dealing with the
origin and formation of rocks. Involves a
combination of mineralogical, chemical
and field data).

5
studies can be applied to igneous,
metamorphic or sedimentary rocks.

6
The
Thedistribution
distribution of rocks at and
rocks at belowthe
and below thesurface
surfaceis isthe
the
result
resultof
of two factors:
two factors:
a)a)the
theoriginal
original distribution
distribution of
ofthese
theserocks
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thetime
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they formed, and and
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b)b)the
(b) change
the change produced
produced byby later
later deformation, as
deformation, as the
the
rocksare
rocks are buckled
buckled and andfractured
fracturedwithin the Earth.
within the Earth.

7 PETROLOGY 20XX
 DEFORMATION may also change
the character of the rock mass and its
engineering properties by producing
fractures or even by causing
recrystallisation to occur.

8 PETROLOGY 20XX
 The shapes of igneous rock bodies, including the range
of dimensions commonly encountered and the
variation of rock types within the igneous mass, have
been described as igneous structures.

The distributions of sedimentary rocks, involving both

vertical and lateral change of rock type, are described
as stratigraphic models, using selected examples.

9 PETROLOGY 20XX
 These models reflect the changes in
depositional environment with place and time
within one area during which sediment was
accumulated. The redistribution of rock layers
by deforming stresses produces characteristic
forms, described here as structural models.

10 PETROLOGY 20XX
 A large part of a geologist’s training is in the
interpretation of three-dimensional structures of
rocks from evidence collected at the surface
and possibly, but not necessarily, from boreholes.

A combined stratigraphic and structural model

of the rocks in an area is then proposed, which is
continuously refined as more evidence from
surface rocks and boreholes becomes available.

11 PETROLOGY 20XX
1. DEFINITION OF ROCKS: 2. DETERMINANTS OF ROCK
- Rocks are aggregates of NATURE AND PROPERTIES:
- Nature and properties of a
one or more minerals.
rock are determined by its
minerals, especially those
making up over 95% of its
volume.
- The arrangement of minerals
(texture) is a crucial factor.

12 PETROLOGY 20XX
3. DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS:
- Individual rock types are described in terms of mineral
composition and texture.
- Both aspects are used in the classification of rocks.

13 PETROLOGY 20XX
4. THREE MAIN TYPES OF ROCKS:
IGNEOUS ROCKS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS METAMORPHIC ROCKS
are formed from result from the are formed from pre-
magma that crystallizes accumulation and existing rocks subjected
either on the surface or compaction of fragments to increases in
deep within the Earth's from pre-existing rocks, temperature, pressure, or
crust. organic debris, or both, resulting in changes
dissolved materials in appearance, texture,
precipitated from surface and mineral composition.
or groundwater.

14 PETROLOGY 20XX
 DISTINCTION
BETWEEN IGNEOUS,
SEDIMENTARY AND
METAMORPHIC
ROCKS
Formation of Igneous Rocks:
Formed when liquid rock (magma) freezes into solid rock.
Magma is called lava when on the surface.

Distribution of Magma:
Earth's outer core is liquid; mantle and crust are solid.
Some pockets of magma form near the surface due to geologic processes.

Source of Igneous Rocks and Volcanoes:

Magma near the surface becomes the source for volcanoes and igneous
rocks.

Formation of Extrusive Igneous Rocks:

Lava cools quickly on the surface, forming fine-grained extrusive or volcanic
igneous rocks. Extrusive rocks are often vesicular, with holes from escaping gas
bubbles.

Volcanism and its Variability:

Volcanism is the process of lava eruption.
Different properties of erupted lava lead to varied types of volcanism, from
smooth and gentle to dangerous and explosive.
Formation of Intrusive Igneous Rocks:
Magma cooling slowly below the Earth's surface forms coarse-grained intrusive
or plutonic igneous rocks.
Larger crystals are visible to the naked eye.

Significance of Cooling Rates:

Relationship between cooling rates and grain sizes is important for
interpreting the geologic history of igneous rocks.

Source of Igneous Rocks and Volcanoes:

Magma near the surface becomes the source for volcanoes and igneous
rocks.

Formation of Extrusive Igneous Rocks:

Lava cools quickly on the surface, forming fine-grained extrusive or volcanic
igneous rocks. Extrusive rocks are often vesicular, with holes from escaping gas
bubbles.

Volcanism and its Variability:

Volcanism is the process of lava eruption.
Different properties of erupted lava lead to varied types of volcanism, from
smooth and gentle to dangerous and explosive.
 Classification of
Igneous Rocks

18 PETROLOGY 20XX
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks are classified based on texture
and composition. Texture describes the
physical characteristics of the minerals, such
as grain size. This relates to the cooling
history of the molten magma from which it
came. Composition refers to the rock’s specific
mineralogy and chemical composition. Cooling
history is also related to changes that can
occur to the composition of igneous rocks
IGNEOUS ROCKS
TEXTURE
If magma cools slowly, deep within the crust,
the resulting rock is called intrusive or
plutonic. The slow cooling process allows
crystals to grow large, giving the intrusive
igneous rock a coarse-grained or phaneritic
texture. The individual crystals in phaneritic
texture are readily visible to the unaided eye.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
GRANITE is a classic coarse-grained
(phaneritic) intrusive igneous rock. The
different colors are unique minerals.
The black colors are likely two or three
different minerals.
 When lava is extruded onto the surface, or intruded
into shallow fissures near the surface and cools, the
resulting igneous rock is called extrusive or volcanic.
Extrusive igneous rocks have a fine-grained or
aphanitic texture, in which the grains are too small to
see with the unaided eye. The fine-grained texture
indicates the quickly cooling lava did not have time
to grow large crystals. These tiny crystals can be
viewed under a petrographic microscope.

22 PETROLOGY 20XX
 In some cases, extrusive lava cools so
rapidly it does not develop crystals at
all. This non-crystalline material is not
classified as minerals but as volcanic
glass. This is a common component of
volcanic ash and rocks like obsidian.

23 PETROLOGY 20XX
IGNEOUS ROCKS
BASALT is a classic fine-grained
(aphanitic) extrusive igneous rock. This
sample is mostly fine groundmass with
a few small green phenocrysts that are
the mineral olivine.
 In some cases, extrusive lava cools so
rapidly it does not develop crystals at
all. This non-crystalline material is not
classified as minerals but as volcanic
glass. This is a common component of
volcanic ash and rocks like obsidian.

25 PETROLOGY 20XX
 Some igneous rocks have a
mix of coarse-grained minerals
surrounded by a matrix of fine
grained material in a texture
called porphyritic. The large
crystals are called phenocrysts
and the fine-grained matrix is
called the groundmass or matrix.

26
 Porphyritic texture indicates
the magma body underwent a
multi-stage cooling history,
cooling slowly while deep under
the surface and later rising to a
shallower depth or the surface
where it cooled more quickly.

27
 IGNEOUS ROCKS

Residual molten material A rock that chiefly consists

expelled from igneous of pegmatitic texture is
intrusions may form veins known as a pegmatite. To
or masses containing very give an example of how
large crystals of minerals large these crystals can
like feldspar, quartz, beryl, get, transparent cleavage
tourmaline, and mica. This sheets of pegmatitic
texture, which indicates a muscovite mica were used
very slow crystallization, is as windows during the
called pegmatitic. Middle Ages.

28 PETROLOGY
All magmas contain gases dissolved in a solution
called volatiles. As the magma rises to the surface,
the drop in pressure causes the dissolved volatiles
to come bubbling out of solution, like the fizz in an
opened bottle of soda. The gas bubbles become
trapped in the solidifying lava to create a vesicular
texture, with the holes specifically called vesicles.
The type of volcanic rock with common vesicles is
called scoria.

29
An extreme version of scoria occurs
when volatile-rich lava is very quickly
quenched and becomes a meringue-like
froth of glass called pumice. Some
pumice is so full of vesicles that the
density of the rock drops low enough that
it will float.

30
Lava that cools extremely quickly may
not form crystals at all, even microscopic
ones. The resulting rock is called volcanic
glass. Obsidian is a rock consisting of
volcanic glass. Obsidian as a glassy rock
shows an excellent example of
conchoidal fracture similar to the mineral
quartz.

31
 COMPOSITION
Composition refers to a rock’s chemical and
mineral make-up. For igneous rock, the
composition is divided into four groups: felsic,
intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic.

32 PETROLOGY 20XX
 COMPOSITION
These groups refer to differing amounts of silica, iron, and
magnesium found in the minerals that make up the rocks. It is
important to realize these groups do not have sharp boundaries in
nature, but rather lie on a continuous spectrum with many
transitional compositions and names that refer to specific
quantities of minerals.

33 PETROLOGY 20XX
 COMPOSITION
As an example, granite is a
commonly-used term but has a
very specific definition which
includes exact quantities of
minerals like feldspar and quartz.
Rocks labeled as ‘granite’ in
laymen applications can be several
other rocks, including syenite,
tonalite, and monzonite. Mineral composition of common igneous rocks. The percentage of minerals is shown on the
vertical axis. The percentage of silica is shown on the horizontal axis. Rock names at the top
include a continuous spectrum of compositions grading from one into another.

34 PETROLOGY 20XX
 COMPOSITION
Felsic refers to a predominance of the light-colored (felsic) minerals feldspar and silica in the form of
quartz. These lightcolored minerals have more silica as a proportion of their overall chemical
FELSIC formula. Minor amounts of dark-colored (mafic) minerals like amphibole and biotite mica may be
present as well. Felsic igneous rocks are rich in silica (in the 65- 75% range, meaning the rock would
be 65-75% weight percent SiO ) and poor in iron and magnesium.

Intermediate is a composition between felsic and mafic. It usually contains

roughly-equal amounts of light and dark minerals, including light grains of
INTERMEDIATE plagioclase feldspar and dark minerals like amphibole. It is intermediate in
silica in the 55-60% range.

35 PETROLOGY 20XX
 COMPOSITION
Mafic refers to an abundance of ferromagnesian minerals (with magnesium and iron,

MAFIC
chemical symbols Mg and Fe) plus plagioclase feldspar. It is mostly made of dark
minerals like pyroxene and olivine, which are rich in iron and magnesium and relatively
poor in silica. Mafic rocks are low in silica, in the 45-50% range.

Ultramafic refers to the extremely mafic rocks composed of mostly olivine and
some pyroxene which have even more magnesium and iron and even less silica.
ULTRAMAFIC These rocks are rare on the surface, but make up peridotite, the rock of the upper
mantle. It is poor in silica, in the 40% or less range.

36 PETROLOGY 20XX
 Igneous rock classification
table with composition as
vertical columns and texture
as horizontal rows.

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Phaneritic (“FAN-a-RIT-ic”)
rocks have mineral grains
that are large enough to
be seen with the naked
eye or a hand lens, like
granite.
Aphanitic (“AY-fa-NIT-ic”)
rocks have mineral grains that
are mostly too small to be
seen with the naked eye or a
hand lens, like this rhyolite.
Basalt is another igneous rock
with the aphanitic texture.
Rocks with porphyritic (“POR-fi-RIT-
ic”) texture like this andesite have
larger mineral grains, or
phenocrysts (“FEEN-o-crists”), in a
matrix of smaller grains. In other
words, they display two distinctive
sizes of grains that are visible to
the naked eye.
Rocks with vesicular (“ve-
SIC-ular”) texture are full
of bubbles. It always
indicates a volcanic rock,
like this scoria.
Rocks with pyroclastic (“PY-
ro-CLAS-tic”) texture are
made of pieces of volcanic
material that are created in
an explosive eruption, like
this welded tuff.
FELSIC COMPOSITION
GRANITE is a course-crystalline felsic intrusive
rock. The presence of quartz is a good indicator
of granite. Granite commonly has large amounts
of salmon pink potassium feldspar and white
plagioclase crystals that have visible cleavage
planes. Granite is a good approximation for the
continental crust, both in density and
composition.
FELSIC COMPOSITION
RHYOLITE is a fine-crystalline felsic extrusive
rock. Rhyolite is commonly pink and will often
have glassy quartz phenocrysts. Because felsic
lavas are less mobile, it is less common than
granite. Examples of rhyolite include several
lava flows in Yellowstone National Park and the
altered rhyolite that makes up the Grand Canyon
of the Yellowstone
FELSIC COMPOSITION
Diorite is a coarse-crystalline intermediate
intrusive igneous rock. Diorite is identifiable by
its Dalmatian-like appearance of black
hornblende and biotite and white plagioclase
feldspar. It is found in its namesake, the Andes
Mountains as well as the Henry and Abajo
mountains of Utah.
FELSIC COMPOSITION
Andesite is a fine crystalline
intermediate extrusive rock. It is
commonly grey and porphyritic. It can be
found in the Andes Mountains and in
some island arcs. It is the fine grained
compositional equivalent of diorite.
MAFIC COMPOSITION
Gabbro is a coarse-grained mafic igneous rock,
made with mainly mafic minerals like pyroxene
and only minor plagioclase. Because mafic lava
is more mobile, it is less common than basalt.
Gabbro is a major component of the lower
oceanic crust.
MAFIC COMPOSITION
Basalt is a fine-grained mafic igneous rock. It is
commonly vesicular and aphanitic. When
porphyritic, it often has either olivine or
plagioclase phenocrysts. Basalt is the main rock
which is formed at mid-ocean ridges, and is
therefore the most common rock on the Earth’s
surface, making up the entirety of the ocean
floor (except where covered by sediment).
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
Sedimentary rocks are formed from the
solid debris and the dissolved mineral
matter produced by the mechanical and
chemical breakdown of pre-existing
rocks, or in some cases from the skeletal
material of dead plants and animals.
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
They merit this special attention in a book
for engineers since the deposits (‘soils’ to
an engineer) which have recently formed,
or are forming, blanket most of the solid
rocks of the Earth, and are the natural
material encountered and dealt with in
nearly every shallow excavation.
SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
The sediment has been transformed into
solid rock by compaction as it was buried
and compressed by subsequent deposits. In
many cases, minerals in solution in the
ground water have been precipitated to act
as a natural cement, and bond the
fragments together.
THE FOUR MAJOR GROUPS OF SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS ARE:
(a) terrigenous sedimentary rocks (sometimes referred to as clastic
TERRIGENOUS or detrital rocks), which are formed from minerals or rock fragments
derived from the breakdown of preexisting rocks;

(b) chemical sedimentary rocks, which are formed from the

CHEMICAL precipitation of salts dissolved in water;

52 PETROLOGY 20XX
THE FOUR MAJOR GROUPS OF SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS ARE:
(c) organic sedimentary rocks, which are formed from the skeletal
ORGANIC remains of plants and animals and include coal and oil;

LIMESTONES AND (d) limestones and dolomites, which are sedimentary rocks consisting
of more than 50% carbonate, and can include chemical, clastic and
DOLOMITES biological material.

53 PETROLOGY 20XX
CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
generally have a crystalline texture. Some,
however, are formed of fragments, and their
textures are dependent on the sizes, shapes
and arrangement of these fragments. If the
rock has been formed from organic debris,
then the fragments may consist of particles
of shell or wood, but the texture can be
described in the same terms as are used for
other fragmented rocks.

54
The size of grains is an important textural
feature of a TERRIGENOUS ROCK, as an
indication of distance between its source
and depositional areas, as well as an easily
observed property which may be used to
distinguish and classify the rock. The
coarsest particles are deposited nearest to
the source area, and most of the finest
particles are carried in suspension to
greater distances before they settle.

55
 The degree of roundness of grains is related to the
amount of abrasion suffered during transport, and
hence to distance travelled from their source before
deposition.

56
 Roundness is related to the sharpness or curvature of
edges and corners of grains. It is also dependent on the
size and hardness of the grains and the violence of
impact of one against another. No matter how far they
travel, sand grains lack the necessary momentum when
they collide in water to produce perfect rounding, and it
is only when dry grains are blown by the wind that
perfectly rounded grains are produced.

57
 A property associated with roundness of grains is
sphericity, which defines the degree to which a particle
or grain approaches the shape of a sphere.

58 PETROLOGY 20XX
 Sphericity is controlled by directions of weakness such as bedding
planes or fractures. It is also related to size, in that the larger the grain
above 8 mm, the lower the sphericity. The relationship of rounding to
particles less than 2 mm of high and low sphericity is given in Figure.

59 PETROLOGY 20XX
 CLASSIFICATION
Sedimentary rock is classified into two main categories: clastic and chemical.
CLASTIC OR DETRITAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS are made from pieces of bedrock, sediment, derived primarily by
mechanical weathering. Clastic rocks may also include chemically weathered sediment. Clastic rocks are classified by
grain shape, grain size, and sorting.

CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS are precipitated from water saturated with dissolved minerals. Chemical rocks are
classified mainly by the composition of minerals in the rock.

60 PETROLOGY 20XX
 LITHIFICATION
AND DIAGENESIS

61 PETROLOGY 20XX
LITHIFICATION
Lithification turns loose sediment grains,
created by weathering and transported by
erosion, into clastic sedimentary rock via
three interconnected steps.
 LITHIFICATION

DEPOSITION COMPACTION CEMENTATION

Groundwater typically carries
Deposition Compaction occurs when
cementing agents into the
happens when friction material continues to
sediment. These minerals, such as
accumulate on top of the
and gravity overcome the sediment layer, squeezing the
calcite, amorphous silica, or
oxides, may have a different
forces driving sediment grains together and driving composition than the sediment
transport, allowing out the water. The mechanical grains. Cementation is the process
sediment to accumulate. compaction is aided by weak of cementing minerals coating the
attractive forces between the sediment grains and gluing them
smaller grains of sediment. together into a fused rock.
DIAGENESIS
Diagenesis is an accompanying process of
lithification and is a low-temperature form of rock
metamorphism. During diagenesis, sediments are
chemically altered by heat and pressure. A classic
example is aragonite (CaCO ), a form of calcium
carbonate that makes up most organic shells. When
lithified aragonite undergoes diagenesis, the
aragonite reverts to calcite (CaCO ), which has the
same chemical formula but a different crystalline
structure.
DIAGENESIS
Diagenesis may also reduce the pore
space, or open volume, between
sedimentary rock grains. The processes of
cementation, compaction, and ultimately
lithification occur within the realm of
diagenesis, which includes the processes
that turn organic material into fossils.
 DETRITAL SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS (CLASTIC)

66 PETROLOGY 20XX
Detrital or clastic sedimentary rocks consist
of preexisting sediment pieces that come
from weathered bedrock. Most of this is
mechanically weathered sediment, although
some clasts may be pieces of chemical
rocks. This creates some overlap between
the two categories, since clastic
sedimentary rocks may include chemical
sediments.

67
68
 1. GRAIN SIZE
Detrital rock is classified according to sediment grain size, which is graded
from large to small on the Wentworth scale. Grain size is the average
diameter of sediment fragments in sediment or rock. Grain sizes are
delineated using a logbase-2 scale. For example, the grain sizes in the
pebble class are 2.52, 1.26, 0.63, 0.32, 0.16, and 0.08 inches, which
correlate respectively to very coarse, coarse, medium, fine, and very fine
granules. Large fragments, or clasts, include all grain sizes larger than 2
mm (5/64 in). These include boulders, cobbles, granules, and gravel.

69 PETROLOGY 20XX
70
 2. SORTING AND ROUNDING
Sorting describes the range of grain sizes within sediment or
sedimentary rock. Geologists use the term “well-sorted” to
describe a narrow range of grain sizes, and “poorly sorted” for a
wide range of grain sizes. It is important to note that soil
engineers use similar terms with opposite definitions; well-
graded sediment consists of a variety of grain sizes, and poorly
graded sediment has roughly the same grain sizes.

71 PETROLOGY 20XX
 2. SORTING AND ROUNDING
Rounding is created when angular corners of rock fragments are removed
from a piece of sediment due to abrasion during transport. Well-rounded
sediment grains are defined as being free of all sharp edges. Very angular
sediment retains the sharp corners. Most clast fragments start with some
sharp edges due to the bedrock’s crystalline structure, and those points are
worn down during transport. More rounded grains imply a longer erosion
time or transport distance, or more energetic erosional process. Mineral
hardness is also a factor in rounding.

72 PETROLOGY 20XX
 COMPOSITION AND
PROVENANCE

73 PETROLOGY 20XX
COMPOSITION
COMPOSITION describes the mineral components found
in sediment or sedimentary rock and may be influenced
by local geology, like source rock and hydrology. Other
than clay, most sediment components are easily
determined by visual inspection. The most commonly
found sediment mineral is quartz because of its low
chemical reactivity and high hardness, making it
resistant to weathering, and its ubiquitous occurrence in
continental bedrock. Other commonly found sediment
grains include feldspar and lithic fragments. Lithic
fragments are pieces of finegrained bedrock and include
mud chips, volcanic clasts, or pieces of slate.

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PROVENANCE
Geologists use PROVENANCE to discern the
original source of sediment or sedimentary rock.
Provenance is determined by analyzing the mineral
composition and types of fossils present, as well as
textural features like sorting and rounding.
Provenance is important for describing tectonic
history, visualizing paleogeographic formations,
unraveling an area’s geologic history, or
reconstructing past supercontinents.

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 Classification of
Clastic Rocks

76 PETROLOGY 20XX
 Clastic rocks are classified according to the
grain size of their sediment

77 PETROLOGY 20XX
COARSE-GRAINED
ROCKS contain
clasts with a
predominant grain
size larger than
sand.
Coarse-grained (>2
mm) rocks with
rounded grains are
called conglomerate.
If the coarse-
grains are
angular, the
rocks are
called breccia.
MEDIUM-GRAINED (1/16 mm
to 2 mm) rocks are usually
called sandstone. Medium-
grained rocks can be
composed of quartz grains,
feldspar grains (arkose), or
rock fragments and clay
(graywacke).Medium-sized
grains in clastic sedimentary
rocks form sandstone. This
sample is a quartz sandstone.
FINE-GRAINED (<1/16 mm)
rocks are generally called
mudrocks. They include
mudstone, shale, siltstone,
and claystone. Mudstone is a
general term for rocks made
of sediment grains smaller
than sand (less than 2 mm).
Rocks that are fissile,
meaning they separate into
thin sheets, are called shale.
CHEMICAL
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed
by processes that do not directly involve
mechanical weathering and erosion.
Chemical weathering may contribute to
the dissolved materials in water that
ultimately form these rocks.
INORGANIC CHEMICAL
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Inorganic chemical sedimentary rocks form in
environments where ion concentration,
dissolved gasses, temperatures, or pressures
are changing, which causes minerals to
crystallize. Inorganic chemical sedimentary
rocks are formed when minerals precipitate
out of an aqueous solution, usually due to
water evaporation. The precipitate minerals
form various salts known as evaporites.
INORGANIC CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS

Bonneville Salt Flats, Northwestern Utah, United States

INORGANIC CHEMICAL
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Calcium carbonate-saturated
water precipitates porous
masses of calcite called tufa.
Tufa can form near degassing
water and in saline lakes.
 INORGANIC CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS

Limestone tufa towers along the shores of Mono Lake, California.

INORGANIC CHEMICAL
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Cave deposits like stalactites and
stalagmites are another form of
chemical precipitation of calcite,
in a form called travertine.
INORGANIC CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
BIOCHEMICAL
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Biochemical sedimentary rocks are formed
from shells and bodies of underwater
organisms. The living organisms extract
chemical components from the water and
use them to build shells and other body
parts. The components include aragonite, a
mineral similar to and commonly replaced by
calcite, and silica.
INORGANIC CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS

Fossiliferous limestone
BIOCHEMICAL
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
This biochemical extraction and
secretion is the main process for
forming limestone, the most
commonly occurring, non-clastic
sedimentary rock.
INORGANIC CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS

COQUINA
ORGANIC
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Organic sedimentary rocks come from
organic material that has been
deposited and lithified, usually
underwater. The source materials are
plant and animal remains that are
transformed through burial and heat,
and end up as coal, oil, and methane
(natural gas).
 Classification of
Chemical
Sedimentary
Rocks

95 PETROLOGY 20XX
 In contrast to detrital sediment, chemical,
biochemical, and organic sedimentary rocks are
classified based on mineral composition. Most of
these are monomineralic, composed of a single
mineral, so the rock name is usually associated
with the identifying mineral.

96
 The FOLK CLASSIFICATION deals with rock grains and
usually requires a specialized, petrographic microscope.

The DUNHAM CLASSIFICATION is based on rock texture,

which is visible to the naked eye or using a hand lens and
is easier for field
applications.

97
 Classification of
Sedimentary
Rocks

98 PETROLOGY 20XX
99
100
101
102
comes from existing rock that are
subjected to extreme heat and
pressure. This extreme heat and
pressure changes the original structure
into a new type of rock.

103
Metamorphic rocks is one of the three rock
categories in the rock cycle. Metamorphic
rock material has been changed by
temperature, pressure, and/or fluids.

104
The rock cycle shows that both igneous and sedimentary
rocks can become metamorphic rocks. And metamorphic
rocks themselves can be re-metamorphosed. Because
metamorphism is caused by plate tectonic motion,
metamorphic rock provides geologists with a history book
of how past tectonic processes shaped our planet.

105
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107
Metamorphism occurs when solid rock
changes in composition and/or texture
without the mineral crystals melting, which
is how igneous rock is generated.
Metamorphic source rocks, the rocks that
experience the metamorphism, are called
the parent rock or protolith, from proto–
meaning first, and lithos- meaning rock.

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Temperature measures a substance’s energy—an
increase in temperature represents an increase in
energy. Temperature changes affect the chemical
equilibrium or cation balance in minerals. At high
temperatures, atoms may vibrate so vigorously
they jump from one position to another within the
crystal lattice, which remains intact. In other
words, this atom swapping can happen while the
rock is still solid.

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Pressure is the force exerted over a unit area on a
material. Like heat, pressure can affect the
chemical equilibrium of minerals in a rock. The
pressure that affects metamorphic rocks can be
grouped into confining pressure and directed
stress. Stress is a scientific term indicating a
force. Strain is the result of this stress, including
metamorphic changes within minerals.

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Directed stress, also called differential or tectonic
stress, is an unequal balance of forces on a rock in
one or more directions. Directed stresses are
generated by the movement of lithospheric plates.
Stress indicates a type of force acting on the rock.
Strain describes the resultant processes caused by
stress and includes metamorphic changes in the
minerals.

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A third metamorphic agent is chemically reactive fluids
that are expelled by crystallizing magma and created
by metamorphic reactions. These reactive fluids are
made of mostly water (H O) and carbon dioxide (CO ),
and smaller amounts of potassium (K), sodium (Na),
iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and aluminum
(Al). These fluids react with minerals in the protolith,
changing its chemical equilibrium and mineral
composition, in a process similar to the reactions
driven by heat and pressure.

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 EXAMPLES OF
METAMORPHIC
ROCKS

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 1. Slate Parent Rock: Shale Popular for a wide variety of
uses such as roofing and flooring because of its
durability.

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 2. Schist Parent Rock: Phyllite Use for garden
decoration and sometimes sculpture.

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 3. Marble Parent Rock: limestone Most commonly used
metamorphic rock. Frequently chosen for building
materials and artworks.

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