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YOUR NOTES
5.2 Forces: Equilibrium, Density & Pressure ⬇

CONTENTS
5.2.1 Equilibrium of Forces

5.2.2 Density

5.2.3 Pressure

5.2.4 Derivation of ∆p = ρg∆h

5.2.1 EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES

The Principle of Moments

The principle of moments states: For a system to be balanced (in equilibrium), the sum of
clockwise moments about a point must be equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments
(about the same point)

Diagram showing the moments acting on a balanced beam

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In the above diagram:

Force F2 is supplying a clockwise moment;

Forces F1 and F3 are supplying anticlockwise moments

Hence: F2 × d2 = F1 × d1 + F3 × d3

Worked Example

A uniform beam of weight 40 N is 5 m long and is supported by a pivot situated 2 m from one end.
When a load of weight W is hung from that end, the beam is in equilibrium as shown in the
diagram.

What is the value of W?

A 10 N B 50 N C 25 N D 30 N

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Exam Tip

Make sure that all the distances are in the same units and you’re considering the correct forces
as clockwise or anticlockwise, as seen in the diagram below

Equilibrium

A system is in equilibrium when all the forces are balanced. This means:
There is no resultant force

There is no resultant torque

An object in equilibrium will therefore remain at rest, or at a constant velocity, and not rotate

The system is in an equilibrium state when applying the principle of moments. See “The
Principle of Moments” for more notes on this

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Worked Example

Four beams of the same length each have three forces acting on them.
Which beam has both zero resultant force and zero resultant torque acting?

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Coplanar Forces in Equilibrium

Coplanar forces can be represented by vector triangles

In equilibrium, these are closed vector triangles. The vectors, when joined together, form a
closed path

The most common forces on objects are

Weight

Normal reaction force

Tension (from cords and strings)

Friction

The forces on a body in equilibrium are demonstrated below:

Three forces on an object in equilibrium form a closed vector triangle

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Worked Example

A weight hangs in equilibrium from a cable at point X. The tensions in the cables are T1 and T2 as

shown.

Which diagram correctly represents the forces acting at point X?

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Exam Tip

The diagrams in exam questions about this topic tend to be drawn to scale, so make sure
you have a ruler handy!

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5.2.2 DENSITY
Density

Density is the mass per unit volume of an object

Objects made from low-density materials typically have a lower mass

For example, a balloon is less dense than a small bar of lead despite occupying a
larger volume

The units of density depend on the units used for mass and volume:

If the mass is measured in g and volume in cm3, then the density will be in g / cm3

If the mass is measured in kg and volume in m3, then the density will be in kg / m3

Gases are less dense than a solid

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The volume of an object may not always be given directly, but can be calculated with the
appropriate equation depending on the object’s shape

Volumes of common 3D shapes

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Worked Example

A paving slab has a mass of 73 kg and dimensions 40 mm × 500 mm × 850 mm.

Calculate the density, in kg m-3 of the material from which the paving slab is made.

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Exam Tip

• When converting a larger unit to a smaller one, you multiply (×)

⚬ E.g. 125 m = 125 × 100 = 12 500 cm
• When you convert a smaller unit to a larger one, you divide (÷)

⚬ E.g. 5 g = 5 / 1000 = 0.005 or 5 × 10-3 kg

• When dealing with squared or cubic conversions, cube or square the conversion factor too

⚬ E.g. 1 mm3 = 1 / (1000)3 = 1 × 10-9 m3

⚬ E.g. 1 cm3 = 1 / (100)3 = 1 × 10-6 m3

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5.2.3 PRESSURE
Pressure

Pressure tells us how concentrated a force is, it is defined as the force per unit area

Pressure is equal to the force per unit area

This equation tells us

If a force is spread over a large area it will result in a small pressure

If it is spread over a small area it will result in a large pressure

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Different pressure is exerted for the same force on different areas

The units of pressure depend on the units of area:

If the area is measured in cm2 (and the force in N), then the pressure will be in N/cm2

If the area is measured in m2 (and the force in N), then the pressure will be in N/m2

Pressure can also be measured in pascals, Pa where 1 Pa is the same as 1 N/m2

Pressure, unlike force, is a scalar. Therefore pressure does not have a specific direction

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U-tube manometer
A manometer is an instrument to measure pressure and density of two liquids

In Figure 1: The level of liquid is equal because the atmospheric pressure (Patm) is the same

In Figure 2: If the pressure on one side rises, the liquid will be forced down making the liquid
in the other limb rise. The difference between the two levels gives the pressure difference
between the two ends of the tube

In Figure 3: The U-tube now has two different liquids. The density of the blue one is larger
than that of the orange one. The pressure at each point is due to the atmospheric pressure
plus the weight of the liquid above it

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Worked Example

A cylinder is placed on a horizontal surface as shown below

The mass of the cylinder is 4.7 kg and the diameter is 8.4 cm. Calculate the pressure produced by
the cylinder on the surface in Pa.

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Exam Tip

The area referred to is the ‘cross-sectional’ area of a 3D object. This is the area of the base
that the force is applied on. For a cylinder, this will be a circle.

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5.2.4 DERIVATION OF ∆P = ΡG∆H

Derivation of ∆p = ρg∆h

Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure that is exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a given

point within the fluid, due to the force of gravity

The derivation for this equation is shown below:

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Hydrostatic pressure derivation

Exam Tip

You will be expected to remember all the steps for this derivation for an exam question. If
any equations which look unfamiliar, have a look at the notes for “Density” and “Pressure”.

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Using the Equation for Hydrostatic Pressure

Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure that is exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a given

point within the fluid, due to the force of gravity

This is when an object is immersed in a liquid, the liquid will exert a pressure, squeezing the
object

The size of this pressure depends upon the density (ρ) of the liquid, the depth (h) of the
object and the gravitational field strength (g):

When asked about the total pressure remember to also add the atmospheric pressure

Total pressure = Hydrostatic pressure + Atmospheric pressure

Atmospheric pressure (also known as barometric pressure) is 101 325 Pa

Worked Example

Atmospheric pressure at sea level has a value of 100 kPa. The density of sea water is 1020

kg m-3.
At what depth in the sea would the total pressure be 250 kPa?
A. 20 m B. 9.5 m C. 18 m D. 15 m

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Exam Tip

These pressures can vary widely and depend on metric prefixes such as kPa or MPa. When
you’re doing calculations make sure all the pressures are in the same units (otherwise you
may be out by a factor of 1000!). To be on the safe side, you can convert them all to
Pascals.

Exam Question: Easy

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Exam Question: Medium

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Exam Question: Hard

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