1. INTRODUCTION Nanoscience primarily deals with synthesis, characterization, exploration, and exploita- tion of nanostructured materials. These materials are characterized by at least one dimension in the nanometer range. A nanometer (nm) is one billionth of a meter, or 107 m, One nanometer is approximately the length equivalent to 10 hydrogen or $ silicon atoms aligned in a line. The processing, structure and properties of materials with grain size in the tens to several hundreds of nanometer range are research areas of considerable interest over the past years, A revolution in materials science and engineering is taking place as researchers find ways to pattem and characterize materials at the nanometer length scale. New materials with outstanding electrical, optical, magnetic and mechanical properties are rapidly being developed for use in information technology, bio- engineering, and energy and environmental applications. On nanoscale, some physical and chemical material properties can differ signi cantly from those of the bulk structured materials of the same composition; for example, the theoretical strength of nanomaterials can be reached or quantum effects may appear; crystals in the nanometer scale have a low melting point (the difference can be as large as 1000°C) and reduced lattice constants, since the number of surface atoms or ions becomes a significant fraction of the total number of atoms or ions and the surface energy plays a significant role in the thermal stability. Therefore, many material properties must now be revisited in light of the fact that a considerable increase in surface-to-volume ratio is associated with the reduction in material” size to the nanoscale, often having a prominent effect on material performance. Historically, fundamental material properties such as elastic modulus have been characterized in bulk specimens using macroscopic, and more recently microscopic, techniques. However, as nanofabrication advances continue, these bulk properties are no longer sufficient to predict performance when devices are fabricated with small critical dimensions. Although nanotechnology is a new area of research, nanomaterials are known to be used for centeries. For example, the Chinese used gold nanoparticles as an inorganic dye to introduce red eolor into their ceramic porcelains more than thousand years ago. Roman glass artifacts contained metal nanoparticles, which provided beautiful colours. In medivial times, nanoparticles were used for decoration of cathedral windows. What really new about nanoscience is the combination of our ability to sce and ‘manipulate matter on the nanoscale and our understanding of atomic scale interactions. ‘Advances in the materials processing along with the precipitous rise in the sophistication of routine, commonly available tools capable for characterization of ‘materials with force, displacement and spatial resolutions as small as picoNewtons (pN = 10 N), nanometer (nm = 10° m) and Angstrom (A = 10°" m), respectively, have provided unprecedented opportunities to probe the structure and mechanical response of materials on nanoscale. In addition, major improvements in computer support have allowed the simulations of material structures and behavior with a degree of accuracy unimaginable as recently as a decade ago. ‘Although study on materials in the nanometer scale can be traced back for centuries, the current fever of nanotechnology is at least partly driven by the ever shrinking of devices in the semiconductor industry. The continued decrease in device dimensions has followed the well-known Moore’s law predicted in 1965 and illustrated in Fig. 1. The trend line illustrates the fact that the transistor size has decreased by a factor of 2 every 18 months since 1950.tem Moore's Law Trend Line a B tum 3 i SOnm 1-Sam 1950 1960 19701980 1990 2000 20102020 Fig. 1. “Moore's Law” plot of transistor size versus year. There are many nanoscale electronic devices available now: tunneling junctions; devices with negative differential electrically configurable switches; carbon nanotube transistor; and single molecular transistor; ultrahigh density nanowires lattices and circuits with metal and semiconductor nanowires; etc. Devices have also been connected together to form circuits capable of performing single functions such as basic memory and logic function. Computer architecture based on nanoelectronics (also known as nanocomputers) has also been intensively studied. Various processing techniques have been applied in the fabrication of nanoelectronics such as focused ion beam (FIB), electron beam lithography, and imprint lithography. Major obstacles preventing the development of such devices include addressing nanometer-sized objects such as nanoparticles and molecules, molecular vibrations, robustness and the poor electrical conductivity. Certainly, nanomaterials play an important role not only in semiconductor — based electronics. Nano-sized materials currently are used in numerous industries, e.g., carbon black particles make rubber tires wear resistant; nanofibers are used for insulation and reinforcement of composites; iron oxide creates the magnetic material used in disk drives and audio-video tapes; nano-zine oxides and titania are used as sunblocks for UV rays; etc. Nanoscale particles and nanothin layers of materials are being used, among other things, to make products lighter, stronger or more conductive. Some of the products on the market using nanotechnology are: magnetic recording tapes; computer hard drivers; bumpers on cars; solid ~ state compasses; protective and glare ~ reducing coatings for eyeglasses and windows; automobile catalyc converters, metal — cutting tools; dental bonding agents; longer — lasting tennis ball; bum and wound dressing; ink; etc, Promising applications of nanotechnology in medicine and/or biology have attracted a lot of attention and have become a fast growing field. One of the attractive applications in nanomedicine is the creation of nanoscale devices for improved therapy and diagnostics. Such nanoscale devices or nanorobots serve as vehicles for delivery of therapeutic agents, detectors or guardians against early disease and perhaps repair of metabolic or genetic defects. For applications in medicine, the major challenge is “miniaturization”: new instruments to analyze tissues literally down to the molecular level, sensors smaller than a cell allowing to look at ongoing functions, and small9 machines that literally circulat neutralizing chemical toxins, Researchers expect to develop new commerei ‘cial applications for nanotechnology for the next several years. They include: advanced drug — eg systems, ineloding plantable devices that automatically administer d ster drugs and sense drug levels; medical diagnostic tools, such as cancer — ta “ " iagnost fo pyscany; cooing eno Ant mechanisms and lb-ons-chip” diagnosis Dh fer to replace compressors in cars, reftigerators, air ezniones end ther eves, sng no chemicals or moving parts; sensors for aiborne toxins; solar fuel cells and portabl it ae portable power to provide inexpensive, Nanotechnology (NT) is proposed presently to define as the complex of fundamental and engineering sciences that integrates a chemistry, physics and iology of nanostructures with a materials science, electronics, and processes technologies focused on a comprehensive research of nanostructures, on a development of atomistic physical- chemical processes, self and automatic-assembling of nanomaterials and workpieces using complex probe microscopes combined with other tools, resulted in a fabrication and manufacturing of nanodevices, nanomachines, ultra-low integrated circuits, micro- opto-clectro-mechanical systems, nanobiorobots, etc. In reality the NT have been arisen in early 80-th, when the scanning tunneling micro- scopy, the atomic force and other probe microscopes were invented. These have given the opportunity to realize the main concept of NT formulated by Richard Feynman, namely, to assemble artificially the nanoworkpieces and nanodevices from single atoms and molecules. Huge advantage of Pentium-4 over IBM-360 have been achieved by a miniaturizing of integrated circuits and fabricating of microchips containing ca. ~10° units/em’ of ~200nm in size. And this is not a limit; the size of individual units may be decreased at least on the orders of magnitudes. With regard to nanoworld, a natural question has arisen “where are its boundaries?” Formally it is restricted by size of nanoparticles, d < 100nm. Physically it is determined by a variety of size effects. Decrease in size results in the particles physical- chemical properties changing and, consequently, the properties of nano-materials are changed dramatically and sometime cordially. The size effects may be divided into two types, the internal and extemal ones, as well as the classical and quantum effects. Internal or intrinsic size effects are determined as a change of the properties peculiar to particles (the lattice parameters, melting temperature, hardness, band gap, luminescence, diffusion coefficients, chemical activity, sorption, etc.) irrespective of external dis- turbances. External size effects arise inevitably and always in the processes of interaction between different physical fields and matters under decreasing of their building units (the particles, grains, domains) down to a crucial value, when this size becomes to be comparable with a length of physical phenomena (the free length of clectrons, phonons, coherent length, screening length, irradiative wave length, etc.). In turn the classical size effects appear to become apparent in variation of lattice parameters, hardness, plasticity, thermal conductivity, diffusion, etc. The quantum size effects manifest themselves in a blue shift of luminescence, in the rise of peculiar low- dimensional quantum states, in the quantization of electroconductivity in magnetic field, in the oscillation of the superconductivity critical temperature, magnetoresistance and other physical characteristics, in the generation of hypersound, etc. Hence, studying the size effects in novel nanostructured materials activated by different extemal fields one can hope for the discovery of novel effects and phenomena and for the development of novel nanotechnology on this base te within a human body pursuing pathogens andNanotechnology therefore is the complex interdiscipinary science including: 1. Nanochemistry (nanocolloid, sol-gel and quantum chemistry) destined for self- assembling and synthesis of nanoparticles as well as for research of their intrinsic size effects. 2. Nanophysies (quantum physics, spintronics, photonics) destined for artificial assempling and fabrication of nanostructures as well as for research of their external size effects. 3. Nanomaterials science (nanopowder technology, nanoceramics compounds, nano- tribology, nanosintering and other nanoprocesses) destined for research, development and production of novel nanostructured architectures, functional nanomaterials and smart nanocomponents with unique properties. 4, Nanoelectronics, optoelectronics and nanoengineering destined for development of novel technological processes, nanomotors, nanoactuators, nanodevices, micro-opto- clectro-mechanical systems (MEMS, MOEMS), ultra-large integrated circuits (ULCH, nanorobots, ete 3. Nanobionics destined for development of novel biomachine complexes, such as nanobiochips, nanobiorobots, etc. 6. Nanometrology, nanodevice-building and nano-hand-craft destined for development of special nanotools, instrumentations, information and computational systems for support of NT itself The association of these sciences in nanotechnology reflects both their inherent inter- connection around the nanoobjects and the change in technology paradigm, namely. the nanomaterial, nanodevice or nanosystem seems to be fabricated by the automatic attificial assembling or self-assembling from molecules or clusters in whole, in situ, in place, in the single technological process incorporating them then in microdevices, father then by aggregating of different components as now. In place of the traditional processes of thermo mechanical treatment ( the rolling, cutting, welding, soldering, molding, etc.) and of microelectronics processes ( the chemical and physical vapor depositions, lithography, etc.) the novel atomistic nanotechnology processes (the nanomanipulation, artifiial- and selfsassembling, nanolithography, _membrane~ templating synthesis, sol-gel synthesis, molecular-beam epitaxy, ete.) are expected to willl come. Living in macroworld human come into controllable tunable contact with nanoworld ‘mainly by means of a tip of probe microscope, so the contact “tip-surface” is the contact ‘of macroworld with nanoworld. Therefore the key problem of novadays nanotechnology is a comprehensive research of atomistic mechanisms of the nanocontact phenomena (adhesion, indentation, friction, wear, etc.) in dependence on a type of interatomic intermolecular bonds, type and structure of contact materials, size of tip and nanostructure, value of load, width of gap, environment, temperature, external electric and magnetic fields, frequency and intensity of electromagnetic waves, and so on, These researches have to be expressed in development of the techniques for tunable manipulation, characterization, control, and position assembling of nanostructures, particulary, seizure, gripping, restraining, turing, moving, breaking, reset and adhesion of a molecular building block onto prescribed place. Such operations at atomic and molecular level are just the ones which become to be principal for nanotechnology. Tt should be emphasized that NT has not intended to replace the existence micro- technologies, but to stay in close connection with them to complement them in the deeper study and advanced control of nanoworld. ‘Atoms, molecules, clusters, fullerenes, supramolecular structures, their crystals, nanotubes, nanowires, nanorodes, their arrays and photonic crystals serve as NT objectives.n Fullerenes and atomic clusters are the smallest zero-dimensional (0D) nanostructures called quantum dots possessing the properties inherent for nanomaterial rather than fo single atom, Note that for fllerenes it should mean not only the buckyball Ca, but = ‘multitude of another carbon C, and noncarbon clusters and metcarbes Me@Cr. Loree gee experimental nanodevices was developed on this base, e.g. the ‘swi a les, sistors, amplifiers, sensors, optic Sialinaiac ee optical filters, solar cells, magneto- Nanotubes, nanorodes, nanowires, nanofibers manifest more advanced and pro- rising properties as being the 1D quantum wires nanoseopic in diameter but miero- scopic in length. Their unique properties stem from capability ofthe ring and cylindrical types of acoustic and electromagnetic waves to propagate that makes them a unique nanolaboratory for research of quantum resonance phenomena. All stated above also concern to noncarbon 1D nanowires and nanotubes based on boron-nitride, oxides, chalcogenides, dichalcogenides, chalogenides, and some other II-V and II-VI compounds possessing of the most manifold physical-chemical characteristics. Reduced two-dimensional 2D heterostructures, nanolayers and nanodisks as being the well known 2D quantum wells are believed to migrate from micro- to nano- electronics. In addition the 2D arrays of nanowires and nanotubes ordered in 2D forest arrays or 2D crystals seem to be novel and very perspective core of NT. Their unique properties have to be determined by new principles of electromagnetic waves propagation based on the Bragg diffraction law rather than on the total intemal Teflection, They are the quantum and, in the same time, the macroscopic 2D erystals in which the various quantum states and resonance effects are expected. ‘Actually such resonance states can be recognized as the novel state of matter, research of which appears to become the advanced direction in nanophysis. ‘On this base the waveguides, laser emitting diodes, infrared sensors and other nanodevices have already been developed. ‘Design and assembling of such artificial media, search for new unusual effects and phenomena, as well as development of the ‘up-to-date nanodevices on their base seems rane the most promising way in the nearest NT development. The example is the discovery of “left” matter or metamaterials, in which ‘unconventional inverse refraction law, inverse Doppler and inverse Cherenkov effects were ‘observed. In nanomaterials science the structure-form engineering will put in the forefront in addition to the impurity engineering. Material becomes nota raw or 2 Pig but it is forming at once as a nano-workpiece. Note that advantage of nanomaterials is hoped to proclaim itself just at developing of nanodevices, the electronic gnat for example, rather than in the large scale industry. By peculiarity ofthe nanoworld is the cancellation of distinctions between the living ‘and inorganic matter. The ‘exchange of substance being the indication of life manifests itself on the supramolecular level rather than a molecular one. Proteins, membranes, and ‘nuclein acids refer to giant natural nanostructures built in result of self-assembling. The analogy opens a fantastic opportunity for nanomaterials and nanodevices fabrication by Such biomimicry. Artificial growth of pearls inside mussels, as well as ordering of non- equilibrium defects into ‘2D nanostructures on a surface of semiconductors under the ion ‘bombardment and implantation are the examples. Principal question is “what are the peculiar features inherent to nowadays nano- technology taking into consideration that atomic and molecular physics, chemical oe technologies, microelectronics, etc., were ‘existed before NT era?” The novelty includes: i he artificial manipulating by nanoobjects and manual or automatic assembling of the nanodevices designed beforehand using a “bottom-up” approach;2 = the deliberate meddling in processes mechanisms i ehemical self-assembling at molecular level; SS. «the invention, design and production of nanodevices of submictomete size followed by ther integration into micro-, mezo-,-and macro-systems. Entering into NT it should be war of some illusions and problems. Firstly, decrease in particles size is restricted from below because it does not always result into improvement of the properties. For instance, the optimal size of disperse jnetusions in oxide ceramics ca. ~10-20 jtk was shown to exist at which the optimal combination of hardness and durability is achieved. Secondly, with particles size decrease the processes of thermal instability and phase transitions were shown to take place resulting in nondurability of nanosystems. For instance, the well-known words IBM, NANO, and corals drown on substrate by atomic~ force microscopy were turn out to be unstable due to fast surface diffusion of building atoms. Since the covalent bonded semiconductors and ceramics preferably appear 0 be stable and durable, the nanomaterials for NT are thought to be nonmetallic. "Thirdly, a cosmic irradiation and radiation background are capable atoms to knock. ou from wanostructures leading in degradation of their properties and in worsening of nanodevice operation Trouthly. thermal noise and vibrations willbe significant circumstances influenced the properties and characterises of manodevices In particular, it limits, certain of probe microscope position, which must never be less then a half-amplitude of thermal vibrations. Tinks, even negligible concentration of inherent impuriies and, iremawele conamiation enable to destroy the assembling processes, 0 a super-high-Purity feed reagents and clean-room processes are require. ‘Concluding, all physical discoveries in vacuum have been already made except farther discovery of the vacuum itself. Novel discoveries, laws, phenome technical aeons, solutions, and inventions will be possibly made only in special ‘designed and ser ved artificial nanostructures tobe fabricated by furure materials science, Ninterials science concept is shown in fig, 2 illustrating the inherent interconnection between the composition, structure, properties, technology and applications ‘Application ‘technology Nanotechnology + t Properties Properties L\.\ chenfery ees physics of panostuctures Materials Sclence Ccheinizar Fite enwetrue ‘composition ae ee Fig, 2, Fundamental triad of materials science.Ww satis not a dull bar, blank, block, pig, but i isthe mm , Mia in which new physical laws may be discovered. malig tare tO bd patural ‘elements in the Periodical Table on base of which 10,000 XY binary, 1,000,000 YZ ternary, 100,000,000 quatemary, ete, compounds may theoretically exist X¥Zanting the chemical composition. This abundance in many times increases with seesunt of physical structure including nanostructures. However only $00,000 acrypounds are known presently to exist in modem crystallography database, Hence the Sundance of novel undiscovered compounds with new unique properties is very huge forming the challenging frontier of research for future nanotechnology. ‘At present time we meet NT in child age. The announcement of grand projects, such as biochips and nanobiorobots for medicine, smart dust for space research, ec., have become as motivation for i's intense development, that may influence upon & civilization development, In USA, EC, Japan, Russia and other leading countries the treat funds were released for NT projects. The perspectives of NT atthe beginning of looks very optimistic, since a severe realty is capable to darken these B Mater the m4 21 century ameuhat naive prospects, However, in any ease the development of NT is unavo‘dable and it is doomed to success. ; ize the fundamentals and technical approaches in The aim of this book is to summa processing and behaviour of nanomaterials to comprehensive and brief information in the challenging fie! fSchnology. ‘Therefore, this partis a general introduction for students of Cience and technology, especially students of mechanical engineering én science, and for people just entering the field. provide the readers systematic, Id of nanomaterials and nano the physical 1d materials