Management and organization behavior

Chapter - 1
Management
Management skills are expected in all types of
organizations, whether they manufacture machines or
handlooms, trade consumer products or have saloon facilities,
or even in non-profit organizations. Whatever the nature of the
organization or its objectives, they all share one feature in
common management and managers. Successful organizations
accomplish their objectives by a concerted mechanism known
as management. Management is made up of a set of
interrelated tasks that all administrators execute. In a nutshell,
management is the practice of accomplishing goals by the use
of people. Let us begin by comprehending the principle of
management.
Concept of management
Several well-known writers and thinkers have described
management as follows:
 According to Harold Koontz and Heinz weihrich,
management is the method of creating and managing
an atmosphere in which individuals operating in groups
effectively achieve specified goals.
 According to George r terry, management is the
process of preparing, organizing, implementing, and
managing that is used to establish and achieve goals
through the usage of people and resources.
Thus, management can be described as the method of having
things done with the objective of successfully and efficiently
accomplishing goals. Several key words in this classification
include the following:
1) Process: the term "process" refers to the key functions or
operations that administration conducts in order to
accomplish tasks. Planning, organizing, staffing, directing,
and monitoring are some of these tasks.
2) Effectiveness: effectiveness is concerned with the outcome.
It essentially involves doing the assigned mission. Thus,
management effectiveness is associated with doing the
proper tasks, completing operations, and accomplishing
objectives.
3) Efficient: efficiency refers to doing a job accurately and
with the lowest possible expense. Management is concerned
with the optimal use of production capital, which results in
cost savings and increased income.
It is important for management to accomplish objectives
(effectiveness) with the fewest resources available, i.e., as
effectively as possible, thus ensuring a combination between
effectiveness and performance.
Characteristics of management
1. Management is a goal-oriented process: any organization
has a collection of fundamental objectives that serve as its
raison d'être. Management coordinates the activities of
various entities inside the organization in order to
accomplish these aims.
2. Management is pervasive: the practices associated with
enterprise management are shared by all organizations,
whether commercial, social, or political.
3. Management is multifaceted: management is a
multifaceted operation of three primary dimensions:
1. Job management: all organizations exist to carry out any
function. Management turns this function into achievable
objectives and assigns the tools to accomplish them.
2. Human resource management: human capital or people
are an organization's most valuable commodity. Managing
people entails two facets:
1. It entails treating workers as unique
persons with unique needs and behaviors; 2. It entails
treating individuals as a community of citizens;
2. It entails treating individuals as a
community of citizen's management's job is to motivate
others to strive for the organization's aims by maximizing
their talents and minimizing their limitations.
3. Operational management: it involves the movement of raw
materials and the technology for converting this input into
the required value for use.
4. Management is an iterative process: the management
method is comprised of a set of continuous, composite, yet
distinct features (planning, organizing, directing, staffing
and controlling). Both administrators execute these roles
concurrently and continuously.
5. Management is a collaborative effort: an organization is
made up of disparate people with disparate needs.
Management can include resources for all stakeholders of
the organization to expand and evolve as demands and
opportunities shift
6. Management is a complex process that must respond to an
evolving world. To be competitive, an organization's
structure and priorities must adapt to the changing
demands of the world.
7. Management is an invisible power: management is an
intangible force that cannot be perceived yet is sensed via
the organization's functioning
Organization:
Meaning:
An entrepreneur organizes different development factors
such as property, labor, money, and equipment in order to turn
them into profitable activities. Finally, the commodity is
distributed to customers through different agencies. Business
operations are segmented into distinct tasks, each of which is
delegated to a distinct person.
Numerous individual actions must result in the
accomplishment of common company objectives. Organization
is the institutional structure that defines the roles and
obligations of employees in conducting different tasks with the
objective of achieving business objectives. Management makes
an attempt to integrate different corporate practices in order to
achieve defined objectives.
The modern business structure is extremely
complicated. To be successful in today's business climate, the
device must be managed effectively. Numerous roles need to be
filled by individuals who are best qualified for them. To begin,
numerous operations should be classified into distinct roles. At
different stages, authority and duty are described. All attempts
should be made to coordinate various tasks necessary for the
effective operation of the systems, in order to minimize
manufacturing costs and improve unit profitability.
Definitions:
Koontz and O'Donnell, "the formation of authority
relationships with provisions for their coordination within the
enterprise system, both vertically and horizontally." these
authors view organisation as a focal point for coordination
among the different stakeholders in the market.
According to george terry, "organizing is the process of
creating successful authority relationships among chosen
tasks, individuals, and work locations in order for the
community to work efficiently."
According to terry, organization is the process of establishing
relationships between people and tasks in order to enable them
to be carried out more effectively and efficiently.
Concepts of organisation:
There are two concepts of organisation:
1. Static definition: the word 'organisation' refers to a system,
an individual, or a network of defined relationships in a static
concept. In this way, an organization is a community of
individuals who have formed a structured partnership in order
to accomplish mutual goals. It places a premium on status
rather than on people.
2. Dynamic definition: in a dynamic concept, the word
'organization' refers to the ongoing phase of an action.
Organization, in this context, is the method of organizing jobs,
individuals, and processes. It is associated with the method of
identifying tasks that might be required to accomplish a goal
and grouping them appropriately for assignment to individuals.
It views organizations as transparent adoptive systems, rather
than closed ones. Individuals are emphasized in the dynamic
concept, which views organization as a continuous phase.
Organisational characteristics:
Each author approaches the term 'organization'
differently. One factor that both perspectives agree on is that
organization is the formation of authority relationships between
individuals in order to facilitate the achievement of
organizational goals.
The following are the traits of organizations:
1. Work division:
An organization is concerned with the whole of a
business's operations. The enterprise's overall work is split into
tasks and roles. Numerous tasks are delegated to specific
individuals to ensure their successful completion. This
introduces separation of labor. It is not that a single individual
cannot perform multiple tasks, but specialization in various
activities is important to maximize one's performance.
Organization enables the division of function into closely
connected tasks that may be delegated to distinct entities.
2. Co-ordination:
It is almost as important to coordinate different tasks as
it is to divide them. It aids in the integration and coordination
of different operations. Additionally, coordination prevents
duplications and gaps. Indeed, different roles within an
organization are interdependent, and the performance of one
has an effect on the output of the others. Because they are all
coordinated correctly, the efficiency of all segments suffers.
3. Common objectives:
The organizational system exists to further the
enterprise's objectives. The objectives of different segments
contribute to the accomplishment of major company objectives.
The organizational framework should be based on basic and
unambiguous goals. This will aid in their successful
completion.
4. Co-operative relationship:
An organization fosters collaborative relationships with
its participants. An organization cannot be established by a
single person. It needs a minimum of two or more people. An
organization is a mechanism that aides in the formation of
substantive relationships between individuals. Vertical and
horizontal relationships should exist for employees of different
agencies. The system can be structured in such a way that it
encourages individuals to collaborate on their assigned tasks.
5. Clear delineation of authority and responsibilities:
An organization is made up of different roles that are
organized hierarchically and have clearly established authority
and duty. Throughout the organization, there is still a core
authority from which a chain of authority extends. The status
structure establishes the channels of communication and the
system of relationships.
Nature of management process:
Management is a mechanism that draws together finite
human and financial capital and motivates individuals to work
for the organization's goals. Management is not a one-time
event, but a sequence of interrelated events that occur over
time. The aggregate of these operations is referred to as the
management mechanism. It is a set of interrelated activities or
functions that are required to accomplish an organization's
objectives. A procedure is a methodical means of carrying out
tasks. It is associated with the process of converting inputs to
outputs. An examination of management processes enables one
to ascertain the roles performed by managers.
Features of management process:
Management process is characterized by the following features:
1. Social process:
The whole management mechanism is seen as a social
process, as the performance of all corporate activities is
contingent upon individuals cooperating willingly. Managers
lead, manipulate, and monitor the activities of others in order
to accomplish specified objectives. And individuals outside the
organization are affected by managers' behavior.
2. Continuous process:
Management is an ongoing and continuous phase.
Managers are constantly assuming one or more functions. The
management cycle is replicated indefinitely, with each
managerial role treated as a sub process of the overall
management process.
3. Universal:
Management tasks are universal in the context that
they may be performed regardless of the organization's scale or
purpose. Each manager, regardless of his or her rank or role
within the organization, exercises the same functions. And in
non-commercial organizations, administrative roles are
identical.
4. Iterative:
Since managerial roles are embedded within one
another, operation of the subsequent function does not begin
before the previous function is completed. Numerous roles are
combined. For instance, the staffing role can include arranging,
coordinating, managing, and regulating. Organizing, similarly,
can include preparing, leading, and managing. Thus, all
functions may be considered sub-functions of one another.
5. Streamlined:
All administrative roles are integrated. There is no such
thing as a strict sequence for executing different functions.
While the sequential principle may be applicable in a freshly
begun company, where tasks may be performed in a specific
order, it does not extend to an operating business. Any role
may be assigned first, or several roles may be assigned
concurrently.
Classification of management functions:
Various scholars also assigned various administrative
roles. Henry Fayol was the first to describe management roles
in detail. To quote him, "management is forecasting and
planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and
controlling."
Koontz and o’ Donnell have adopted the following functions:

1. Planning:
Planning is a fundamental management function.
Planning assists in deciding the course of action to be taken in
order to accomplish different corporate goals. It is a choice
made in advance of what to do, what to do it, how to do it, and
who can do it. Planning is a method that entails thought before
doing. Planning is dealing about a manager's emotional
condition. He deliberates before embarking on a mission.
Following preparation, other administrative roles such as
scheduling, staffing, managing, arranging, and monitoring are
performed.
2. Organizing:
Each commercial organization requires the services of a
variety of individuals to manage its various facets. The
management style establishes the priorities or aims that its
employees must accomplish. An individual's energy is
channeled against the enterprise's objectives.
The coordinating purpose is to plan, lead, coordinate, direct,
and manage the activities of other factors of development, such
as men, material, capital, and machines, in order to
accomplish the enterprise's objectives. According to koontz and
o'donnel, "organizing is the aspect of management that entails
the deliberate establishment of positions for individuals in an
organization to perform." the organization establishes the
required structure for individuals to collaborate in order to
accomplish company goals.
3. Staffing:
The job entails staffing the roles provided by the
operation of human organization. It is dealing with the human
capital of an organization's resource planning. According to
koontz and o'donnel, "staffing is the process of filling and
maintaining open roles within an organization's hierarchy by
the definition of labor force needs, appraisal, selection,
compensation, and preparation."
Thus, staffing consists of the following:
(i) Manpower planning, i.e., assessing manpower requirements
in terms of quantity and quality.
(ii) Recruitment, selection and training;
(iii) Placement of man power;
(iv) Development, promotion, transfer and appraisal;
(v) Determination of employee remuneration.
4. Directing:
Directing is associated with achieving the intended
result by the use of people schedules. It initiates coordinated
and scheduled activity and guarantees that subordinates work
effectively in order to complete group operations. Direction is
often referred to as management in play. According to george r.
Terry, "direction is a catalyst for action and a source of
simulative influence for the party." following the preparation,
organization, and hiring phases, the boss is responsible for
guiding and supervising his subordinates. According to massie,
"directing" refers to the totality of a manager's control on
subordinates' behavior. It is the manager's last action in
persuading everyone to act when all arrangements have been
made.” Managing is an ongoing process that occurs at all
stages of management.
5. Co-ordination:
Coordination is a critical management function. It is
critical to channel the efforts of diverse people inside the
organisation against similar objectives. Each department or
segment is assigned a goal to accomplish, and they are
expected to focus only on their work and not on the work of
other organs.
6. Co-ordination and co-operation:
The concept "coordination" encompasses a broader
range of activities than "cooperation." individuals' ability to
assist one another is referred to as cooperation. It is a
community of people's behavior that is primarily the product of
voluntary intervention. On the other side, coordination is a
concerted managerial initiative that results from deliberate
intervention. Although cooperation is necessary for
coordination to occur, it is not a replacement for coordination.
Cooperation and coordination, on the other hand, are critical in
management.
7. Controlling:
Controlling can be described as "determining what is
done, that is, assessing output and, if possible, implementing
corrective steps to ensure that performance occurs as
planned." control is critical to an enterprise's success. The
coordination of different events should not guarantee that
strategies are implemented automatically. Control is the
mechanism through which management ensures that its
directives are followed and takes disciplinary steps when
output falls short of predefined expectations.
Importance of management
1. It contributes to group objectives - it organizes the
drivers of development, assembles and organizes the resources,
and combines the resources effectively to accomplish goals. It
focuses community activities on achieving predetermined
objectives. By explicitly specifying the organization's mission,
no time, resources, or commitment can be wasted.
Management organizes disorganized human, computer, and
financial capital through productive business. These services
are organized, guided, and managed in such a way that the
organization achieves its objectives.
2. Optimum utilization of resources - management
allows efficient use of both physical and human capital. This
results in management effectiveness. Management maximizes
the use of finite capital by identifying the most potential
alternative applications for them in manufacturing from a
variety of possible uses. It employs specialists and
professionals, and these services result in the effective usage of
their expertise, experience, and resources, as well as the
avoidance of wastage. When workers and machines are
operating at full capacity, no resource is underutilized.
3. Cost savings - it achieves optimal results with minimal
input by careful preparation and by using minimal input when
achieving maximum production. Management allocates
physical, mental, and financial capital in the most efficient way
possible. This contributes to cost savings.
4. Establishes sound organization - no initiative
duplication (smooth and coordinated functions). To create a
sound hierarchical framework that is consistent with the
organization's objectives, management defines appropriate
authority and duty relationships, defining who is responsible to
whom, who may send orders to whom, and who are supervisors
and subordinates. Management fills different roles with
qualified individuals that possess the necessary expertise,
experience, and qualifications. All positions should be made
available to everyone.
5. Establishes equilibrium - it allows the enterprise to
adapt to an evolving world. It adapts to the changing world. For
changes in the external world, the organization's original
coordination must be altered. As a result, it adapts the
organisation to evolving business demands / changing societal
needs. It is accountable for the organization's development and
sustainability.
6. Prerequisites for societal prosperity - efficient
administration results in more economical development, which
contributes to an improvement in human health. By preventing
resource wastage, good management simplifies a daunting
challenge. It contributes to an increase in the quality of living.
It raises profit, which benefits both industry and community,
by providing job prospects that produce profits in the hands.
The organization develops novel products and conducts useful
analysis.
System approach to management
In basic terms, a structure is a set of interconnected
and interdependent components that together shape an
ordered unit or body. These components are referred to as
subsystems, and they communicate with one another and are
subject to modification. They are inextricably linked and
interdependent. As a result, improvements in one subsystem
result in changes in others.
Every functioning organization may be assumed to have three
subsystems:
1. Technical sub-system
It represents the formal relationships among the members of
an organisation.
2. Social sub-system
It provides social satisfaction to members through informal
group relations.
3. Power sub-system
It reflects the exercise of power or influence by individuals and
groups. The entire or final structure arises from the interaction
of and among the different subsystems. It is important to
remember that the device and its subsystems communicate
with the world, which can either affect or be affected by the
system or subsystems. (Environment is the sum of all external
causes and powers, such as consumers, rivals, vendors,
taxpayers, and regulatory government agencies.)
Features or concepts of systems approach:
The below are the important characteristics or
principles of the systems approach:
1. Sub-systems
They are the constituents of the whole. Additionally,
each structure can be a sub-system of a greater whole. For
instance, an electronic goods business is a machine; however it
becomes a subsystem of the broader electronic goods industry.
2. Sub systems’ interrelatedness
That is undoubtedly one of the system's defining
features, which implies that a management cannot modify one
subsystem without changing the others, since the subsystems
communicate and are thus contingent on one another. For
instance, the solution to a problem in the production
department (a subsystem) would have an effect on other
departments (subsystems) such as marketing and finance – for
example, if it is decided to increase production by 50% of
current levels, marketing efforts would need to be redirected to
sell the increased output, and additional finance would need to
be arranged to cover the increased production.
3. Synergy
That is, the number of its parts is greater than the sum
of its parts. In other terms, a systems method produces a
synergistic influence, which ensures that 2+2 equals more than
four.
4. Open system
An open system is one that communicates with its
surroundings, while a closed system is one that is self-
contained and does not interfere with its environment. The
processes strategy places a premium on an open
infrastructure. It believes that the majority of organizations are
accessible structures because they rely on community for their
inputs (i.e., resources, supplies, men, and information).
5. System boundary
Each structure has a boundary that denotes its separation
from the surrounding area.
6. Environment
Both programs work within an ecosystem that can
involve consumers or employers, rivals, vendors, investors,
federal and regulatory government departments, and
associations, among others. The environment encompasses
many of the factors that affect the organization but are mostly
outside its influence.
7. Flows
A device is made up of flows of data, processes, and
resources, including human energy. This are introduced into
the machine as inputs, transformed, and then exit as outputs.
8. Feedback
It is the evaluation of completed function, the detection
of deviations, and the implementation of corrective measures.
9. Central functions or purpose
A structure would still have a core function or objective
to which the organization's and subsystem's efforts may be
tested or calculated.
In a nutshell, the structures perspective views
organization as a cohesive, purposeful structure consisting of
interconnected components. It enables managers to see the
enterprise holistically and as a component of the broader,
wider world. Organizations are treated as sources of inputs and
converters of such inputs into outputs. Additionally,
organisations are considered as highly dynamic structures that
are susceptible to transition both internally and externally. To
address the diverse needs of such organisations, a balanced
and integrated management strategy is needed.
Principles of scientific management by Taylor:
F.w. Taylor or Fredrick Winslow's principles of scientific
management Taylor, also considered as the 'father of scientific
management,' demonstrated by his realistic ideas that
management can be conducted scientifically. Taylor put a
premium on management's supervisory level and the
organizational efficiency of managers and staff. Let us examine
in depth F. w Taylor's five (5) management concepts.
1. Science, not the rule of thumb-
This rule emphasizes increasing an organization's productivity
by empirical study of its function, rather than through the 'rule
of thumb' process. Taylor claimed that even minor activities
such as packing paper sheets onto boxcars could be
statistically organized. This saves both time and human
resources. This determination should be focused on statistical
analysis and cause and effect interactions, rather than on a
manager's personal judgment.
2. Unity, not discord-
Taylor suggested and believed that the partnership between
employees and management should remain amicable and
harmonious. Distinction between the two would never benefit
either party. Management and employees should recognize and
appreciate the value of one another. Taylor also advocated for a
mental transformation that would benefit all management and
employees in order to maintain true peace.
3. Mental revolution-
This approach entails a transformation between management
and employee attitudes against one another. All parties should
recognize the importance of the other and act in unison and
harmony. Both should work to increase and maximize the
organization's revenues. Mental revolution necessitates a total
shift in the perspective of both staff and management; both can
feel a sense of community.
4. Cooperation, not individualism-
This philosophy is close to 'harmony, not discord,' which
emphasizes reciprocal teamwork between employees and
management. Managers and employees should have shared
trust and solidarity, as well as a feeling of goodwill. The
primary objective is to eliminate internal rivalry in favor of
collaboration.
5. Maximization of each individual's potential-
A business's effectiveness is often contingent upon the talents
and expertise of its staff. Thus, conducting instruction,
acquiring knowledge of common practices, and using
innovations is the scientific method for brushing up on
employee skills. To ensure that the appropriate person receives
instruction, the appropriate measures should be taken during
the screening and recruitment of applicants using a scientific
selection method.
14 principles of management (Fayol)
History of the 14 principles of management
Organizations have had to contend with administration
in effect throughout the previous century. In the early 1900s,
major companies, such as manufacturing plants, needed
management as well. There were few (external) management
techniques, templates, and approaches accessible at the time.
1. Division of work
In practice, workers are trained in a variety of fields and
possess a variety of expertise. Within competence fields,
various degrees of experience may be differentiated (from
generalist to specialist). This is supported by personal and
career growth. According to Henri Fayol, specialization
improves worker production and competitiveness. Additionally,
the workforce's specialization improves their precision and
pace. This management theory, which is one of the fourteen
management concepts, applies to both professional and
administrative practices.
2. Authority and responsibility
Management has the right to provide directives to staff
in order to accomplish tasks within an organisation. Naturally,
this jurisdiction entails accountability. According to Henri
Fayol, the following force or jurisdiction confers the authority
on management to issue directives to subordinates. Since
accountability can be traced back to results, it is important to
establish agreements about this. In other terms, authority and
accountability are inextricably linked and are two facets of the
same coin.
3. Discipline
it is frequently incorporated into the mission statement
and vision's core principles in the context of ethical behavior
and respectful relationships. This management philosophy is
critical and is seen as the oil that keeps an organization's
engine running smoothly.
4. Unity of command
The management philosophy of 'unity of command'
requires that an individual employee accept directives from a
single boss and be accountable to that manager. If an
individual is assigned duties and associated roles by more than
one boss, this can cause frustration, which can result in
employee dispute. By adhering to this theory, it becomes easier
to determine accountability for errors.
5. Unity of direction
This management philosophy, which is one of the 14
management concepts, is all about emphasis and harmony.
Each employee performs the same tasks that contribute to the
achievement of the same objectives. All tasks must be
coordinated by a single entity that functions as a squad. These
actions must be defined in an action plan. The manager is
essentially accountable for this strategy, and he is in charge of
monitoring the established and scheduled activities' success.
The focus areas are the workers' efforts and teamwork.
6. Subordination of individual interest
A company would still have a variety of competing
desires. Henri Fayol suggested that in order for an organization
to operate effectively, personal desires must be subordinated to
the organization's interests (ethics). The main emphasis is on
the corporate goals, not on the specific goals. This is true at all
stages of the organization, including management.
7. Remuneration
Motivation and efficiency are inextricably linked when it
comes to the smooth operation of an enterprise. This
management philosophy, one of the 14 management
standards, asserts that compensation should be adequate to
keep workers engaged and effective. There are two categories of
benefits: non-monetary compensation (a compliment, increased
duties, or credits) and monetary compensation (compensation,
bonus or other financial compensation). At the end of the day,
it's about recognizing the efforts that have been created.
8. The degree of centralization
An organization's management and decision-making
processes must be well balanced. This varies according to the
volume and scale of an organization, as well as the hierarchical
structure. Centralization entails concentrating decision-making
powers in the hands of the highest executives (executive
board). Henri Fayol refers to the sharing of decision-making
authority with lower levels (middle and lower management) as
decentralization. According to Henri Fayol, a company should
aim for a healthy balance in this region.
9. Scalar chain
In every entity, hierarchy manifests itself. This ranges
from top management (executive board) to the organization's
lowest ranks. According to Henri Fayal's "hierarchy"
management theory, there should be a distinct line delineating
the domain of jurisdiction (from top to bottom and all
managers at all levels). This may be considered a management
system. Each employee has the ability to call a boss or
supervisor in an emergency without violating the hierarchy.
Especially when it comes to reporting disasters to immediate
managers/supervisors.
10. Order
According to this philosophy of management, workers of
a company must have the appropriate tools at their disposal in
order to operate properly. Along with societal harmony (which
is the manager's responsibility), the work climate must be
secure, clean, and orderly.
11. Equity
The management theory of fairness is often reflected in
an organization's core principles. Employees, according to
Henri Fayol, must be viewed with kindness and equality.
Employees must be located in the proper location within the
company in order to perform properly. Managers are
responsible for supervising and monitoring this operation, as
well as treating workers equally and impartially.
12. Stability of tenure of personnel
This management philosophy, one of the 14
management concepts, reflects the deployment and
management of resources, which should be balanced against
the service rendered by the company. Management aims to
keep job turnover to a minimum and to ensure that the best
people are in the right places. Focus areas such as regular job
changes and adequate growth must be well handled.
13. Initiative
 Henri Fayol concluded that workers should be able to
share fresh thoughts under this management philosophy. This
increases awareness and commitment and adds value to the
company. Employee programs, according to Henri Fayol, are a
pillar of power for the company. This fosters employee
engagement and curiosity.
14. Esprit de corps
The management philosophy 'esprit de corps', one of the
14 management concepts, refers to the pursuit of staff interest
and solidarity. Managers are accountable for the improvement
of corporate morale on an employee and organizational level, as
well as in the field of communication. Esprit de corps adds to
the cultural growth and fosters reciprocal faith and
understanding.
Types of Leadership
1. Authoritarian leadership
Authoritarian leadership styles allow a leader to
identify and enforce demands. When the leader is the most
experienced member of the team, a one-person display will be
good. Although this is an effective tactic in time-constrained
situations, innovation can suffer as a result of the team's
minimal feedback. Additionally, where team members need
specific instructions, the authoritarian leadership model is
used.
Advantages
 Time invested making critical choices will be
decreased.
 The chain of command may be highlighted plainly.
 Errors in the execution of proposals should be
minimized.
 Using an authoritative leadership model produces
predictable outcomes.
Disadvantages:
 A rigid leadership style will sometimes result in
employee revolt.
 It stifles employee innovation and imagination.
 It has a detrimental effect on community synergy
and teamwork.
 Significantly decreased group feedback.
 Authoritarian behavior contributes to an uptick in
workforce turnover.
2. Participative leadership
Democracy philosophy underpins participative
leadership types. The objective is to have team members
in decision-making. As a result, team members feel
included, committed, and compelled to participate.
Typically, the representative would have the final say in
 decision-making procedures. However, where there are
differences within a party, reaching a compromise may be
a lengthy task.
Advantages
 It improves employee motivation and work
satisfaction; • it allows employees to utilize their
imagination.
 A participative leadership model contributes to the
development of a cohesive team;
 a high degree of efficiency is possible.
Disadvantages:
 Decision-making systems become more time
intensive.
 Leaders are often apologetic to subordinates.
 Communication breakdowns do occur sometimes.
 security concerns can emerge as a result of
knowledge exchange transparency;
 Inadequate decision-making can occur if workers are
unskilled.
3. Delegate leadership
Often referred to as "laissez-faire leadership," a
delegate leadership model is characterized by a strong
emphasis on delegating initiative to team members. This
may be a fruitful approach if team members are capable,
accountable, and tend to function independently.
Disagreements among participants, on the other hand,
will break and fragment a community, resulting in low
motivation and morale.
Advantages
 Experienced managers may use their expertise and
knowledge.
 Invention and innovation was highly regarded.
 Delegate leadership contributes to the development
of a productive work climate.
Disadvantages:
 command authority is not well defined;
 Delegate leadership makes adaptation to transition
more challenging.
Transformational leadership
While all of the leadership frameworks addressed thus
far is applicable in a variety of contexts, in industry,
"transformational leadership" is often the most powerful style
to employ. (This was first written in 1978 and then expanded
upon in 1985.) Integrity and a strong level of personal maturity
are characteristics of transformational leaders. They inspire
everyone with a common view of the future, and they connect
effectively. Additionally, they are often self-aware, honest,
empathetic, and humble.
Transformational leaders empower their teams by
setting high expectations and holding themselves responsible
for their decisions. They have well-defined objectives and
effective dispute solving abilities. This results in an increase in
efficiency and commitment. However, leadership is not a one-
size-fits-all proposition; often, you may tailor your strategy to
the circumstances. This is why it is beneficial to have a deeper
knowledge of alternative leadership systems and styles; the
more approaches you are acquainted with, the more adaptable
you can be.
Transactional leadership
This style begins with the premise that team members
agree to follow their boss when they approve a task. Typically,
the "transaction" entails the company compensating team
members for their commitment and cooperation with a short-
term mission. The leader has the authority to "punish" team
members whose work falls short of an acceptable level.
Social responsibility in management
Social accountability entails a feeling of obligation
toward humanity and all that constitutes it. In other terms,
"social accountability" implies that administrators are
responsible to the whole community, not only to their owners.
Social accountability is a critical component of capitalism in
general. Individuals and customers rely on companies to "do
the right thing" to play a leading position in improving the
environment. A environment of more economically conscious
management often results in less federal restrictions, since
regulations are nearly often enacted in response to companies
profiting at the expense of the broader community.
Constructive
Being and being socially conscious requires
collaborating with others who can discern whether an action is
socially responsible or reckless. Social accountability entails
listening to and gaining knowledge regarding the individuals
and society to which it may be applied. Being positive involves
responding to feedback, originating from both within and
outside of the organisation, and being able to respond on such
complaints.
Open-minded
The past is in the past; focus on the now and now, on
the critical moment in time. Never be scared to experiment or
explore other solutions, since trends will continue to evolve. As
we face the future, we will all have to live with change. This
requires businesses to be receptive to new ideas and issues
from beyond the company, especially though they need radical
changes to their goods or business model.
Accommodating
Make an effort to be socially conscious in every aspect
of your life and work. By becoming more welcoming, you can
find it more difficult for opponents to cast doubt on your
managerial abilities or accuse you of social justice violations. In
other terms, as legitimate questions are posed, socially
conscious management must take action. This does not mean
that every valid complaint requires an organization to change
its entire business model, but it does mean that managers
address complaints from outside the organization while
charting the company's future course.
Proactive
Take the appropriate measures to ensure social
accountability is implemented and should not hesitate for
anyone to do so. Ascertain that the social accountability
system is in effect, but still check to see that all is adhering to
it, and even though one individual deviates, detraction can
quickly result.
Crowd sourcing
Inviting the market (current, prospective, and existing
customers) to express their views and suggestions about how
the organization might develop its goods and services, as well
as reaching out to the media to assist in resolving issues. When
you complete a survey or compose a summary, the
organization uses the information to create a difference.
Environmental sustainability initiatives
Through recycling resources, reducing pollution
throughout the manufacturing phase, and using clean
energies, we will create goods and services that are less
detrimental to the earth. Many people are becoming conscious
of global warming and how humans are wreaking havoc on the
earth; by siding with research, you will really transform the
environment. Sc Johnson Company has a long history of
willingly undermining its own product lines in the name of
environmental protection, which has benefited the company's
corporate, profile significantly.
Give back
give back by establishing charitable institutions,
awarding college scholarships, contributing money, being
compassionate, and showing concern for others, you will win
over clients, staff, and community. Assisting others in realizing
their full potential is what company can be about, because as
consumers see this, you can draw new customers and retain
existing ones.
Confront the critics
Warren buffet knows that it takes years to establish a
positive legacy, but just seconds to break it. Businesses must
take precautions to maintain a favorable image, and what
easier way to do so than to confront unfavorable press,
infuriating tweets, and angry people with unequivocally positive
ideas that can win them over. Attempting to discredit
opponents or smear negative press often exacerbates a negative
public relations issue.
Government regulations and laws as a result of social
irresponsibility
Legislation and laws exist to safeguard individuals and
the world, as culture and the government would not allow any
injury or violence suffered by its residents. However, rules and
legislation could not materialize out of thin air: they were the
product of repeated offences and indiscretions that drew
exposure to the irresponsible behavior that required to be
avoided in the future. And if they were to occur again, anyone
who believed they could get away with it would risk stiff
penalties or significant prison time. Consider a few of them
here:
Telemarketing and consumer fraud and abuse prevention
act (1994)
The federal agency was forced to intervene in this case
when consumers were being duped into purchasing items over
the internet by individuals claiming to be selling them anything
they wanted. Individuals provided these fraudsters with their
personal and financial details in exchange. Investigators
estimated that each year there were $40 billion in damages
because of these indirect phishing strategies and congress
reacted. This act prohibits telemarketers from deceiving and
coercing customers and requires them to disclose their
information and make calls only during specified hours of the
day.
Fair packaging and labeling act (1966)
Historically, people made all kinds of outlandish
assumptions on what their goods could do and how much use
they could have. The government eventually attempted to
prohibit deceptive labeling, making it impossible for businesses
to mislead consumers about their products. This legislation
demands that the commodity be known for what it is, that it be
supplied in the quantity specified, and that it be tracked back
to the corporation that manufactured it or made it available for
public consumption.
Fair labor standards act (1938)
This bill has been revised almost 20 times with new
additions and modifications to represent the time frame where
the legislation and labor conditions intersected. This legislation
benefits anyone who works or commutes to work by restricting
work hours to 40 hours a week, establishing a minimum wage,
allowing for extra compensation over the minimum wage, and
ensuring that children are in school and not employed in
factories.
Occupational safety and health act (1970)
This legislation considers it unlawful to put any worker
in hazardous working environments and has been amended
several times to address ever-increasing occupational dangers.
This legislation therefore prohibits segregation in the
workplace. This bill confronts something that is detrimental to
a worker's wellbeing and well-being and keeps workers
responsible for it.
Organizational design
in simpler terminology, “organizational design” applies
to identifying, constructing, and re-structuring organizational
structure. The concept of organizational design itself is geared
toward identifying any flawed or inefficient components within
an organization's environment, framework, processes, and
work culture. Identification of these elements results in their
correction to enable an organisation to achieve its objectives
more effectively.
it clarifies various issues such as jurisdiction, mission
duty and its limits, monitoring structure, and a knowledge
fault, among others. Via organizational architecture, one may
recognize and eradicate instances of duplicity in work, wasteful
work, bad customer service, blame games, roadblocks in the
decision-making process, gaps in procedures and processes,
and other factors that contribute to employee inefficiency, loss
of confidence between supervisors and subordinates, and so
on.
A sample organization
By comparison, organizational architecture reflects an
organization's diverse vision. It is all about the procedures and
practices that aid in the structuring and consolidation of
organizations to ensure their smooth and successful operation.
Organizational design elements
A well-designed organizational framework not only
establishes duties, hierarchy, tasks, and obligations, but also
ensures that staff/teams are aligned with the organization's
priorities. Poor organizational design or layout may result in
significant organizational failures, such as task uncertainty,
lack of confidence in team members and managers, a rigid
work climate, and inefficient and unsuccessful decision-
making, to name a few. Additionally, the above conditions
contribute to low efficiency and attrition.
1. Command structure/chain of command
In this model, control and influence are delegated from
the top to the bottom, i.e., top management provides orders to
the bottom team and all workers at each stage in an
organisation. Additionally, management is accountable for an
employee's job performance. It clarifies an organization's
monitoring process. Consider the following visual
representation of the chain of command:
 PROS CONS
Increase in the productivity Not feasible for big
due to close monitoring of organizations due to tight
employee's performance by management control on
supervisors. everything.
Increase in quality and Delay in decision Making
profits. due to much dependency on
Management.
Clear communication due to Less sense of belongings by
direct supervision. employees and less
initiatives
Conflict resolution, clear Office politics due to Power
instructions. centralization.
2. Span of control
The term "span of control" refers to the extent to which
superiors exercise effective control over their subordinates.
This is specifically linked to the number of subordinates (in
numbers) who report to a senior or supervisor; which, in turn,
is dependent on the number of tasks completed at various
levels. As further roles are assigned, the control range is
widened. Additionally, it is contingent upon other factors such
as geographical position, the capability of the staff and
superior, and the difficulty of the assignments.
 PROS CONS
Delegation of authority by Decision making barriers
superiors to subordinates
Clear communication Managers are overloaded
Few managers and more Require more skilled and
employee empowerment. trained managers.
3. Centralization
Centralization is a term that applies to the process of
centralizing a corporate structure such that strategy and
decision-making power is delegated to a particular individual or
to top management. A decentralized organisation is one that
decentralizes organizing and decision-making to the
intermediate or lower levels.
 Centralized organization:
 PROS CONS
Managing complexity and More complex and dynamic
specialization environment
Right decision making for Less efficient at handling
unplanned decisions. diverse organizations.
Managing crisis situation, Lack of sense of belonging
reduced duplication of tasks by employees and delay in
decision making
 Decentralized organization:
 PROS CONS
Quick decisions Duplicity of work and
results in high cost.
Competitive culture to Ambiguity in plans and
improve the performance of processes
employees and to increase
initiatives.
Development of managers in
independent decision
making
4. Specialization
Large organizations divide some of its functions based
on the specialized areas and, so, subtasks are defined in
different tasks. These subtasks are distributed among
individual job roles.

PROS CONS
Increased production or Increased in cost
productivity
Increase in job satisfaction Increase in employee
turnover due to similar kind
of job
Increase in product quality
5. Formalization
Formalization is the practice of administrators defining
or mentioning policies, processes, and responsibilities to
specific workers as well as to staff, divisions, units, and the
whole organisation in written form. Formalization refers to an
organization's objectives and vision, as well as its roles,
leadership and interactions, power and duties, various
structures and job procedures.
An informal organization places a premium on
individuals, and job responsibilities are determined by the
employee's skills and preferences, regardless of the department
in which he or she works. Individuals may often be allocated to
various divisions depending on their self-interest,
qualifications, and so forth.

PROS CONS
Increase in efficiency. Lengthy decision making
process.
Smooth flow of authority Reduced professional morale
of employees.
More disciplined staff, less Rigid and formal relations.
ambiguity.
 PROS CONS
Better communication. Lacking in specialization.
Positive impact on Changes are not accepted
Productivity easily.
Meets social needs.
6. Departmentalization
As the term implies, "departmentalization" is the
method of separating corporate roles into distinct units based
on work or responsibility specializations in order to delegate
similar duties to specialist teams. In static
departmentalization, there is absolutely no coordination with
various departments and each team functions as per their field
of specialization. By comparison, with loose
departmentalization, teams are able to communicate and
collaborate on common activities.
 PROS CONS
Better coordination of Overspecialization.
activities.
Experts help in delegation of Misuse of authority by
tasks and solutions. specialists.
Better control. Slow decision making.
 PROS CONS
Flexibility Increase in ambiguity
Increase in efficiency. Slow decision- making
More motivated workforce.
Types of organizational design and structure
Organizations are classified into two broad categories:
formal and informal. The structured organizational framework
consists of a well-defined work structure that clearly defines
jurisdiction, roles, and responsibilities within the organisation.
In these types of organisations, plans, procedures, and
protocols have already been established, and the teams must
adhere to them and execute their assigned tasks.
It is more concerned with work and roles than with
workers. In formal organisations, jobs are grouped into
subtasks, which are delegated to workers based on their
abilities. It necessitates the involvement of various agencies
and is dependent on the classification of sub-tasks associated
with typical occupations. For instance, companies are divided
into distinct divisions depending on their functions, such as
manufacturing, promotion, and purchasing.
Job is delegated from the top to the floor, which ensures
that managers allocate tasks to subordinates. Supervisors are
accountable for both the coordination of their subordinates'
actions and their success.
1. Line organizational structure & design
Vertically organized line companies adhere to the line/chain of
command and illustrate partnerships at various stages.
Authority is delegated from the top to the floor. There is no
specialization in this area.
 PROS CONS
Simple method and clear Lack of specialized functions.
chain of commands.
Better control on activities. Lack of inputs from lower staff
and ineffective communication.
Clear responsibilities and Misuse of authority by
flexible in approach. superiors.
2. Functional organizational structure & design
In these forms of organisations, various roles and
responsibilities are delegated to various positions and
divisions, such as sales & promotion, financing,
manufacturing, purchasing, human resources, and information
technology. These divisions each have their own employees to
carry out duties and therefore play distinct positions.

PROS CONS
Specialization ensures Poor coordination.
effective distribution of tasks.
Increase in production and Increase in conflicts
minimal costs. between different
supervisors at same levels.
Better management Hiring specialist staff is a bit
functioning and increase in costlier.
efficiency.
3. Line and staff organizational structure & design
This principle is most effective in large corporations.
Vertical yet direct relationships occur at various levels in these
types of organisations, with specialist personnel advising and
assisting line managers when required. Such companies have
both line and personnel divisions. Specialized personnel is on
hand to support or advise and exercises clear supervision of
line staff.
 PROS CONS
Specialization is there for Confused authority
work efficiency as staff relationship between line
employees provide planning and staff employees
and direction where in line
employees focus on
execution.
More effective decisions can Costly as recruits more
be made due to expert specialists.
advice of staff employees.
More flexibility in hiring Raises of conflicts between
new line staff. line and staff employees
especially at senior level
due to seniority issues.
4. Divisional organizations
Divisional hierarchical structures are common in
multinational companies that have several product lines,
operate in multiple geographies, or collaborate on several
programs with distinct teams. These categorize organizations'
various roles according to regional regions, goods, or programs,
or a mixture of these. Each division is responsible for its own
tasks and services, such as personnel and other resources,
related to the goods or regional region to which it corresponds.
In a commodity- or project-based divisional
organisation, all operations such as promotion, purchasing,
manufacturing, and quality are overseen by a single head who
serves as department head. For instance, in the regional
classification, all events are grouped according to certain
geographic areas such as the east or west, or foreign places
such as the middle-east. This division operates in companies
that operate in more than one region or regional area and
employ distinct business strategies; goods are sold in
accordance with local consumer requirements.
 PROS CONS
Increase in accountability. Cost increases due to
duplication of tasks.
Fast decision making due to Mismatch in goals of
different divisions. organization and divisions.
Assigning budget to Conflicts in divisions due to
divisions is easy budget allocation.
5. Project-based organizations
Project-based entities are transient in nature and are
formed to accomplish a certain series of objectives for a project.
These organisations provide staff members from a variety of
ability sets with a variety of various functions or fields. Until a
project is completed, specific services such as expenditure,
time, and manpower are allocated to it. Since the project is
completed, the project's workforce is returned to the relevant
agencies. For instance, consider it businesses, which have a
plethora of projects such as designing and creating software for
any college. To accomplish this, various teams representing
various it department roles such as preparation, architecture,
growth, and testing are brought into play and assigned specific
tasks.
 PROS CONS
Team is focused on common Hang of work in functions
objectives due to the availability of
team members in project
especially if its long.
Easy execution and clear Duplication exists in
responsibilities. functions.
Less conflicts. Improper utilization of
resources

6. Matrix organizations
These companies operate on a dual basis in terms of the roles
assigned to workers. In such organisations, employees refer to
both the functional and mission heads. For instance, in matrix
organisations, human resource team members may refer to the
project manager, i.e., the hiring manager for the real estate
recruiting project, and to the hr head for their functional
responsibilities.
 PROS CONS
Decentralization of Raise in conflicts.
decisions.
Increase in specialization Raise in administrative cost.
Productive exchange of Ambiguity in responsibility
information. and authority.

7. Hybrid organizations
hybrid organisations are a synthesis of principles and
components that are motivated by social influence in a variety
of industries such as corporate, governmental, and others, as
well as revenue generation. In general, as organisations
collaborate to achieve common social and profit-generating
objectives, these organizations are referred to as hybrid
organizations. Additionally, it is a synthesis of practical and
commodity organization.
 PROS CONS
Organizational and Increase in conflicts.
divisional goals are aligned.
Divisions are flexible. Increase in administrative
costs
Efficiency in functional
working.

MBO process: with the goal of increasing productivity and

success, it is critical to have motivated employees, and
management by objectives (mbo) is the right path to take.
This method was introduced by peter drucker in the
1960s, and by extension, management by objectives
demonstrates a staff management framework through which
the company establishes, plans, monitors, and achieves
particular objectives by the collaboration of both high-level and
low-level workers.
Although the principle of mbo may be intuitive for
market enthusiasts, it is essential to consider the mechanism
of management through goals.
Process of management based on objectives
MBO is a six-step mechanism that integrates
management practices in a structured manner that is closely
related to the productive and successful accomplishment of
person and organizational goals. If anyone wishes to assess the
realistic value of management through priorities, it is prudent
to summarize the organization's overall objectives as well as
specific goals.
The MBO phase consists of six steps: establishing
corporate priorities, establishing staff expectations,
continuously tracking progress and results, performing
performance evaluations, seeking input, and performing
performance appraisals. Additionally, each of these phases is
briefly described as follows.
1. Establishing organizational objectives
The entire creation of an organisation is contingent
upon the achievement of defined objectives. Since a target is
the most crucial and necessary element in an organization's
success and performance, it is critical to handle defined targets
efficiently, whether they be single or multiple in nature.
2. Determining employees’ objectives
After establishing the corporate priorities, the next step
is to ascertain the specific objectives, or more precisely, the
goals of employees. The manager's duty is to inquire of workers
what tasks they will attain within a specified time frame and
what tools they can need to accomplish such goals.
Additionally, administrators and staff should prioritize
priorities from most significant to least important in order to
simplify and benefit the organization's goal-achieving method.
3. Constant monitoring progress and performance
MBO is not only designed to increase the productivity of
administrators around the organization; it is also critical for
tracking the success and efficiency of workers on a continuous
basis. Certain items assist managers in monitoring results and
development.
4. Performance evaluation
According to the MBO fundamental principle,
performance assessment is the role of concerned management
and is conducted with their involvement. Bear in mind that
success assessment is one of the most critical aspects of the
organisation that contributes to the seamless operation of
specific goals.
5. Giving guidance:
A socially influencing aspect of mbo is the continuous
feedback provided to staff on their success and internal
expectations in order for them to track, correct, and further
develop their abilities and mistakes. Generally, guidance is
given at annual meetings at which managers and subordinates
discuss success and progress toward objectives. At one step,
criticism enables individuals to become aware of their
shortcomings. On the other side, it motivates already-potential
individuals to further evolve and improve their results.
6. The performance evaluation
Performance appraisals are the concluding phase in the
management by objectives procedure. By concept, performance
assessment is a daily evaluation of an employee's performance
in the company. While the word performance analysis is
synonymous with the term performance assessment, the two
terms may be used interchangeably in certain instances.
 CHAPTER - 2
Human resource
The term "human resources" refers to all the staff
of a corporation or organisation and the agency
responsible for handling all employee-related issues.
Employees together constitute one of the most important
resources of any business or organization. Human
resources was coined in the 1960s, when the importance
of labour negotiations gained traction and concepts such
as incentive, workplace behavior, and selection
evaluations started to take form in a variety of job
environments.
Human resource management is a contemporary
umbrella word that refers to an organization's
management and growth of its workers. Often known as
staffing or staff management (although these words are
somewhat dated), human resource management is the
process of supervising all aspects of an organization's
human resources management.
Basic concepts of human resource management
Human resource management is a position of an
organisation that is responsible for a variety of critical
functions such as locating, interviewing, and hiring work
candidates that can contribute to the company's
productivity development. The primary responsibility of
the human resources officer in a company is to optimize
staff satisfaction while still ensuring a healthy working
atmosphere. Human resource management's primary
objective is to provide the other agencies in technical and
personal issues.
Human resource (hr) administration is largely
associated with managing workers from the time they are
hired until the time they leave. Though human resource
management encompasses a broad spectrum of roles that
benefit the company in a variety of ways:
1) Recruitment and selection: this is the primary role of
human resource management; it involves the task of
screening and choosing qualified applicants for a
particular work profile. Employee recruitment and
selection was heavily dependent on a company's short and
long term priorities. This method is critical for a business
since it facilitates the recruitment of extremely skilled
candidates.
2) Orientation: this is another critical feature in human
resource management and it assists workers in adjusting
to the organization's climate. Additionally, this role assists
workers in understanding their work profile and the
responsibilities delegated to them. Additionally, it
motivates workers to participate in various business
events.
3) Maintain a safe and sanitary work atmosphere:
human resource managers would provide a safe and
sanitary work environment for workers in order to
accomplish the company's goals more efficiently.
Employees can be encouraged on a regular basis to
ensure that they perform their assigned duties
successfully.
4) Managing employee relationships: another critical
feature of human resource management is promoting
positive behavior by employees. The human resources
manager can plan some events that assist the
organization in getting to meet an individual on a personal
and professional basis.
5) Training and development: this aspect of human
resource management contributes to the overall success
level of workers by teaching and empowering them on a
particular topic.
6) Collaboration: human resource administration and
administrative teams collaborate to develop employees'
abilities. The primary function of human resource
management is to delegate workers to various positions
within the organisation, which enables the enterprise to
expand significantly. In a versatile organisation, workers
are assigned to different corporate roles based on their
interests and organizational goals.
7) Employee engagement: human resource experts often
recommend strategies for the employee commitment
within an organization. The whole procedure begins with
the identification of qualified applicants with the
appropriate profile for their credentials. If recruited,
human resource managers must inspire them to remain
loyal to their work.
8) Capability development: human resource experts
assist organizations in developing their capacity such that
they can deliver superior products and services to their
clients. Additionally, it helps in retaining people's
commitment throughout the long run.
Functions of hr manager
Hr manager’s functions basically relate to managing
and developing human resources for achievement of
organizational objectives. He, therefore, performs a lot of
activities looking to organization needs, requirement, strategy
and goal. The areas of activities of hr manager are managerial,
functional and facilitative. The functions of hr managers
include managerial functions (viz., planning, organizing,
directing and controlling) and operative functions, (viz.,
acquisition, compensation, development, and maintenance)
The following sections address the hr manager's
responsibilities:
1. Developing human resource policies, programs,
procedures, and regulations: the human resource officer
develops a strategy for developing human resource policies,
programs, procedures, and rules related to recruiting,
procurement, preparation, career advancement,
performance assessment, future appraisal, and strategic
growth in order to accomplish organizational objectives.
2. Organizing human resources practices: the human
resources manager ensures that human resource policy
and programs are carried out by line employees by exerting
consistent and efficient commitment and coordinating
activities within concerned departments.
3. Managing human resources functions: the human
resources manager monitors when work is completed
according to the schedule that was planned / authorized.
Human resource audits, attitude surveys, workshops,
seminars, and attendance mechanisms assist human
resource executives in determining the true scale of job
success and initiating measures in the functional
management field.
4. Working as a job analyst: the human resources
manager gathers and analyzes statistics and reports in
order to determine basic job expectations for specific
positions within an organisation. As a task analyst, he
performs this operational role by preparing job
descriptions, job specifications, personnel specifications,
and job conditions.
5. Creating and developing recruiting and selection
methods: the human resources advisor identifies possible
places where individuals might be eligible for recruitment
purposes and encourages them to participate in the
process. He therefore maintains that the most effective
screening strategy is used to determine the appropriate
workers.
6. Staff selection: since identifying the appropriate
personnel, the whole procedure can be rendered ineffective
if adequate placement is not made. The human resources
executive's responsibility is to ensure that the individuals
chosen are put in the appropriate jobs.
7. Induction and orientation of new personnel: after
placement, employees need induction and orientation to
enhance their understanding, expertise, and ideas about
the operation, the company's culture, practices, laws,
guidelines, and expectations, the job climate, career
preparation, and growth, and to become acquainted with
their coworkers. This work is performed by the human
resources officer.
8. Preparing workers to perform current job: since
employees' levels of experience and competencies vary,
certain employees are unable to provide products and
services as required. The human resources manager
ensures that workers who fall short of the expected
standard of competencies, abilities, experience, beliefs, and
activity manifestation receive preparation to allow them to
demonstrate their contribution to the company. He assists
line management/training executives in developing and
implementing customized programs, workshops, and
interface conferences, among others.
9. Preparing employees for future job performance:
today's organizations are highly competitive. Changes in the
brand of goods and its consistency occur on a daily basis
and necessitate the updating of employees' expertise and
skills. Human resource managers monitor this area and
provide appropriate guidance to staff by preparation and
counseling in order for them to successfully complete
subsequent assignments.
10. Performance evaluation: the human resources officer
creates and constructs an employee performance
assessment format (eprf) in order to assess current levels of
performance and to identify possible opportunities for
improvement. The employee performance review system
(eprs,) provides a straightforward picture of an employee's
productivity and opportunities for advancement.
11. Professional development planning: the human
resources executive develops a tailored career path/career
advancement scheme to meet the psychological needs of
workers seeking advancement in their careers. It is
important for active, future, and dynamic workers to
accomplish personal objectives in relation to organizational
goals.
12. Creating career development programs: the human
resources executive creates numerous growth programs in
order to position workers in various positions. This is
accomplished by the processes of task study, career
enrichment, job rotating, and the establishment and re-
establishment of independent work groups, among others.
13. executive development program design and
implementation: in a complex operational environment,
transitions arise rapidly, culminating in the emergence of
many issues that need urgent resolution/disposal. To
address those issues/challenges, the whole workforce
population must undergo a transition plan that equips
them with diagnostic and coping skills necessary to serve
as pro-actors.
14. Creating and implementing compensation plans and
employee benefit programs: employees desire higher pay,
incentives, fringe benefits, and social care in return for
their labor. They develop into dedicated, contented
performers as their degree of expectation for pay and
benefits is met. The human resources officer designs
incentive arrangements and bonus programs and
implements them in order to ensure that the organization's
employees are satisfied.
15. Counseling management on all aspects of employer-
employee interaction: the human resources manager
counsels' upper management about the critical nature of
shared awareness, mutual trust, and mutual belief in order
to create sound interpersonal relations necessary for the
achievement of person, community, and corporate
objectives.
16. Ensuring compliance with related labor legislation:
the human resources manager guarantees that fair
employment opportunities regulations and all regulatory
requirements are followed.
Manpower planning
Manpower planning, alternatively referred to as human
resource planning, entails placing the appropriate amount
and type of individuals in the appropriate location and
period, performing the appropriate tasks for which they are
suited, in order to meet the organization's objectives.
Human resource planning has a significant role to play in
the industrialization phase. Human resource planning
must be a systematic process that follows a fixed protocol.
The following is the procedure:
1. Doing an analysis of the existing manpower
inventory- before a planner may predict potential
manpower requirements, the current manpower situation
must be determined. The following points must be made in
this regard:
• Organizational structure • number of branches • size and
number in those divisions • employees in all job units
If a manager has documented certain variables, he or she
will begin predicting the future.
2. Forecasting future manpower requirements- if the
variables impacting future manpower projections are
 identified, preparation for future manpower requirements in
several work units will begin.
The below are the most often used manpower forecasting
methods by organizations:
I. Forecasts by experts: this category covers personal
judgments, systematic expert surveys, and the
Delphi methodology.
II. Pattern forecasting: manpower requirements may
be forecast using extrapolation (extrapolating
historical trends), indexation (using a base year as a
reference point), and predictive analysis (central
tendency measure).
III. Workload analysis: this varies according to the
scope of the job load in a department, district, or
group.
IV. Workforce analysis: whenever performance and
time periods are analyzed, appropriate allowances
for determining net personnel needs must be
created.
V. Additional techniques: numerous mathematical
methods are used to predict manpower
requirements with the assistance of algorithms,
including expenditure and preparation analysis,
regression analysis, and new venture analysis.
3. Creating work programs- after comparing the existing
inventory to prospective projections, employment programs
should be framed and implemented appropriately,
including procurement, evaluation, and placement
procedures.
4. Design educational programs: depending on the level of
diversification, growth strategies, and implementation
programs, among other factors. Training programs are
determined by the level of technological development and
advancement that may occur. Additionally, it is done to
enhance the staff' talents, capacities, and expertise.
The importance of human resource planning
1. Fundamental management duties- manpower is used to
perform the four administrative duties of preparing,
coordinating, directing, and governing. Both of these
administrative tasks include the assistance of human
resources. As a result, hiring becomes a critical component of
all administrative roles.
2. Efficient utilization- efficient staff control has been a critical
feature of today's industrialized environment. Establishing
large-scale companies necessitates managing large-scale
manpower. This can be accomplished effectively through the
staffing function.
3. Encouragement- the staffing role encompasses not only
matching the right men to the right jobs, but also promotional
programs, i.e., compensation strategies to be developed to
encourage continued involvement and employment of workers
in a company. As a result, both forms of compensation plans
become a necessary component of the staffing function.
4. Stronger human relations- a business will self-stabilize if
its human relations are established and solid. Human ties are
strengthened where there is efficient management, direct
contact, effective oversight, and effective leadership within a
company. Additionally, the staffing role is responsible for the
recruitment and growth of the workforce, which results in
increased cooperation and improved interpersonal relations.
5. Increased efficiency- productivity rises as services are used
optimally. Increased efficiency is the consequence of less time,
resources, commitment, and energy wasted. This is
accomplished by recruiting and its associated operations
(performance appraisal, training and development,
remuneration)
Need of manpower planning
Manpower planning is a two-phase operation, since it not only
analyzes existing human capital but also predicts future
human resource requirements, allowing for the development of
workforce programs. Manpower planning benefits a business in
the following ways:
1) Shortages and surpluses should be established,
allowing for swift intervention when appropriate.
2) All recruiting and hiring processes are planned in
advance.
3) It also aims to minimize labor costs by identifying and
avoiding overstaffing.
4) It also assists with identifying available talents within
an organization, allowing for the development of such
talents to be planned.
5) It aids in the expansion and diversification of the
company. Human capital can be made freely accessible
and efficiently used by manpower preparation.
6) It teaches the company the value of human capital
management, which essentially contributes to the
stability of a business.
What does recruit entail?
Recruitment is the term used to describe the method of
defining, recruiting, evaluating, assessing, training, and on
boarding new workers. In other terms, it encompasses the
whole process of identifying and filling a staffing requirement.
Recruitment is the duty of a variety of employees,
depending on the nature of the company. Larger companies
might have whole departments of recruiters, and smaller
organizations might have just one. Recruitment may be
delegated to the hiring manager of small businesses.
Additionally, many businesses outsource hiring to third-party
companies. Businesses almost all hire for new jobs through
commercials, work boards, and social networking platforms.
Numerous businesses depend on recruitment tools to procure
top prospects more quickly and efficiently. Regardless,
recruiting is usually associated with or a component of human
resources.
Hiring in human resource management
Human resource management, abbreviated hrm or hr,
is the role of managing employees within an organisation. Hr is
accountable for facilitating the organization's overall priorities
by proactive human resource management — emphasizing
workers as the company's most valuable asset.
The first phase in developing an organization's human
resources is recruitment. At a high stage, the objectives are to
identify and recruit the right applicants whilst staying under
budget and on schedule.
Types of recruiting
Recruitment comes in a variety of forms.
Internal hiring:
Internal recruiting is the process of replacing job
openings inside a company with current workers.
Retained recruitment:
When a company hires a recruiting agency, they may do
so in a variety of ways; one of the most popular is retained
recruiting. When a company hires a recruitment agency to fill a
role, they incur an initial charge. If the vacancy is filled, the
company is liable for recruiting applicants. Additionally, the
company decides to collaborate solely with the firm. In other
terms, businesses cannot employ several hiring companies to
occupy the same vacancy.
Contingency recruitment:
Contingency recruiting, including retained recruiting,
involves the assistance of an outside agency. Unlike retained
recruitment, contingency recruiting would not include an
upfront charge. Other than that, the recruiting firm is
compensated only when the candidates they serve are recruited
into an agency.
Recruiting for staffing agencies: recruiters for staffing
agencies function for staffing agencies. Recruitment staffing
connects eligible candidates with qualified work opportunities.
Additionally, recruiting services are often focused on short-
term or irregular job opportunities.
Outplacement recruiting:
 Outplacement is often an employer-sponsored perk that
assists retired employers in relocating. Outplacement hiring is
intended to assist unemployed workers in locating new jobs or
occupations.
Reverse recruiting
Is a term that relates to the method of encouraging an
individual to pursue jobs in another company that is a greater
match with their ability set. To assist employees with this
operation, we give reverse recruiting days. We study
applications, perform mock interviews, and conduct deep dives
into individual work positions on our reverse recruiting days.
Procedures for selection
The hiring method can be described as the process of
identifying and short listing applicants who possess the
required qualifications and ability set to fill an organization's
vacancies. The hiring method differs by sector, by organization,
and also within a single company's divisions.
• Preliminary interview
This is a very broad and fundamental interview designed
to weed out applicants who are totally incompetent to work
with the organization. Which provides the organization with
a selection of potentially qualified candidates from which to
occupy their open positions.
• Receiving applications
Employees qualify for positions by submitting
applications to the organization. The application provides
interviewers with knowledge regarding applicants, such as
their biographical information, professional history,
activities, and preferences.
• Screening applications
After applications are submitted, they are reviewed by a
specific selection committee, which selects candidates for
interviews from the pool of applicants. Applicants can be
chosen based on unique parameters such as education, job
experience, and so on.
• Employment tests
Before an organization may assign a suitable job to a
person, it must assess their strengths and abilities. This is
accomplished by the administration of numerous job
assessments such as intelligence tests, aptitude tests,
competence tests, and personality tests, among others.
• Employment interview
The executive interview is the next phase in the hiring
process. Employment interviews are used to elicit detailed
information about a candidate's professional set and
willingness to function with a particular organization. The
aim of an employment interview is to ascertain the
 candidate's suitability and to inform him about the job
profile and expectations of the prospective employee. A
career interview is important for selecting the best
candidates for the best positions.

(source-icai.in)
The selection process's importance
1) Appropriate job selection and placement results in
the growth and advancement of the company.
Similarly, a business can only be as successful as its
workers.
2) Recruiting qualified and professional workers
enables the organization to accomplish its objectives
more quickly.
3) Industrial incidents can significantly decrease in
frequency until the appropriate skilled workforce is
hired for the appropriate positions.
4) As people find careers they like, they develop a sense
of fulfillment, which increases their productivity and
quality of work.
5) Individuals who are happy with their work often
exhibit high productivity and a desire to do better.
Training and development
The human resource management department's primary
role is training and growth. Training is a term that applies
to a formal process by which workers are instructed and
taught professional skills relevant to their work. It focuses
on training workers how to use complex equipment or
perform specific activities efficiently.
Whereas development relates to an individual's
cumulative comprehensive and educational growth and
maturity as a boss. The planning mechanism is linked to
perceptions, behaviors, adaptability, leadership, and human
relations programs in education and development.
Training and learning programs are developed in
accordance with the organization's standards, the type and
abilities of workers being educated, the training's end
objectives, and the employees' work profiles. These
programs are commonly divided into two categories: on-the-
job training and off-the-job training. Employees at various
ranks receive varying levels of experience. The following
types of instruction are used: for the purpose of educating
qualified professionals and operators - job-specific training
programs technical instruction in a classroom setting with
live demonstrations, internship training, and work rotation
training.
Lectures, group discussions, case studies, role-playing,
and conferences are all examples of training provided to
individuals in a supervisory or administrative capacity.
Technical training – technical training is a form of training
that teaches workers how to use a certain piece of
equipment or computer.
Quality training – typically, quality training is conducted in
industries that manufacture tangible products. Quality
training helps workers to recognise defective products and
to distribute only perfect items to markets.
Training in skills – training in skills relates to instruction
provided to workers about how to handle their specific work.
For one, a receptionist will be trained primarily to answer
phone calls and operate the answering machine.
Soft skills – soft skills instruction encompasses leadership
growth, customer interaction, rapport developing, and
sexual assault awareness.
Professional training – professional training is needed for
positions that need continuous change and evolution, such
as those in medicine and science. Individuals employed in
these industries must be kept informed of market
developments on a daily basis.
Unit planning – team training builds confidence and
synchronicity among team participants, resulting in
improved performance.
The benefits of training
1) Training increases both the amount and efficiency of
labor. It broadens the workers' competence set and
 knowledge base.
2) It reduces the time and effort taken to accomplish
the company's objectives. For instance, qualified
salespeople meet and surpass their goals more
quickly than novice and untrained salespeople.
3) Training enables the organization to recognise highly
qualified and creative workers and assign them
positions with increased responsibilities.
4) Skilled workers are more effective than untrained
employees.
5) Eliminates the need for continuous supervision and
oversight of staff.
6) Increases workplace satisfaction, which in turn
raises morale.
The advantages of development
1) Introduces leaders to cutting-edge approaches and
developments in their areas of expertise.
2) Ensures that the organisation still has a sufficient
number of employees with the necessary expertise
and skills.
3) Contributes to the company's long-term success and
sustainability.
4) Assembles an effective management team capable of
resolving business problems without fail.
5) Ensures that managers maximize their management
and leadership abilities in particular.
Wage and salary administration:
Wage and salary administration is characterized as the
mechanism through which organizational wage and salary
levels and systems are established. Wages are charges for labor
resources provided on an hourly basis, while salaries are
equivalent payments made on a frequent, yearly, or annual
basis. Thus, the word 'wage' often refers to wages based on the
amount of hours working which can fluctuate in accordance
with real hours worked. Establishing pay scales, administering
compensation laws, and accommodating workers about
salaries and wage prices are all critical aspects of wage
administration. Indeed, pay and pension administration is a
critical function of contemporary human resource
management.
Introduction
In an economic context, salaries are the primary force
affecting the economic and social existence of every
community; wages represent income for work performed.
Wages, in a sociological context, define workplace stratification.
Wages fulfill desire in a psychological context both consciously
and implicitly in reaction to changing employee aspiration.
 It is one of the components of work fulfillment which
plays a greater role in satisfying those desires than others.
Wages or incomes have gained a variety of connotations in the
legal sense, depending on the meaning, and have been a matter
of special legislation in a number of countries. It is critical for a
factory worker that his or her quality of life and that of his
family are directly related to his or her earnings.
Wages have at least two connotations from the
employers' and workers' perspectives of organizational
environments – i first, employers see wages as a cost of doing
business and are eager to minimize labor costs per unit of
production. Explicitly, salaries are a significant expense
component of the industry. Although companies are tempted to
conserve on this expense, they have recognized that they
cannot recruit and retain a successful workforce without
properly compensating them. (ii) second, workers see salaries
as a way of meeting their demands in terms of an expected
level. They desire to be compensated on a par with other people
with comparable talents doing comparable jobs.
Meaning and definitions
According to prof. Strait off, "wages are the compensation for
labor that generates utility."
According to the ilo, "wage" refers to the charge paid by the
employer to the employee for services rendered on an hourly,
daily, weekly, or fortnightly basis.
Fundamental concepts
Compensation may be described as money earned from
employment, plus the many incentives and services provided
by companies to their workers. Direct compensation (commonly
referred to as salaries, i.e., gross salary) includes monetary
compensation; while indirect compensation includes incentives
such as injury and liability care, workplace contributions to
pensions, pay for vacation or sickness, and employer-mandated
payments for employee services such as social security.
A 'wage' (or pay) is the remuneration charged to an
employee/worker on a monthly basis for the service of labor in
manufacturing. The term "wages" is sometimes used to apply to
the hourly or regular rate charged to classes such as
manufacturing and maintenance jobs ("blue-collar workers").
Earnings are the net compensation earned from an
individual for a certain time span. This covers wages, dearness
benefit, rent allowance, city bonus allowance, various
allowances, and overtime fees, among other things.
Nominal salary is the cash value of the income paid or
got. Additionally, it is referred to as a monetary wage.
 Real salary- which is the quantity of wage that remains
after subtracting the nominal wage from the cost of living. It is
a measure of the buying ability of a dollar salary.
Consider the same: home pay- which is the sum of salary
remaining after approved deductions such as provident fund
contributions, life insurance premiums, income tax, and other
costs.
cost to the employer (CTC)- the term 'cost to the
company' refers to any payments provided to an employee,
such as retirement, life benefits, death of work, gratuity,
corporate vehicle or own-your-car plan, child care provisions,
and subsidized meals. The CTC totals all of the employer's
expenditures in the employee, both monetary and non-
monetary incentives.
The term 'Income Levels' refers to the amount of
money a typical person earns in a certain regional region or
organization.
Wage rate- which is the level of compensation paid per
unit of labor, minus bonuses, holiday wages, and so forth.
The expression 'pay structure' refers to the wage/salary
arrangements that exist within a given grouping. The
classification may be based on profession or organization, such
as the pay system of craftsmen (carpenters, mechanics,
bricklayers, etc.)
The wage structure, or 'grade,' is composed of
positions that are roughly equivalent in terms of complexity or
value as defined by work appraisal.
worker- a "job" is "a set of roles that are identical in
terms of the kind and level of work they do." in certain cases,
only one position can be involved due to the absence of
another. For instance, in a small organization, there would be
only one personnel management role. However, in a large
company, ten workers with the same title can conduct slightly
different tasks.
Job analysis - according to the united states department of
labor, job analysis is "the method of assessing (through
evaluation and study) and disclosing relevant facts about the
existence of a particular job." it is the dedication of the role
that encompasses the employment and the necessary
expertise, experience, talents, and duties for the worker to
execute successfully and that distinguishes one position from
all others”. Work research entails the review of job descriptions
and specifications.
Job description-
"A job description is an organized, accurate declaration
of a given job's roles and obligations." in a nutshell, it should
state what needs to be achieved, how it should be done, and
why. It is a feature norm in the sense that it specifies the job's
acceptable and permitted material.
A work definition is "a statement of the minimum
appropriate human characteristics required to execute a job
properly." it is a staffing requirement that identifies the
characteristics necessary for satisfactory success.
Employment classification-
A job classification is "the division of workers according
to certain criterion, such as type of employment or salary." for
instance, an instructor, a physician, or an engineer.
The wage and pay hierarchy is made up of multiple
salary rates and their corresponding amounts for individual
workers or classes of jobs. The term pay structure refers to the
wage/salary arrangements that exist within a given grouping.
The classification can be based on profession or
organisation, such as the pay system of craftsmen (carpenters,
mechanics, bricklayers, etc.). The pay structure or grade is
composed of workers that are roughly equivalent in terms of
complexity or value as defined by work appraisal.
Thus, the word pay and compensation arrangement
refers to the sequence or breakdown of salaries charged to
workers of a particular company.
Indeed, labor structure encompasses all pay
relationships. Wage structure questions are addressed as wage
differentials of some type (geographic, business, population, or
occupation) are analyzed. However, since our main emphasis is
on organizational wage decisions, we are concerned with salary
disparities between workers.
Wage arrangements between workers within an
organisation are primarily determined by the policy making
within the organization. Wage level decisions are typically more
affected by external factors than wage system decisions.
One reason to look at this is that the pay level choice is
critical in hiring new workers. Thus, wage structure choices are
made with the aim of retaining workers by preventing
discontent and encouraging staff participation. Then, the pay
structure is chosen in order to maximize employee motivation
and success.
Nature
a. Pay and salary administration's primary objective is to
create and sustain an equal wage and salary system.
b. It is associated with the development and preservation of
an equal labor cost system, which entails an optimum
balance of competing staff interests in order to maximize
employee and employer satisfaction while minimizing
tension.
 c. Compensation and benefits management is dealing with
the budgetary facets of human desires, inspiration, and
incentives.
d. Employees should be compensated commensurate with
their work qualifications, i.e. Highly qualified workers
should be compensated rather than low skilled jobs.
e. To eliminate the possibility of favoritism.
f. To create work sequences and production lines as
required.
g. To boost workforce productivity and engagement by
demonstrating that a pay schedule is explicable and
founded on reality.
Characteristics:
a. Salaries are paid in compliance with the provisions of
the employment arrangement between the employer and
the employee.
b. Salaries are calculated on a time-rate or piece-rate basis.
c. Wages fluctuate in accordance with the amount of time
expended by the laborer.
d. Wages contribute to the development of utility.
e. Wages can be charged regularly, twice a month, hourly,
or monthly.
f. Wage is the compensation charged to employers for their
services.
g. Compensation can be made in cash or in kind.
h. Incomes involve a variety of deductions.
Six fundamental principles
Not only are developing and administering sound pay
and salary strategies important, but they are often dynamic
administrative roles. The difficulties arise when, on the one
side, the bulk of union management issues and conflicts
concern salary payment. And on the other hand, compensation
is often a significant component of the cost of output. As a
result, it has the biggest impact on an organization's longevity
and development.
Remuneration often has a direct impact on the
allocation of wages, spending, investments, jobs, and costs.
This factor becomes much more critical in a developing
economy such as India, where it becomes important to take
steps to gradually reduce income concentration and/or to
counteract inflationary patterns. Thus, an organization's pay
structure does not become a drag on the economy.
Income and salary schedules, strategies, and
procedures are driven by a number of standards.
Among them are the following:
i. Wage and salary plans and policies should be
sufficiently flexible;
 ii. Job evaluation should be conducted scientifically;
iii. Wage and salary administration plans should always be
consistent with the organization's overall plans and
programs; and
iv. These plans and programs should be consistent with
the country's social and economic objectives, such as
attainment of
Six critical considerations when developing a sound wage
policy
1. Supply and demand:
Wage prices are heavily influenced by the demand for
and shortage of labor, as well as its affordability. If there is a
labor shortage, salaries would be strong. In the other side, if
labor is abundant, people would be all too likely to work for
poor salaries. However, both management and labor have been
increasingly reliant on this "regulation" as a fundamental
influence in recent years.
Paying high salaries during periods of labor scarcity
makes achieving cost expectations tough, and salary cutting is
almost impossible. Paying low salaries during periods of ample
labor often breeds discontent, and therefore any wage savings
are outweighed by a sense of alienation and low productivity.
2. "Payment of wages":
Although the giving salary is typically the prevailing
wage of either society, certain employers offer higher wages to
maintain the goodwill of their employees.
3. Cost of living:
Numerous businesses have profited from the cost of
living, or more specifically, the increases in the cost of living
that impair the buying ability of the wage. Where businesses,
on the other hand, are short-sighted and disregard increases in
the cost of living, labour unions negotiate a pay scale that
incorporates the actual cost of living index into account.
4. Collective bargaining agreements:
a well-organized labor force led by a powerful
representative is often able to negotiate higher pay costs with
management through union management talks. Collective
negotiation may be a beneficial tool if all management and
labor act rationally. It will have a predictable wage expense for
the enterprise and predictable profits for the workforce.
5. Competitiveness:
The degree of competition in the demand for an
industry's goods often has an impact on salary levels. In an
ideal competitive environment (which almost never exists),
compensation will be equal to the amount of the employers' net
contribution to overall production. If the retail sector is
imperfectly competitive, incomes are unlikely to achieve this
amount.
6. State regulation:
Often, it was discovered that employers' negotiating
capacity was insufficient to guarantee equal pay. As a result,
the state was compelled to intervene. The minimum wages act
of 1948 was enacted to guarantee the payment of a minimum
wage in such designated sectors and occupations. The payment
of bonus act, 1965, rendered bonus payment mandatory, and
fringe benefits were provided under the employee's state
insurance act, 1948, and the provident fund act, 1952, among
others.
Other factors:
Along with the above causes, there are several others
that affect an organization's individual pay rate. These factors
may include the firm's willingness to compensate, the level and
distribution of national wages, and the role of business in the
national economy, for example, wage levels in a strategic
industry may be very large.
Performance appraisal of human resource management
After an individual is hired and educated on the job, the
next critical and necessary phase of an organization's human
resource management is to assess the employee's success on
the job. Management must be willing to consider an employee's
degree of work success in order to compensate them for their
commitment to corporate objectives. It is the method of
determining how workers perform their duties and, where any
issues are found, prompt action is taken to correct them.
Performance appraisal of human resource management –
Characteristics
A device that possesses the following features or attributes can
be considered a sound assessment system:
i. It should be straightforward and comprehensible to staff.
Complications must be avoided at all costs.
ii. It can be appropriate for periodic assessment, since
periodic appraisal encourages workers to change.
iii. It can foster an environment of shared respect and trust.
iv. The scheme should be capable of administering justice in
an equal manner to all workers. As such, it should be
factual and clear of personal prejudice.
v. Confidentiality should be maintained when preparing
performance appraisals.
vi. The framework should be appropriate for the organization
in terms of its structure, needs, and, most importantly,
based on recent advancements in the field.
 vii. It should be capable of achieving the desired result by
identifying opportunities for advancement, increments,
placements, and transfers, among other things.
viii. Special instruction is given to the evaluated” in order to
make him more objective and free of prejudice.
ix. Every employee who receives a negative assessment
should be informed promptly so that he or she may take
corrective action.
x. If an individual is dissatisfied with his performance
assessment, he may be entitled to complain. This way,
management would earn the employees' confidence.
xi. The performance assessment method can not be used to
bully workers, who are critical human capital and
contribute significantly to the organization's success. On
the other side, senior management should be made
conscious that success evaluation is intended to improve
performance, organizational efficacy, and the ability of the
organization to achieve its objectives.
Process of performance appraisal
1. Establish performance standards:
After doing a detailed review of the work, performance
criteria should be established and shared with supervisors.
These principles should be unambiguous. They must be
quantifiable after a specified time frame.
2. Communicate the requirements:
After establishing work performance standards, the
next step is to communicate these expectations to all parties
involved, and can include at least two parties
(a) The appraiser and
(b) The appraisee. It is important to modify these requirements.
The appraiser must guarantee that the knowledge he
communicates is interpreted and understood clearly by the
appraisee.
3. Assess actual results:
The next activity is to assess the appraisee's actual
performance on the job after a specified time. Appraisers often
utilize four sources to determine individual performance:
personal assessment, statistical records, oral reports, and
written reports. The fourth task is to compare current results
to benchmarks. At times, real success can exceed expectations,
and at other times, it can veer off course. All differences
between real and normal performance should be carefully
recorded for the next operation.
5. Employee feedback:
In this activity, the outcomes of the preceding stages
are shared with the employee. The details that an appraisee
receives about his appraisal has a significant effect on his
results. Communicating bad results to the appraiser is a
challenging job.
6. Adopting corrective action, as required:
This is the process's concluding or final task. At this
point, the appraiser can prescribe one of two forms of
corrective action. One is favorable, implying a rise in pay or
advancement. If the appraisee's actual output is satisfactory
and the second is unfavorable, coaching and counseling will be
conducted to improve the appraisee's performance. If required,
the appraisee can be assigned to structured training.
Performance appraisal methods:
There are several strategies for performing performance
appraisals in order to determine opportunities for improvement
or modification and to offer information to management for
particular measures such as advancement, relocation, or
salary change.
The following sections discuss various approaches for
performing success appraisals:
1. Ranking method:\s
This method requires the evaluator to list all
salespeople in order of their performance, beginning with the
top performer. Employee performance appraisals are conducted
using a variety of scoring systems.
Several of the more significant ones are mentioned below:
(i) Simple ranking system:
Under this method, all workers are graded on the same
collection of criteria and ranks based on their success in
comparison to their peers. They are all ranked in order of their
results.
(ii) Paired comparison process:
In this method, all employees' outcomes are related to
those of other employees, but only one employee's output is
compared at a time. Each member's preference over the other
is registered. This figures decide members' grades, and
inevitably, the best performers would be those who have held
the highest ranks for the longest period of time.
(iii) Forced delivery method:
This is a technique for assessing employee output on
the basis of a fixed distribution scale. Generally, organizations
employ a five-grade scale, with one end representing the
highest level of job performance and the other representing the
lowest level of job performance. Each employee is assigned a
rating on a scale based on their performance in relation to
other employees.
2. Graphic rating scale method:
The graphic rating scale method defines particular
desired characteristics, behavior factors, or success
parameters, such as job quality and quantity, cooperation,
strategic capacity, decisiveness, initiative, and emotional
maturity, among others. Employees are evaluated on a system
dependent on their ability to demonstrate desired behavior or
follow desired performance requirements.
3. Critical incidents method:
Using this method, the immediate supervisor attempts
to maintain a continuous record of all incidents involving a
person's work-related behavior, whether positive or negative.
When workers are seen performing something good or
beneficial that contributes to the organization's overall
productivity or to the creation of a healthier work environment,
their positive impact is registered.
4. Checklist method:
With this method, the boss begins with a checklist of
variables, such as whether the individual cooperates with other
coworkers, maintains a neat and orderly work environment,
strictly follows their supervisor's orders, arrives at their office
on schedule, and is capable of completing the work goals
allocated to them.
Each element or object is assigned a numerical value based on
its presumed significance to job success. The checklist is used
to prioritize products, and the overall success of all workers on
the job is calculated and contrasted to the checklist. Their
assessment scores are calculated by including the ratings of
the rater's tested parameters.
5. Essay format:
Brief narratives written by the boss explain an
employee's results. A manager can compose a written report on
the employee's job awareness and potential; the employee's
comprehension of the company's activities, strategies, and
objectives; the employee's promotability; the employee's overall
performance appraisal; and the employee's relationship with
coworkers and supervisors, among other things.
The essay method enables managers who have observed the
employee closely on the job to provide detailed information
about their performance.
6. Management By Objectives:
Management by objectives (MBO) is a holistic
management methodology that is used to evaluate employee
results. It is regarded as one of the most scientific and
analytical methods due to the fact that a predetermined
protocol is practiced. The primary purpose of this approach is
to define a collection of goals that would be accomplished by
the employees.
These goals are then used as metrics for evaluating
employees' efficiency, or more precisely, the degree to which
these objectives have been met by employees. Thus, in this
process, detailed goals for workers are defined at the outset.
Individual workers' responsibilities and duties are well
described in terms of these priorities.
7. 360° Assessment of feedback:
360° input assessment is often referred to as multi-
rater feedback, multisource feedback, 360° appraisal, complete
circle analysis, and community success analysis. This term
was created in the United States in 1998. This idea entails the
task of gathering knowledge regarding a person's behavior from
everyone in his immediate vicinity – his supervisor (es), friends,
team mates, and vendors, among others.
Grievance handling:
Grievance: an introduction and definition
a grievance is any disappointment or sense of
oppression about one's job situation that is brought to
management's notice. A grievance, in general terms, is any
dissatisfaction that has a detrimental effect on corporate
interactions and competitiveness. It is important to
differentiate between annoyance, complaint, and grievance in
order to comprehend what a grievance is.
a. Dissatisfaction is described as something that
causes an employee distress, whether or not the
distress is communicated verbally.
b. A complaint is an expression of discontent
expressed verbally or in writing to the boss or
shop steward.
c. A grievance is a written allegation made against
a corporate agent or a union leader.
According to Michael Jucious, 'grievance is any expression of
frustration or disappointment, whether articulated or not,
whether legitimate or not, resulting from something related to
the business that an employee assumes, believes, or otherwise
feels is unequal, unjust, or inequitable'. In a nutshell, a
grievance is an expression of discontent, spoken or unspoken,
published or unwritten, justified or unjustified, over an
employment condition.
Grievance has the following characteristics:
a. A grievance is any expression of frustration or
disappointment towards any part of an organisation.
b. The frustration must be related to work and not to
personal or family issues.
c. Frustration may be motivated by actual or fictitious
factors. When workers believe they have been treated
unfairly, they have a grievance. The source of such an
emotion can be real or invalid, logical or unreasonable,
justifiable or absurd.
 d. Discontent may be expressed verbally or in silence, but it
must be expressed in some way.
e. However, dissatisfaction in and of itself is not a cause of
complaint. The employee can initially lodge a complaint
verbally or in writing. Whether this is not addressed
immediately, the employee develops a feeling of injustice.
Now, the dissatisfaction has developed into a grievance.
f. In general, a lawsuit may be traced back to the company
failing to meet one's expectations.
Causes of grievances:
Disagreements may arise for a variety of reasons:
1. Economic: individual pay increases can be requested by
employees. They should believe they are paying less than
anyone. For instance, late bonuses, payments, changes to
overtime compensation, alleged disparities of care, fair pay
charges, and challenges against performance-based pay
awards.
2. Job environment: This can refer to unfavorable or
unsatisfactory working environments. For instance, inadequate
lighting, space, or heat in the workplace, faulty tools and
equipment, low-quality materials, unjust regulations, and a
lack of recognition.
3. Supervision: there might be objections to the supervisor's
general methods of supervision, such as alleged notions of
bigotry, favoritism, nepotism, caste affiliations, and regional
feelings.
4. Organizational change: any alteration of an organization's
procedures will generate complaints. For instance, the revision
of organization policy or the adoption of new work practices.
5. Staff relations: employees are reluctant to adapt to their
coworkers, experience feelings of neglect and victimization, and
become targets of ridicule and embarrassment, as well as other
inter-employee conflicts.
6. Miscellaneous: this can include matters related to specific
breaches of advancement, protective procedures, relocation,
administrative regulations, penalties, leave giving, and medical
services, among others. Grievances, if not detected and
resolved, will have a negative effect on employees,
management, and the organization.
The below are the consequences:
1. Impact on manufacturing: a. Decreased commodity
efficiency b. Decreased output c. Increased material waste,
spoilage/leakage of equipment d. Increased cost of production
per unit
2. On employees: a. Increased absenteeism and attrition b.
Decreased loyalty, honesty, and punctuality c. Increased injury
occurrence d. Decreased staff productivity
3. Effects on managers:
i. Restricted superior-subordinate relationships;
ii. Increased oversight and monitoring.
iii. An increase in instances of indiscipline
iv. An increase in unrest and, therefore, equipment for
industrial harmony
The need for a formal grievance procedure:
a grievance management mechanism functions similarly
to a pressure release valve on a steam boiler in that it provides
an outlet for staff frustrations, discontents, and gripes.
Employees are not required to keep their grievances locked up
before discontent inevitably explodes. The presence of an
appropriate grievance process decreases the necessity for
managers to take arbitrary action, since supervisors are aware
that workers will criticize such actions and have their protests
considered by upper management. The very knowledge that
workers have a right to be seen and are heard contributes to
productivity improvement. In light of these factors, any
company should have a well-defined procedure for addressing
grievances.
Employee well-being
Employee benefits refer to something undertaken for
the workers' convenience and (intellectual or social)
development that is not covered by their pay.
In plain terms, it refers to "efforts to make workmen's
lives worthwhile." it encompasses a range of programs,
equipment, and perks offered to workers for their benefit.
These amenities may be given willingly by radical
entrepreneurs, or they may be mandated by statute; or they
may be provided by the government or labor groups, whether
they have the necessary funds.
According to the ilo, "employee wellness" refers to
"services, facilities, and amenities that may be provided in or
near businesses to allow employees to operate in a safe and
peaceful environment and to take advantage of facilities that
increase their health and morale.".
Employee welfare
Introduction and meaning
Employee welfare refers to something undertaken for
the workers' convenience and (intellectual or social)
development that is not covered by their pay. In plain terms, it
refers to "efforts to make workmen's lives worthwhile." it
encompasses a range of programs, equipment, and perks
offered to workers for their benefit. These amenities may be
given willingly by radical entrepreneurs, or they may be
mandated by statute; or they may be provided by the
government or labor groups, whether they have the necessary
funds.
Welfare of employees – definition
The phrases 'employees' welfare' and 'workers' health' are
interchangeable terms that refer to a variety of programs
offered by employers to employees in addition to salaries.
According to Arthur James Todd, "employee welfare" refers to
"something accomplished for the employees' comfort and
growth, intellectual or social that is not a requirement of the
business."
According to an ilo publication, "employee wellness" refers to
"services, facilities, and amenities that may be provided in or
near businesses to allow employees to function in a safe and
peaceful environment and to take advantage of facilities that
increase their health and morale."
The below are the fundamental characteristics of employee
or labor welfare:
I labor protection refers to a variety of facilities, utilities, and
resources given to employees in order to improve their
wellbeing, productivity, economic well-being, and social
standing.
(ii) Welfare measures are in comparison to the daily pay and
other economic incentives that employers are entitled to by
applicable law and collective bargaining agreements.
(iii) Labor welfare policies are fluid and constantly evolving.
From time to time, new welfare programs are applied to the
current ones.
(iv) Welfare programs may be implemented by corporations, the
state, workers, or some other social or charitable organization.
(v) The object of labor welfare is to foster the growth of the
worker's whole personality in order to make him a better
worker and citizen.
Employee welfare – objectives
The following sections address the goals of employee welfare:
1) To improve staff productivity.
2) To develop a devoted and content workforce inside the
organisation.
3) To improve the company's reputation in the eyes of its
workers.
4) To ensure the employees' comfort and happiness.
5) To increase worker productivity.
6) To lessen labour unions' control on jobs.
7) To publicize the company's philanthropic and charitable
efforts.
8) To demonstrate to employees that the organization
cares for them.
 9) To foster a constructive outlook about work, the
organization, and management.
10) To alleviate the fiscal pressure.
11) To foster an atmosphere of employee happiness with the
business.
12) To foster a sense of community within the organization.
13) To attract highly qualified and professional employees.
14) To improve interpersonal relationships.
15) To combat societal ills such as alcohol and gambling by
enhancing working opportunities, community practices,
and social environments.
Employee welfare can be divided into two categories,
namely:
(1) Statutory, and
(2) Voluntary
Type 1: statutory: the government has enacted a series of
statutes that provide basic protection and health standards for
workers on the job. Provisions have been provided for welfare
amenities such as laundry, storage, first-aid equipment,
operating hours, and sanitation.
Type 2: voluntary: companies have willingly extended welfare
benefits to workers in addition to the mandated benefits. They
are more concerned about their workers' health. Godrej and l &
t offer ample transportation and related other benefits to their
employees. Numerous groups include recreational services,
medical assistance, free or discounted food, infant care, and
activities and games.
Organizations also created ways for employees to serve
on flexible schedules. It enables us to fulfill corporate
obligations while still meeting personal needs. Additionally,
organizations offer medi-claim benefits to workers to offset
costs associated with hospitalization related to sickness,
disability, or accident. Additionally, discrimination procedures
are created to shield workers from any forms of harassment.
Additionally, voluntary health services may be defined as those
given inside and beyond the factory grounds.
I on-site welfare and services.
(ii) Welfare and recreational services located outside the plant
grounds.
On the factory grounds, welfare and facilities provide the
following: i provision for latrines and urinals, (ii) provision for
washing and bathing, (iii) crèches, (iv) rest shelters and
canteens, (v) provision for drinking water, (vi) provision for
exhaustion prevention, (vii) logistical arrangements for welfare
within the facility, (viii) uniforms and safe clothes, and (ix)
change allocation.
Outside of the factory, welfare and amenities include the
following: i maternity benefits, (ii) social insurance, (iii)
benevolent fund, (iv) medical facilities, (v) educational facilities,
(vi) housing facilities, (vii) recreational facilities, (viii)
vacation/leave and travel facilities, (ix) workers' cooperatives,
(x) other programs for the welfare of women, youth, and
children, and (xi) transportation to a hospital.
Job evaluation
Introduction
Job evaluation in a business is limited to determining
the relative value of employees or vacancies. In other terms, the
procedure has little information about the real success of those
in such roles. This consideration poses a significant constraint
on the strategies, since not all workers are comparable in terms
of ability, productivity, temperament, and loyalty.
Certain people, due to their ability and performance, may
perform better than their peers in the same cadre. Those
individuals should be appropriately compensated for their
outstanding qualities. Additionally, workers like to know if they
are capable of achieving the optimal quality of efficiency. As a
result of these factors, management must have any equipment
or system that can be used to assess employees' individual
results. The response to this query is given by meritocracy.
Merit rating
Merit rating is associated with assessing and reviewing
an employee's results after his or her assignment to a job.
The following are the different concepts formulated by capable
scholars:
Edwin b. Filippo's concept
Merit classification is a formal, annual, and, to the
extent practicable, objective assessment of an employee's
excellence in his or her current job and prospects for
advancement.
John a. Shubin is described as:
Merit ranking is a standardized assessment of an
employee's attitude and work success with the aim of
determining his commitment and overall importance to the
organization. As a result of these concepts, it is evident that
merit ranking is associated with evaluating workers' success on
specific positions.
Distinction between merit-based and performance-
based evaluations
The concept of meritocracy is very distinct from task
assessment. The following are the points of difference between
them:
Job evaluation Merit ratings
 1. It assigns a value to the It evaluates employee results
profession in order to in order to ascertain his
calculate work differentials. relative value to the task.

2. The aim is to provide a Its aim is to provide some

reasonable base pay rate. differentiated compensation
over the base salary.

3. It is uninvolved with job It serves as the foundation

advancement and for employee advancement
transition. and transition.
Merit rating objectives
Apart from the primary purpose of evaluating an
employee's results, merit ranking has many well-defined goals.
A meritocracy can be used:
a. To act as a benchmark for wage changes in the absence
of a set work scale.
b. To act as a foundation for additional benefits such as
benefit sharing and periodic incentives.
c. To ascertain credentials for job assignments.
d. To ascertain promotional eligibility.
e. To weed out the undesirables and misfits.
f. To decide which employees should be kept through
periods of slack employment?
g. To make selections for applicants with specialized
preparation.
h. To support staff with their growth by identifying their
strengths and shortcomings.
Factors to be considered in a merit rating system
Both meritocracies need a separate evaluation of
multiple variables. It refers to determining how many of the
characteristics necessary to perform a job are possessed by the
individual performing the job. The following are the critical
considerations that are commonly considered:
a. Knowledge of the work acquired by schooling, special
training, or practice, etc.
b. Output, craftsmanship, and accuracy.
c. Cooperation manifests itself in behaviors, adaptability to
transition, willingness to obey directions, and
helpfulness with colleagues.
d. Leadership is shown by the capacity to control and guide
others' jobs.
e. Presence, punctuality, and duration of time demonstrate
stability.
f. Honesty, dependability, patience, trust, and bravery are
shown in one's character.
 How to build a merit rating system
The following measures are indicative of a merit ranking
scheme.
a. Identify the employee categories that will be rated and
the intent of the ranking.
b. Establish a training system by choosing and
identifying the output characteristics to be evaluated,
as well as developing a rating scale.
c. Recruiting and training raters.
d. Analyze and evaluate success ratings in order to
grant person pay advances, employee therapy, and
instruction, among other things.
The advantages of a merit rating
1. Improved employee relationships
Merit rating fosters a positive and tension-free
partnership between employer and employee. A standardized
merit rating structure allows managers to have a greater
understanding of their workforce. A greater knowledge of the
employee enables the employer to earn their trust and
confidence.
2. Performance history
Additionally, a comprehensive and up-to-date database
of production quantities and consistency, as well as abilities
and skills gained by each individual employee, is possible.
3. Identification of extraordinary talents
Merit rating assists in recognizing individuals that are
highly skilled and talented. These individuals will eventually be
elevated to key positions and thereby be adequately
compensated.
The risks of merit rating
The below are the pitfalls associated with merit
ranking, which can be avoided at all costs:
1. The rater's personal bias
Personal bias on the part of the rater is a danger. To
escape this risk, supervisors must study the ranking and
equate it to previous ratings.
2. Forms that is unsatisfactory
Scoring types can also be unsatisfactory if due caution
is not taken in their construction. The forms can be
attractively printed to ensure that the rater fills them out with
care and consideration.
3. Periodicity
As a rater scores very often, inaccuracies are certain to occur.
4. Confidentiality
Each employee is anonymously classified. However,
each employee who is ranked is entitled to an open dialogue
about his or her ranking. Without such meetings, there would
be mistrust between employees and managers.
Orientation
Once the appropriate candidate is put in the appropriate
position, the person must be adequately paid for the work
performed.
Objectives of job evaluation
The primary goal of job appraisal is to guarantee that
employees are compensated fairly for the perceived value of
their work. According to the ilo report, the majority of work
appraisal systems are designed to define, on an agreed-upon
rational framework, the relative values of various workers
within a specified plant or machinery, i.e., to determine the
relative worth of a job. All career appraisal systems are built
around the concept of representing and valuing all employment
within businesses in terms of a variety of variables, the relative
significance of which differs by job”.
to put it another way, the objectives of job evaluation
are to: 1. Provide a standard procedure for determining the
relative value of each job in an organization; 2. Provide an
equitable wage for each job and reasonable wage differentials
between jobs within a hierarchical organization; and 3.
Determine the rate of pay for each job that is fair and equitable
in comparison to other jobs. 6. Ensure that all workers are
considered fairly and accurately for promotion and transfer; 7.
Include evidence for job organization, staff selection,
placement, and training, as well as other related purposes; 8.
Serve as a benchmark for career preparation for all employees
in the organisation; and 9. Ensure that all eligible employees
are paying comparable salaries for comparable work.
Principles of job evaluation
1) Job assessment is driven by those criteria. These
guidelines are intended to guide career evaluators.
These standards not only serve as guidelines for
appropriate work assessment, they also offer clarity in
the evaluation phase. These rules, according to kress,
are as follows:
2) 1. Rate the work and the jobber. Each element should
be graded according to the requirements of the work;
3) The elements chosen for ranking purposes should be
readily explainable in words and as few in number as
possible but also covering all required requisites for
each job without overlap;
4) The elements should be well described and correctly
selected;
5) Each job rating package must be marketed to foremen
and workers. The plan's progress would be contingent
upon a succinct justification and illustration;
 6) Foremen should be involved in ranking work inside
their own units.
7) Workers' cooperation will be elicited to the fullest extent
possible as they are given the chance to address work
ratings and;
8) An excessive number of workplace salaries can be
avoided. Adopting an occupational wage for each total
of point values will be imprudent.
Criteria for job evaluation
The work assessment scheme makes use of a total of
eight calculation variables. The different considerations
evaluate a role in terms of the expertise and knowledge
necessary for professional work, the task demands, the overall
arrangement and responsibility/accountability involved. Each
element is assigned a point value, and the number of these
points reflects the job's overall point value.
Fundamental evaluation guidelines:
The fundamental principles for judging each occupation
are as follows:
1. The present work is judged independently of whether the
role might be in the future or may have been in the past.
2. The position is judged, not the employee. Each consideration
is evaluated on the basis of the job being done competently.
Assessing the work holder's own results against the
appropriate norm is a completely different exercise and is not
used in the job appraisal ranking.
The factors that affect job evaluation: the task assessment
scheme takes the following considerations into consideration:
occasionally, small terminology modifications are made to
identify variables and thresholds in order to best match the
approach with the client's culture and climate. Where this is
achieved, extreme caution is exercised to ensure that inter-
organizational continuity is not jeopardized.
1. Know-how – the expertise, ability, and experience necessary
to succeed at a normal appropriate level. It takes into account
the requisite technological and professional knowledge,
qualifications, and experience, as well as the amount of
preparation and organization required, as well as the need to
collaborate for and with others
2. Problem solving – the logic necessary for analyzing,
assessing, making, arguing, arriving at, and drawing
conclusions; the extent to which this thinking is prescriptive or
limited by standards; and the degree of original thought
required.
3. Accountability – the extent of which an employee is kept
responsible for his or her actions and their effects. It is the
job's quantifiable effect on end outcomes. The ability to behave
freely as determined by the presence or absence of restrictions
imposed by supervisors, boards, and policies, as well as the
effect of such activity on the organisation. The following exhibit
illustrates the three aspects of transparency.
4. Education - the degree of formal education necessary to
fulfill the duties required of a profession. Since knowledge and
expertise often overlap, it is frequently prudent to determine
the skill degree required of a new candidate hired externally.
5. Expertise - the duration of practical experience and the
scope of necessary technical/managerial familiarity. This
experience complements traditional schooling.
6. Complexity – calculated in terms of (a) the time necessary
to understand and respond to particular work conditions, (b)
the degree to which job roles are specified and obey existing
and predictable trends, and (c) the level of thought required to
react to constantly evolving circumstances and initiate new
organizational strategy.
7. Job variety - the difficulty and scope of employment are
often linked to the degree of knowledge and expertise needed
for a career. The points assigned to each of these criteria are
determined by applying a percentage ranking to the total of the
points obtained from the education and experience
evaluations.
8. Oversight received - the level to which the job holder is
supervised, directed, or guided, and the degree to which the
executive is free to behave.
9. Authority exerted - the extent to which authority is
exercised in terms of regular expenditures, capital
expenditures and acquisitions, loan granting, recruiting and
dismissing workers, and so forth.
Process of job evaluation
Employment evaluation is a technique used in
organizations to rate workers according to the roles and
obligations delegated to them. The work assessment phase
results in the assignment of a pay grade to a job. Each pay
grade has a pay range specified by a minimum and maximum
pay scale.
Employment details - the position boss assigns
responsibilities and prepares the job summary. Where there is
an incumbent employee, the document is reviewed and signed
by all parties. If necessary, human resources may include
instructions and supplementary assistance. The work
description is a snapshot of the job as it now appears,
reflecting the job's and/or the incumbent's existing roles and
obligations.
Step two – approval – the vice president evaluates work
descriptions and, if satisfied, signs off on the tasks,
specifications, and organizational structure found in a job
application submitted for new assessment. If the vice president
does not agree with the description's contents, it is referred to
the supervisor for revisions.
Step three – analysis- prior to the work description being
evaluated by the job evaluation committee, human resources
shares it with the boss (step 4). Human resources contribute to
work definition and title continuity and fairness by editing
them for accuracy and style. While modifications are made by
the human resources office, the job title is returned to the boss
and vice president for signature before being submitted to the
performance evaluation committee (step 4).
Step four – evaluation – the job evaluation committee (jec) is a
multi-member committee comprised of personnel from around
the organisation. Representatives are selected by the staff
salary administration committee (ssac). Jec guarantees work
fairness through the use of defined, clear performance
standards and avoids job evaluation grade escalation through
the validation of improvements in job material submitted for
examination. Members of jec undergo extensive instruction on
task assessment and conduct assessments using a clear point
structure.
Confirmation – ssac verifies both work reviews and title
recommendations made by jec. This committee is comprised of
the vice presidents of the slcc, the human resources chief, and
other appropriate co-opted experts. Following confirmation of
the evaluation job description, ssac informs the supervisor of
the evaluation's outcome and title. The supervisor then informs
the employee of the job evaluation's outcome.
Concept of marketing management
Marketing management discovers market prospects and
develops effective plans for profitably exploiting those
opportunities. It is responsible for implementing marketing
programs and constantly evaluating the success of the
marketing blend. It must address observed shortcomings in the
practical implementation of marketing strategies, regulations,
and procedures. It is responsible for the enterprise's marketing
scheme.
Management is the practice of organizing and
completing tasks in an orderly and productive manner.
Marketing administration is concerned with the effective
conduct of marketing operations. Marketing management
enables the transfer of possession of products and services
from manufacturer to customer to be as seamless as possible.
Marketing management, like many other functions of
management, entails the arranging, organizing, managing,
scheduling, and monitoring of activities.
Definition
The institute of marketing management and Philip
Kotler provide this information.
Historically, markets were seen as a venue for the sale
of products and services between sellers and consumers,
benefiting all parties. Marketing is now described as the
exchanging of values between a seller and a buyer. Value
denotes the intrinsic value of the products and services traded.
The customer would pay for the items if they are valuable to
him.
Characteristics:
1 Managerial Mechanism
Marketing management is a managerial mechanism
that entails preparing, organizing, making decisions,
forecasting, managing, coordinating, and governing.
Management, according to Stanley Vance, is the mechanism of
decision-making and regulation. Any part of marketing, from
determining the consumer's needs and desires to defining the
target audience, product preparation, growth, pricing,
promotion, and delivery, involves strategy, decision-making,
coordination, and management.
2. Customer-oriented:
All campaign efforts are focused on the consumer.
Consumers are kings. Marketing practices are predicated on
the principle of "producing what the market desires." the
primary goal of marketing is to acquire new clients and attract
existing ones. Marketing is tasked with the responsibility of
turning prospective consumers into real customers.
3. Research analysis:
The fundamental role of marketing is to ascertain the
preferences and desires of consumers. This includes constant
and rigorous data collection, study, and reporting on
marketing-related data. This enables management to
comprehend the consumer's expectations, desires, tastes, and
behavior in relation to the firm's marketing combination
techniques. This assists in predicting and preparing planned
actions.
4. Product and service planning and growth:
Marketing entails product and service planning and
development. Organizations make a constant effort to prepare,
produce, and innovate products and services in order to satisfy
evolving customer appetite, interest, and tastes.
5. Establishing a marketing framework:
Marketing practices are not exclusive to the sale and
delivery of products and services from the manufacturer to the
final customer. However, it entails a range of tasks such as
study, growth, and creativity, marketing and advertising, price
decision-making, selling and distribution, consumer experience
management, and after-sales support.
6. Organizational objectives:
All campaign efforts are directed toward achieving the
organization's strategic goals. The marketer crosses the divide
between the organization's net benefit and revenue
maximization goals and the consumer's interest in meeting
needs.
7. Promotional and communication processes:
A business's overall goal is to maximize revenue and
benefit. This will be accomplished by promoting and
communicating the products and services. This marketing
strategy feature allows the company to educate consumers
about the commodity.
8. Activity control:
Brand Management is responsible for activity control.
Marketing management assesses the efficacy of marketing
campaigns in order to determine the marketing personnel's and
plans' performance. This method entails comparing real output
to the baseline, finding anomalies, and correcting them.
Importance of marketing management
Marketing Management enables the transfer of
possession of products and services from supplier to customer
to be as simple as possible.
1. Business analysis:
Brand Management gathers and analyzes data on
customer desires, wishes, and requests, competitive marketing
campaigns, and evolving market patterns and consumer tastes.
This aids in the identification of business openings.
2. Target market identification:
Marketing Management assists a company in
determining the target market to which it wants to sell the
goods.
3. Planning and decision making:
Marketing policy aides in the development of future
strategies. Planning is concerned with the introduction and
diversification of products. Marketing strategy makes price
decisions, sales blend selection, and delivery channel selection.
4. Customer creation:
Consumers decide the market's future. As a result,
marketing's primary objective is to have the right product for
the customer based on their preferences. Marketing
management aides in the acquisition of potential clients and
the retaining of existing ones.
5. Contributes to profit growth:
Marketing addresses the diverse and limitless demands
of customers. Marketing management contributes to benefit
and product volume development. This is accomplished by
market penetration and consumer acquisition.
6. Enhancement of quality of life:
Marketing management seeks to provide consumers
with new products and services. Marketers are always striving
to integrate emerging technologies and mechanisms into their
products in order to have greater consumer loyalty than ever
before. This increases customers' quality of living and
simplifies their lives.
7. Employment opportunities:
The marketing process entails a variety of practices,
including market analysis to ascertain the business climate,
product preparation and growth, advertising, product delivery
to consumers, and after-sales support. The marketing method
necessitates the services of a researcher, a manufacturing
engineer, various logistics intermediaries, and sales staff, as
well as creating job openings in the advertising section.
Components of the marketing mix
Creating the optimal marketing mix for the good or
service requires an appreciation of the marketing ps.
The four ps in marketing

The four p's of marketing mix

Product
 A product is a physical item (such as music players or
shoes) or a facility (such as hotels or airlines) that is sold as
a response to a customer's need. When designing a
product, you must understand its life cycle and prepare for
the many obstacles that can exist along the way. Once a
commodity hits its end (sales decline phase), it's time to
redesign it in order to reclaim consumer demand.
Price
The amount your buyer is able to pay for your goods is
the next component of the marketing mix. This will decide
the amount of benefit you will earn. When determining the
price of your goods, weigh the cost of production, the price
ranges of your rivals, and the perceived value of the
product.
Place
This section discusses the product's delivery center and
the processes utilized to provide it to the consumer. It
should be conveniently available to the consumer
regardless of where it is located. For instance, if you have a
physical shop, it should be readily accessible to customers.
If you own a website for the purpose of marketing your
items, ensure that it is simple to navigate.
Promotion
The term "promotion" applies to the strategies a
company employs to attract consumers' interest to their
goods. These activities include promotional marketing,
customer support, public relations, and publicity, among
others. Consider your rivals' strategies, the most successful
platforms for targeting your clients, and whether they align
with the perceived appeal of your commodity while
developing your promotion plan.
Strategies for marketing
To affect purchasing behavior, content marketing
prioritizes education over sales. This strategic
communication strategy is focused on developing and
disseminating knowledge pertinent to prospects' interests
in order to target those that are more associated with —
and willing to buy — the product or service. Due to the
continuing nature of contact, material should be
customized to show what you hear about leads over time
and can take the form of info graphics, WebPages,
podcasts, images, journals, white papers, webinars, and
eBooks. It's important to understand that content
marketing is distinct from inbound marketing (more on
inbound below). Although content marketing is critical to
an overall inbound approach, it does not include other
marketing methodologies to optimize the importance of
content.
Inbound marketing
By far the most successful b2b marketing approach,
inbound capitalizes on the capabilities of the plurality of
the other nine to draw, connect, and entertain consumers.
Unlike conventional marketing tactics — or indeed those of
the other campaigns discussed here — inbound marketing
wins consumers' interest and draws them to a business's
website through the creation of relevant material. Since
inbound welcomes travelers in rather than annoying them
with interruptive conventional ads, since content is
important and occurs in the right spot at the right moment.
Social media marketing
Social networking marketing relies on connecting people
with useful information that they choose to spread through
their social networks, and exposure and traffic. Social
media shares of content, photographs, and photos often
have an impact on seo activities because they often improve
relevancy in search results on social networking platforms
such as face book, twitter, LinkedIn, YouTube, and
Instagram, as well as on search engines such as Google
and yahoo.
Search engine optimization
seo is the method of growing visibility of — and access
to — a specific website by ensuring that it ranks in the
highest unpaid (or "natural") search results on search
engines such as Google, bing!, and yahoo. Although there is
a widespread misconception that seo is a stand-alone
marketing technique, it is achieved by a combination of
strategies and is critical to a successful inbound marketing
campaign.
Search engine marketing/ppc
SEM, or search engine marketing, is a technique that
businesses use to increase website traffic via paid online
ads. Pay-per-click (ppc) links are a very common form of
SEM. In essence, a business purchases or "sponsors" a
connect that occurs as an advertisement in search engine
results for keywords specific to their product or service.
Account based marketing and retargeting
Account based marketing (abm) is a b2b approach that
utilizes extremely tailored strategies to reach a specific
group of accounts. It has a host of benefits for marketing
and sales departments, including a quicker sales process,
cost effectiveness, and more productive usage of marketing
capital. Despite all of the stuff that abm is, it's important to
note that abm is not synonymous with focused outbound
 marketing. It's much more strategic, using techniques such
as web retargeting to tailor marketing activities.
Retargeting makes use of browser cookie technologies to
recognise users who accessed the site but did not complete
a purchase or conversion (or "bounced"). The cookie
enables tailored ads to appear in future page searches and
encounters with certain people, even though they are not
directly linked to your platform. Retargeting is an important
conversion strategy since it places the brand in front of
consumers who are still involved in your product or service
on a consistent basis.
Earned media and pr
Earned media (or "free media") is attention generated by
non-paid promotional campaigns. Earned publicity can
take several ways — a social media testimonial, word of
mouth, a tv or radio mention, a newspaper story or editorial
— but one thing is constant: earned media is unpaid and
can only be obtained organically. It cannot be purchased or
possessed in the same way as conventional ads can.
Referral programs
A referral scheme is a catch-all concept that refers to a
systemic strategy taken by businesses to incentivize customers
to spread the word regarding their goods or services. The aim of
incorporating individual associate services, client referral
programs, and partner programs into a marketing campaign
system is to use the immediate reputation of current
consumers in order to expand a customer base. The terms
"referral services" and "referral marketing" are often used
interchangeably.
Paid media advertising
Paid media is a technique that businesses use to increase
website traffic through paid ads. Pay-per-click (ppc)
connections are one of the more common ways. In essence, a
business purchases or "sponsors" a connect that occurs as an
advertisement in search engine results for keywords specific to
their product or service (this process is commonly known as
search engine marketing, or sem). Any time the ad is clicked,
the corporation pays a tiny charge to the search engine (or
other third-party host site) — a literal "pay per view."
Internet marketing
Internet marketing, or internet marketing, is a method of
advertising and driving e-commerce purchases that
incorporates the network and email. Additionally, social
networking sites can be used to enhance brand visibility and
advertise goods and services. These campaigns are usually
combined with more conventional forms of advertisement such
as radio, television, and print.
Email marketing
email marketing is an extremely efficient method of
nurturing and converting leads. However, whether or not the
mail is filtered as spam is not a matter of chance. Other than
that, email marketing is a computerized mechanism that
addresses particular prospects and consumers in order to
influence their buying decisions. Since email marketing
effectiveness is calculated in terms of accessible and click-
through rates, approach is critical, much more so when utilized
as part of a broader internet marketing campaign.
Direct selling
Direct sale entails distributing and selling goods directly
to customers. In this model, sales agents develop personal
connections with customers by exhibiting and marketing goods
outside of store environments, usually in the customer's house
(e.g., Amway, Avon, Herbalife, and Mary key).
Point-of-purchase marketing (pop)
Point-of-purchase (or pop) advertisement targets a
captive audience — customers who are still in-store and
preparing to buy. Brand advertisements, on-package
discounts, shelf talkers touting the virtues of the product, and
other attention-getting "sizzle" also sway purchasing decisions
at the shelf by rendering a deal clearly too nice — and clear —
to pass up.
 CHAPTER - 3
Strategic management - an introduction
Strategic management is all about identifying and
describing the tactics that administrators should use to
improve their organization's efficiency and competitive
advantage. A business is said to have a competitive edge if its
profitability exceeds the market average.
Additionally, strategic management can be described as
a collection of decisions and actions taken by a manager that
determine the outcome of the firm's success. To make sound
choices, the manager must provide a clear understanding and
interpretation of the general and competitive corporate context.
They should perform a SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weakness,
Opportunities, and Threats), i.e., they should maximize the
usage of organizational strengths, eliminate organizational
weaknesses, capitalize on market climate opportunities, and
avoid ignoring threats.
Strategic preparation is little other than contingency
preparing with both predictable and improbable events. It is
applicable to all small and large organisations, since even the
smallest organizations experience rivalry and may achieve a
sustainable competitive edge by developing and executing
suitable strategies.
Definition and features of a strategy
The term "strategy" derives from the Greek word
"strategies," which combines the words stratus (meaning army)
and ago (meaning leading/moving).
A strategy is a course of action taken by management in order
to accomplish one or more of the organization's objectives.
Additionally, strategy can be described as "a broad path
developed for the organization and its various components in
order to achieve a desired state in the future." the strategy is
the product of a thorough strategic analysis process”.
A policy is concerned with coordinating management
operations and with using and allocating finite capital within
the organizational setting in order to accomplish current goals.
When developing a policy, it is important to keep in mind that
no choice is made in a vacuum and that any move taken by a
business would almost certainly elicit a response from those
involved, whether rivals, consumers, staff, or suppliers.
Additionally, strategy can be described as an awareness
of one's objectives, the volatility of circumstances, and the need
to understand the possible or real actions of others. Strategy is
the blueprint for an organization’s decisions; it specifies the
business the corporation can conduct, the kind of economic
and human organization it wishes to be, and the commitment
it intends to provide to its owners, consumers, and community
at large.
Features of strategy
a. Strategy is critical since the future cannot be predicted.
Without perfect foresight, businesses must be prepared
to cope with the unpredictable incidents that make up
their corporate world.
b. Strategy is concerned with long-term trends rather than
normal processes, i.e. The likelihood of potential
technologies or new goods, alternative manufacturing
processes, or international markets.
c. The strategy is developed with the anticipated actions of
consumers and rivals in mind. Employee-related
strategies can forecast employee behavior.
a strategy is an organization's well-defined path map. It
establishes an organization's overarching purpose, vision, and
path. A strategy's goal is to optimize an organization's
strengths while minimizing the rivals' strengths.
In a nutshell, strategy crosses the divide between "where we
are" and "where we want to be."
Components of a strategy statement
a business's strategy plan establishes the organization's
long-term strategic path and general policy objectives. It
provides the firm with a good sense of purpose and a road map
for the coming years' operations. The below are the primary
components of a strategic statement:
1. Strategic intent
The strategic purpose of a company is the reason for its
existence and that it can continue to operate, provided it has a
competitive edge. Strategic purpose paints an image of the
areas in which an organisation must immediately invest in
order to realize its goal. It serves as a motivator for the
populace. It clarifies the company's vision.
Strategic aim enables management to prioritize and
focus on key objectives. Strategic purpose is nothing more than
the manipulation of an organization's capital potential and core
competencies in order to accomplish what might first seem to
be unattainable objectives in a competitive world. A well-stated
strategic aim can guide/steer the formulation of strategic
purpose or the establishment of priorities and objectives that
include complete management of the organization's
competencies.
2. Mission statement
The mission statement articulates the purpose with
which an organisation exists: to represent its stakeholders. It
explains that an organisation exists and hence serves as a
basis for developing strategies. It defines what the company
does (i.e., the current capabilities), how it represents (i.e.,
stakeholders), and what distinguishes the organization from
others (i.e., reason for existence).
A mission statement distinguishes a company from
another by describing the scope of its operations, the goods it
produces, and the innovations it employs to accomplish its
aims and objectives. It discusses an organization's current
state (i.e., "where we are"). For example, Microsoft's goal is to
assist individuals and companies worldwide in reaching their
maximum potential. Wal-mission mart's statement is "to allow
average citizens to purchase the same things as wealthy
people." although mission statements are often made at the
highest level of an organisation, they may also be produced at
lower organizational levels. The chief executive officer is critical
in developing the vision statement. Once created, the mission
statement benefits the company in the long term, but it can
become vague as the organization grows and innovates.
Missions can need to be redefined in today's complex
and competitive world. However, caution should be exercised to
ensure that the redefined purpose statement maintains the
original fundamentals/components. A mission statement is
composed of three components: a statement of the company's
mission or vision, a statement of the fundamental principles
that guide employees' actions and behavior, and a statement of
the company's priorities and objectives.
Features of a mission
 The mission must be attainable and practicable. It
should be feasible to do.
 The mission statement should be precise so that
some steps may be taken.
 It can serve as an inspiration to managers, workers,
and culture as a whole.
 It should be sufficiently descriptive, i.e., not too
wide nor too small.
 It should be original and different in order to make
an impression on others.
 It can be empirical, analyzing the strategy's main
elements.
 It should be trustworthy, in the sense that it should
be believed by all stakeholders.
3. Vision
a mission statement articulates where an agency wishes
to be or plans to be in the future, or where it can be to better
serve its stakeholders. It expresses hopes for the future. For
example, Microsoft's mission statement is "to empower people
through great apps, regardless of time, location, or platform."
Wal-mission mart's is to become the world's largest retailer.
 a perception is the capacity to anticipate events. It
provides a response to the query, "where do we want to be?" it
serves as a reminder of the goals we strive to achieve. In
contrast to the purpose statement, which is written for the
customers/clients, a vision statement is written for the
organisation and its stakeholders. It aids in effective decision-
making and corporate planning. It integrates a common view of
the organization's existence and mission and uses that
understanding to direct and guide the organization toward a
more fulfilling purpose. It explains how the corporate future
would look to be if the task is accomplished.
A vision statement that is meaningful must possess the
following characteristics:
i. It must be unambiguous.
ii. It must be unambiguous.
iii. It must be consistent with the ethos and traditions of
the institution.
iv. Expectations and dreams must be rational/realistic.
v. Vision explanations can be concise in order to be more
easily memorized.
vi. To be realized, the idea must be profoundly ingrained in
the organisation, owned and expressed with all
stakeholders.
4. Objectives and goals
an aim is an ideal state of affairs or purpose that an
entity strives to accomplish. Goals define precisely what
actions must be taken in order for an organisation to
accomplish its goal or vision. Goals help to render the task
more visible and concrete. They coordinate and merge an
organization's different organizational and departmental zones.
Well-crafted targets exhibit the following characteristics:
i. They are precise and quantifiable.
ii. These are tasked with the responsibility of addressing
important and serious problems.
iii. These are both practical and difficult.
iv. These objectives must be met within a specified time
period.
v. They are comprised in both financial and non-
financial elements.
Objectives are described as the objectives that an
organisation wishes to accomplish within a specified time span.
These are the pillars upon which preparation is built. Policies
are created within an agency to accomplish certain goals. The
role of top management is to formulate goals.
Effective goals exhibit the following characteristics: -
a. These are not exclusive to an organisation, but are
several.
 b. Objectives can be both short- and long-term in nature.
c. Objectives must be adaptable to and responsive to shifts
in the climate, i.e., they must be malleable.
d. These must be feasible, logical, and feasible to
implement.
Strategic management process -
Strategic management entails formulating an
organization's approach. Additionally, it is described as the
mechanism by which managers choose from a collection of
organizational strategies that will allow the company to perform
better.
Strategic management is a continual mechanism that
evaluates the organization's business and sectors, evaluates its
rivals, establishes goals to compete against both current and
potential competitors, and then reassesses each approach.
The method of strategic management consists of the
following four steps:
1. Environmental scanning- environmental scanning is a term
that applies to the method of gathering, scrutinizing, and
distributing data for strategic purposes. It aids in the analysis
of an organization's internal and external causes. Following
implementation of the environmental analysis method,
management can continuously assess it and aim to enhance it.
2. Strategy formulation-strategy formulation is the method of
determining the most effective plan of action for achieving
operational goals and thereby achieving organizational intent.
Managers develop corporate, market, and practical plans after
completing an atmosphere scan.
3. Plan implementation-strategy implementation entails
ensuring that the approach is carried out effectively by bringing
the organization's chosen strategy into place. Implementing a
strategy entails structuring the organisation, allocating money,
implementing decision-making processes, and overseeing
human resources.
4. Strategy evaluation- the next phase in the strategy
implementation method is strategy evaluation. The primary
activities of strategy assessment are to assess the internal and
external influences that influence current policies, to measure
results, and to take remedial / corrective steps. Evaluation
ensures that the management plan and its execution are
consistent with the organization's goals.
Steps in the process of strategic formulation
The term "strategic formulation" relates to the method
of determining the most effective course of action for achieving
corporate priorities and priorities and thereby realizing the
organizational vision. The method of developing a plan consists
essentially of six major phases. Although these measures do
not always adopt a linear sequence, they are very rational and
can be readily implemented in this order.
1. Establishing the organization's long-term objectives -
A critical part of every policy statement is establishing
the organization's long-term goals. It is well established that
planning is, in general, a vehicle for achieving corporate goals.
Although objectives emphasize the condition of being there,
strategy emphasizes the method of getting there. The term
"strategy" refers to both the determination of goals and the
medium by which such objectives can be accomplished. Thus,
policy is a broader concept that refers to the way in which
resources are allocated in order to accomplish goals.
2. Evaluating the organizational climate -
The next phase is to assess the organization's general
economic and industrial environment. This provides a
comparative analysis of the organisation. Conducting a
qualitative and quantitative analysis of an organization's
current product line is critical. The aim of such a review is to
ensure that the critical variables affecting competitive
competitiveness in the industry can be identified, allowing
management to recognise both their own and their competitors'
strengths and weaknesses.
3. Quantitative targets -
In this process, an organisation would practically
establish the quantitative goal values for a subset of its goals.
The purpose of this is to compare to long-term customers in
order to determine the impact that different product zones or
operating departments can make.
4. Aligning goals with divisional strategies -
in this process, the contributions of each group,
division, or product segment within the enterprise are defined,
and strategic preparation for each sub-unit is completed
appropriately. This necessitates an in-depth examination of
macroeconomic patterns.
5. Performance analysis -
Performance analysis entails identifying and assessing
the discrepancy between actual and expected performance. The
company must conduct a critical assessment of its historical
success, current state, and desired future state. This crucial
assessment examines the degree to which a disconnect exists
between the organization's present realities and its long-term
goals. The company makes an effort to forecast its likely future
state if existing patterns continue.
6. Strategy selection -
This is the last phase in the strategy formulation
process. The optimal course of action is determined by taking
into account operational objectives, organizational capabilities,
capacity, and constraints, as well as external opportunities.
Strategy implementation -
The execution of a plan is the process of translating a
desired strategy into operational activity in order to accomplish
strategic priorities and objectives. Additionally, strategy
execution is characterized as the process through which an
entity develops, utilizes, and integrates its organizational
framework, control structures, and culture in order to pursue
strategies that result in a competitive advantage and improved
efficiency. The organizational framework assigns workers
special value-creating tasks and responsibilities and specifies
how these tasks and roles can be coordinated to optimize
productivity, consistency, and consumer satisfaction—the
three foundations of competitive advantage. However, corporate
framework alone is insufficient to inspire workers.
The following are the primary measures of putting a plan
into action:
Developing an organization having potential of carrying out
strategy successfully.
Disbursement of abundant resources to strategy-essential
activities.
Creating strategy-encouraging policies.
Employing best policies and programs for constant
improvement.
Linking reward structure to accomplishment of results.
Making use of strategic leadership.
Also, the best-crafted tactics can struggle if they are not
executed properly. Additionally, policy execution is impossible
without stability within the strategy and each organizational
dimension, such as organizational framework, incentive
structure, resource-allocation mechanism, and so on.
Strategy formulation vs strategy implementation
Following are the main differences between strategy
formulation and strategy implementation-
Strategy Formulation Strategy Implementation
Strategy formulation entails The term "strategy
the preparation and decision- implementation" refers to any
making processes associated of the processes involved in
with the development of an carrying out strategic
organization's strategic strategies.
priorities and objectives.
In a nutshell, strategy In a nutshell, strategy
formulation is the process of implementation is the process
prioritizing the forces over the of controlling powers during
operation. an operation.
Strategize is an Strategic implementation is
entrepreneurial activity that is mostly an administrative
focused on strategic decision- function that is guided by
making. strategic and organizational
decisions.
The formulation of strategies The implementation of a
places a premium on efficacy. strategy places a premium on
productivity.
Formulating a strategy is a Implementing a strategy is
logical operation. essentially an organizational
procedure.
Coordination among a few Coordination among
individuals is needed for numerous individuals is
strategy formulation. required for strategy
implementation.
Formulating a strategy Implementing a strategy
involves a high level of effort includes particular motivating
and analytical ability. and leadership
characteristics.
Prior to implementing a Strategy execution occurs
strategy, it must be after strategy formulation.
formulated.
The process of strategy evaluation and its importance
Strategy evaluation is almost as important as strategy
development since it sheds light on the systematic plans'
performance and success in producing the intended outcomes.
Managers should often evaluate the new strategy's suitability
in today's complex landscape of socioeconomic, political, and
technical advances. The final step of strategic assessment is
strategic evaluation.
The importance of strategy assessment is in its ability
to coordinate the work of supervisors, organisations, and
teams, among others, by performance management. Strategic
evaluation is critical for a variety of reasons, including the
provision of inputs for new strategic planning, the need for
guidance, assessment, and compensation, the development of
the strategic management method, and determining the validity
of strategic preference.
The evaluation of a strategy entails the following steps:
-1. Fixing benchmark of performance -
While fixing the benchmark, strategists encounter
questions such as - what benchmarks to set, how to set them
and how to express them. To establish the benchmark value to
be used, it is critical to ascertain the unique criteria for
executing the primary mission. The performance metric that
better captures and expresses the unique criteria may then be
used for assessment. The company should measure results
comprehensively using both quantitative and qualitative
metrics. Quantitative criteria include calculating net profit,
return on investment, earnings per share, cost of revenue, and
employee turnover rate, among others. Qualitative
considerations provide quantitative assessments of factors
such as abilities and competencies, risk-taking capacity, and
adaptability.
2. Measurement of performance -
The standard performance is a bench mark with which
the actual performance is to be compared. The monitoring and
contact systems aid in success evaluation. When suitable
performance measurement tools are accessible and appropriate
criteria are established, strategy assessment becomes simpler.
However, some variables, such as manager contributions, are
impossible to quantify. Similarly, divisional success is often
more complex to quantify than person performance.
3. Variance analysis -
by contrasting real results to normal performance, there
can be variances that may be evaluated. The strategists must
specify the range of acceptable deviations between real and
standard results. Positive variance means superior efficiency,
although it is very rare to consistently surpass the mark.
Negative deviations are grounds for alarm since they suggest
an output deficit.
4. Taking corrective action -
 after a performance deviation has been detected, it is
critical to develop a strategy for corrective action. If results
regularly falls short of the target level, strategists must conduct
a systematic review of the factors contributing to this
underperformance. If the strategists determine that the
corporate capacity does not meet the efficiency criteria, they
must lower the expectations.
SWOT analysis -
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats are
abbreviations for SWOT. By design, strengths (s) and
weaknesses (w) are internal variables on which you exert some
influence. Additionally, opportunities (o) and threats (t) are
described as external factors about which you have little
influence.
SWOT analysis is the most widely used technique for
auditing and analyzing a business's overall competitive status
and relationship to the climate. Its primary objective is to
define techniques for developing a firm-specific business model
that better aligns an organization's capital and skills with the
specifications of the world in which the organization works.
In other terms, it serves as the basis for assessing
internal capacity and constraints, as well as probable/likely
external opportunities and risks. It considers both positive and
negative influences affecting the firm's performance, both
internal and external. Consistent analysis of the world in which
the business works aids in forecasting/predicting emerging
patterns and often aids in incorporating them into the
organization's decision-making method.
Below is a summary of the four variables (strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats).
1. Strengths - strengths are the characteristics that allow us
to carry out the purpose of the company. This is the pillars
upon which future progress may be built and maintained.
There are two types of strengths: visible and intangible. There
are the areas of which you are knowledgeable or have
experience, the characteristics and skills that your workers
embody (both personally and collectively), and the
distinguishing characteristics that offer the company its
continuity.
Strengths are an organization's advantageous
characteristics or strengths, which involve human capabilities,
operation capabilities, financial capacity, goods and services,
consumer goodwill, and brand loyalty. Significant financial
capital, a diverse product portfolio, no loans, and dedicated
staff are also examples of corporate strengths.
2. Weaknesses - weaknesses are the characteristics that keep
us from fulfilling our purpose and realizing our maximum
potential. These flaws have a detrimental effect on the
organization's performance and development. Weaknesses are
certain elements that do not live up to the expectations we
believe they can.
A company's weaknesses which include depreciating
equipment, inadequate research and development facilities, a
limited product selection, and poor decision-making.
Weaknesses should be overcome. They must be reduced to a
minimum and replaced entirely. For starters, new machinery
may be bought to replace outdated machinery. Other corporate
shortcomings include massive deficits, high staff turnover,
complicated decision-making processes, a limited product
selection, and significant raw material waste.
3. Opportunities - our company faces opportunities as a result
of the world in which we work. This occurs as a company may
use the dynamics in its climate to develop and implement
techniques that increase its profitability. By capitalizing on
openings, organizations will achieve a strategic edge.
Organizations must exercise caution to consider and
seize resources when they occur. Selecting goals that are both
beneficial to the customer and achieve the intended outcomes
is a daunting challenge. Markets, innovation,
industry/government, and technologies both present
opportunities. Increased demand for telecommunications
coupled with deregulation presents an excellent opportunity for
new companies to join the telecom market and contend for
sales with established firms.
4. Threats - threats occur as external factors jeopardize the
organization's capacity to do business reliably and profitably.
They exacerbate the vulnerability by relating to the flaws.
Threats are inescapable. When vulnerability occurs, the
security and sustainability of the community can be
jeopardized. Examples of risks include employee unrest; ever-
changing technology; rising inflation, which results in surplus
energy, market wars, and decreased business profits; and
others.
The benefits of SWOT analysis
SWOT analysis is critical in the development and
selection of strategies. It is a powerful method, but it contains a
significant subjective component. It is most effective when used
as a reference, not a drug. Successful companies capitalize on
their assets, address their shortcomings, and safeguard
themselves from internal and external risks. Additionally, they
track their overall market climate and identify and capitalize on
potential prospects quicker than their rivals.
SWOT analysis aids in strategic planning in the
following ways:
 i.It provides data for strategic planning.
ii.Strengthens the organisation.
iii. Overcome the flaws.
iv. Maximize the ability to capitalize on openings.
v. Defeat the organization's adversaries.
vi. It assists in identifying the firm's core competencies.
vii. It aids in the formulation of strategic planning objectives.
viii. It assists in establishing a link with the history, present,
and future in order to develop future planning based on
historical and existing evidence.
Corporate planning features:
corporate planning is a comprehensive system of
planning that entails establishing objectives for the company
as a whole and for each department within it; developing
strategies to accomplish these objectives (all of this is done
against the backdrop of a SWOT analysis); converting strategies
into tactical plans (or operational plans); implementing tactical
plans and doing a re-evaluation.
Analysis of the above definition:
On the basis of the above description, the following are the
primary characteristics of corporate planning:
1) Corporate strategy is a comprehensive method of
planning that establishes concept goals for the
organization as a whole and for each of the
departments. This ensures that no branch of the
corporation is permitted to provide its own separate
preparation under the corporate planning principle.
Corporate preparation incorporates all departmental
plans into a single framework.
2) To accomplish the corporate preparation goals, policy
development is carried out. Corporate preparation is
fundamentally about strategy design. Corporate
preparation performance is contingent upon the
success of policy formulation.
3) Determination of corporate development priorities and
policy design – these are carried out in the context of a
SWOT review.
4) Strategies are transformed (or converted) into
comprehensive tactical plans (or operating plans).
5) Tactical strategies are implemented at the appropriate
times, as determined by management. This is the more
pragmatic side of corporate strategy.
6) The performance of tactical strategies is evaluated in
terms of strategic planning priorities in order to make
appropriate adjustments to the corporate planning
framework and to conduct more effective corporate
planning in the future.
Value chain analysis
Value chain analysis is a technique for physically
analyzing a firm's operations in order to determine if the
business may gain a strategic edge. Value chain research
enables a business to comprehend how it brings value to
something and, therefore, how it may market the commodity or
service at a profit margin greater than the expense of adding
value. In other terms, if they are managed properly, the profit
gained can outweigh the costs of operation, i.e. Consumers
should return and trade openly and happily with the
organization.
Value chain research, coined in the 1980s by Michael
porter, is the conceptualization of value-added in the context of
a value chain. He advocated for a division of an organization's
operations into 'main activities' and 'support activities. As
suggested by porter's value chain analysis model, the following
figure divides activities into primary and support activities:
1) Create immediately *
2) The value system and the value chain
3) The value of a commodity is the overall sum (i.e. Total
revenue) that consumers are able to pay for it. The
margin is calculated as the gap between the total
benefit and the total expense of running all of the firm's
operations.
4) Margin means that companies earn a net margin based
on their willingness to handle the interconnections of all
supply chain operations. In other terms, the company is
capable of delivering a good or service for which the
consumer is prepared to spend more than the total
expense of all supply chain operations.
5) A value chain is a series of activities that begin with the
acquisition of raw materials and end with the
processing of such raw materials into finished products
or services. The origins of a firm's competitive edge can
be found in its distinct operations and their
interactions. Value chain analysts' overall aim is to
optimize value generation while simultaneously tracking
and minimizing costs.
Fundamental value chain analysis concepts
The mechanism through which most organisations
translate inputs to outputs involves hundreds, if not
thousands, of operations. These practices may be broadly
categorized as main or support activities that all companies
may perform in any capacity.
Primary functions
Primary practices are those that are closely related to
the creation and delivery of a substance. They are classified
as follows: inbound logistics, operations, outbound logistics,
promotion and distribution, and support. - of these primary
activities is accompanied by secondary activities that
contribute to their efficacy or efficiency; and porter (1985)
defines the main practices as follows:
Logistics inbound
Refers to products purchased from the organization's
manufacturers and utilized in the manufacturing process.
Operations manufacturing is the process by which raw
materials and goods are transformed into a finished product.
If the commodity progresses along the assembly line, it gains
value. Once the goods are made, they are eligible for shipment
to distribution centers, wholesalers, stores, or consumers.
Outbound logistics is the term used to describe the
distribution of finished products.
Marketing and sales
Marketing must ensure that the product is directed at the
appropriate consumer segment. The marketing mix is used to
develop a successful strategy; any strategic benefit is
conveyed clearly to the target audience through the
promotional mix.
Providers
Since the product/service is sold, what kind of
assistance does the organization have to its customers? This
may include post-sale preparation, assurances, and
warranties. Any or a combination of the above practices are
needed if the firm is to develop the "economic edge" porter
discusses in his book.
Activities in assistance
Relationship between primary and secondary activities
As previously stated, main activities explicitly
contribute importance to the manufacturing process,
although they are not often more essential than support
activities. Nowadays, comparative advantage is mostly
determined by technical advancements or new market
concepts or procedures. As a result, support operations such
as 'information systems’, ‘research and development', or
'general management' are often the primary source of
distinction benefit. On the other side, main tasks typically
have the greatest cost benefit, since costs can be readily
detected and controlled for each task.
Strategic alternatives of various types
The process of strategy formulation entails identifying
actions that a company should adopt to meet success goals,
weaken rivals, gain a strategic edge, and ensure the
organization's long-term sustainability. In a diversified
organization, defined as one that operates several lines of
business under one roof, initiatives are initiated at four levels.
The tactics at each organizational level are denoted by the
level's name.
There are four types of planning:
a. Corporate level strategy.
b. Business level strategy.
c. Functional level strategy.
d. Operational level strategy.
Corporate-level strategy
A company's policy establishes the industries and
sectors in which it can compete. Corporate strategy is
developed at the highest level by the management of a
diversified business (in our region, a diversified company is
referred to colloquially as a 'community of firms,' such as
alphabet Inc.). This approach articulates the organization's
strategic direction in terms of the different businesses and
product lines.
Corporate strategy establishes long-term priorities and
has a broad impact on all corporate divisions that fall under
its umbrella. For example, p&g's corporate strategies can
include purchasing the major tissue paper companies in
Canada in order to establish itself as the undisputed market
leader. The business approach is a set of competitive options
from which a company decides when it conducts activities
through several sectors and markets concurrently.
Business-level strategy
Business plan establishes the foundations upon which
a business can compete. It is a business-unit-level approach
established by the unit's senior management. This approach
focuses on enhancing a company's strategic advantage in the
market for its goods or services. Competitive and cooperation
tactics are used in business strategies.
The corporate plan encapsulates many of the activities
and tactics used to compete with rivals, as well as the manner
in which management handles different competitive concerns.
As hitt and jones note, corporate strategy is a set of plans of
action that strategic managers use to leverage a company's
strengths and distinguishing capabilities in order to achieve a
competitive edge over competitors in a sector.
Typically, business planning is aligned with
organizational strategy. The corporate approach is primarily
concerned with product creation, creativity, convergence
(vertical and horizontal), consumer development, and
diversification. The strategic approach seeks to achieve a
competitive edge on rivals in the industry.
And competitive advantage arises through tactics that result
in a degree of business uniqueness. Competitive tactics that
succeed are built on a foundation of sustained competitive
advantage.
Differentiation strategy, low-cost strategy, and target
or market-niche strategy are also examples of strategic
strategies. Business management is associated with the
decisions taken by managers to enhance the company's
business competitiveness through consumer satisfaction.
Enhancing market position entails taking steps against
business rivals.
Thus, strategic planning (as opposed to cooperative
strategy) is oriented toward competitors. Competitive
strategy's goal is to attract consumers' hearts by meeting their
desires, and then to outcompete rivals (or competing
companies) and achieve competitive advantages.
The effectiveness of a strategic approach is contingent
upon the company's skills, assets, and shortcomings in
comparison to those of its rivals. Businesses face numerous
strategic issues when conducting business. Management
must resolve both of these challenges successfully in order to
remain competitive. Along with ‘how to compete,' business
management addresses these topics.
A business-level approach is a set of competitive
options from which an enterprise decides when operating in a
specific sector or market. These alternatives allow the
company to concentrate its resources on a specific sector or
sector.
Functional level approach
In fact, a functional approach is the
departmental/divisional strategy for each organizational
purpose. Thus, there could be a strategy for manufacturing, a
strategy for promotion, a strategy for advertising, a strategy
for distribution, a strategy for human resources, a strategy for
inventory, a strategy for financial management, and a strategy
for preparation.
A functional approach is one that focuses on a certain
functional field within an entity. It is designed to help a
business entity accomplish those goals by optimizing resource
efficiency. Functional strategy is occasionally referred to since
departmental strategy, as each market operation is often
assigned to a department.
For instance, a manufacturing company's production
department develops a "production plan" as its departmental
strategy, and the training department develops a "training
strategy" for delivering training to employees. A functional
approach is associated with cultivating a unique capability
that will give a company or unit a competitive edge.
Each corporate entity or organization has its own
collection of divisions, each with its own functional approach.
Functional techniques are implemented to aid in the
execution of a strategic approach.
Benchmarking
Benchmarking is the method of comparing the
company's results to that of comparable businesses in order to
see whether there is a performance difference that can be filled
by enhancing your performance. Examining other businesses
will illuminate what it takes to increase the company's
productivity and place it as a leader in your sector.
The benefits of benchmarking
Through finding places that your company can change
and benchmarking your current results against rivals, your
business can aim to tenfold its execution. By using this method
of benchmarking, companies have been able to achieve
competitive advantages over rivals and grow market averages.
Monitor performance
Benchmarking entails analyzing recent data patterns
and forecasting potential trends based on the objectives. To
determine your performance, benchmarking must be a
continuous operation. Monitoring efficiency is a built-in
function of it.
Perpetual improvement
Along with output monitoring, quality enhancement is a
critical component of benchmarking. This is because
benchmarking is used to enhance a certain aspect of a market.
This improvement should not be a one-off event that is
overlooked, but one that occurs over time and is ongoing.
Planning and goal establishment
After benchmarking, success objectives and
benchmarks are developed in order to maximize performance.
These are fresh, more sustainable objectives for a company,
but they must be attainable. If targets are deemed
unattainable, teams become demotivated, and objectives are
doomed to stay unfulfilled.
Promote ownership
 As businesses examine their operations and metrics,
they must pose difficult questions to obtain all of the necessary
information. This involves communicating with and respecting
the responsibilities of all employees. Through posing these
questions and having a deeper understanding of everyone's
position, it is possible to foster ownership of processes and
results. This translates into workers taking pride in their jobs
and accomplishments. This pride results in improved
production and a higher-quality final product.
Recognize the organization's advantages
Benchmarking establishes the current state of the
business in comparison to the desired state. If you want to
improve every process in your industry, benchmarking is a
method of determining how you can succeed and become more
competitive by detailing the steps necessary to accomplish your
objective.
Process benchmarking
The initial stage of benchmarking is critical to the
operation. Planning entails identifying areas for improvement,
benchmarking yourself against others, and defining the
definition of achievement. Only when this process is complete
should you proceed to the next, since the outcomes of
preparation would concentrate on the data you need to gather
and what progress looks like.
After preparation, benchmarking entails compiling data
on the systems and those of rivals. If you want to increase your
customer care satisfaction ranking, you can consider the
department's procedures, how calls and communication are
handled, and how the department varies from the competition.
Perhaps you should speak with someone in another contact
center or call the center directly to learn about their operations
firsthand. It is critical to collect as much details as possible at
this stage.
Internet analyses
If you believe you have gathered all of the necessary
material, you may begin plotting it and identifying any flaws. At
this stage in the process, it is important to note that no
company is flawless, and you must have an open mind in order
to interpret data critically. Once conclusions begin to emerge,
you will draft a report and begin debating the next steps
necessary to improve results in this field.
Taking steps
Presenting results to a department is never convenient,
perhaps more so as reforms are being proposed. Collecting and
reviewing data is only useful as it enables you to make
progress and improve your business in the process. Acquiring
buy-in from a department will include making compromises, so
ensure that the mvp you present is acceptable and would
certainly result in the success highlighted at the planning
stage.
Monitoring
No schedule is ever full without reviewing the outcome
to ascertain the plan's progress. The implementation process
would have identified key benchmarks and objectives for
progress within a specified time span, and measuring these
indicators and objectives is the best way to determine the
effectiveness of the adjustments. Monitoring should be
conducted over a brief or extended period of time, based on the
intended result.
Benchmarking examples
Procedure comparative study: this method of
benchmarking enables you to have a deeper understanding of
how the procedures stack up against those of competitors in
your business. By examining the procedures of other
businesses in your sector, you will optimize your own to make
them more productive and cost-effective.
Benchmarking strategically:
Related to method benchmarking, strategic
benchmarking is more about optimizing aspects of the
business by comparing them to those in the sector. Strategic
benchmarking is concerned with strategies and the process of
developing a strategy that will allow you to be more successful
in your industry.
Benchmarking performance:
Quality benchmarking is the most difficult method to
improve since it requires both understanding about rival
performance indicators and practices and introducing
improvements to the business's lower-level processes.
Introducing new processes is a difficult task for any company,
as it demands buy-in at several levels. Benchmarking
performance reveals insights that could be impossible to
execute in the market without developing a long-term
transition strategy. This is often the most efficient and
profitable improvements a business may make.
Balancing the scorecard
The balanced scorecard definition is a monitoring and
evaluation framework that allows organisations to define and
implement their vision and plan. The balanced scorecard's
objective is to link company success to corporate strategy by
the measurement of four key performance indicators: financial
performance, consumer awareness, internal business
processes, and learning and development.
The balanced scorecard's background
 in 1992, an essay by Robert Kaplan and David Norton
in the Harvard business review titled "the balanced scorecard -
measures that drive efficiency" garnered widespread
recognition for their approach and resulted in the publication
of their business bestseller, "the balanced scorecard:
translating strategy into action," in 1996.
Financial output is critical to an organization's sustainability.
Also non-profit organisations must manage their finances
prudently. However, a purely financial solution to company
management has two disadvantages:
• It is historically important. Although it provides insight into
the organization's history, it does not provide insight into its
present state. Neither is it a reliable predictor of potential
results.
• It is excessively poor. It is not uncommon for an
organization's actual market valuation to outweigh the market
value of its properties. Tobin's-q is a ratio that expresses the
importance of a company's properties in relation to its stock
value. Excess value is created by intangible assets. This type of
valuation is not quantifiable by conventional financial
statements.
4 perspectives of the balanced scorecard
The balanced scorecard method of Kaplan and Norton is a
strategic approach, and performance management system, that
enables organizations to translate a company's vision and
strategy into implementation, working from 4 perspectives:
1. Financial perspective.
2. Customer perspective.
3. Business process perspective.
4. Learning and growth perspective.
The balanced scorecard forces managers to look at the
business from four important perspectives. It links
performance measures by requiring firms to address four basic
questions:
1. How do customers see us? - customer perspective
2. What must we excel at? - internal perspective
3. Can we continue to improve and create value?
innovation & learning perspective
4. How do we look to shareholders? - financial perspective
This allows the monitoring of present performance, but the
method also tries to capture information about how well the
organization is positioned to perform in the future.
The benefits of using a balanced scorecard
According to Kaplan and Norton, the following gains
accrue from using the balanced scorecard:
1. The financial perspective
 Kaplan and Norton should not ignore the historical
need for financial details. Funding data that is current and
reliable will still be a concern, and administrators will make an
effort to have it. Indeed, financial data is often handled and
processed in an adequate manner. It is hoped that by
implementing a company database, further reporting will be
streamlined and standardized. However, the argument is that
the present focus on financial matters creates an unbalanced
condition from some angles. There might be a need to
incorporate other financial statistics in this category, such as
risk management and cost-benefit analysis.
2. The customer's viewpoint
Recent management theory demonstrates a growing
recognition of the critical nature of consumer focus and loyalty
in every company. This are referred to as leading indicators: if
consumers are dissatisfied, they may ultimately seek out
alternative suppliers. Thus, poor success from this vantage
point serves as a precursor of potential regression. And though
the latest financial situation seems to be (still) favorable.
Customers can be measured by designing retention measures.
In terms of consumer segments and the mechanisms for which
we provide a good or service to those segments.
3. A view of business processes
This viewpoint is oriented around internal company
processes. Measurements taken from this viewpoint will inform
management of the efficiency at which their company operates
and whether their goods and services meet consumer
requirements. These measurements must be specifically
constructed for those that are closely familiar with these
systems. Along with strategic management systems, two
distinct types of market processes can be distinguished:
1) Systems that is mission-driven. Numerous special issues
arise during these procedures.
2) Processes of assistance. Since support systems are more
repetitive, they are simpler to quantify and benchmark.
3) Methods of measuring that are generic should be used.
4) A viewpoint on learning and growth
This viewpoint encompasses staff training and
corporate cultural attitudes toward self-improvement on both a
human and organizational level. People are the primary assets
in a knowledge worker organisation. In today's environment of
rapid technical and economic change, as well as new laws and
regulations, information employees must continually study.
Government departments also struggle to recruit new skilled
staff while still demonstrating a reduction in current workforce
preparation. Kaplan and Norton stress that 'learning'
encompasses more than 'training'; it often involves coaches and
tutors inside the company, as well as the flexibility with which
employees may seek assistance with a challenge when it arises.
Additionally, it encompasses computing resources such as an
intranet.
The incorporation of these four viewpoints into a single
visually pleasing image has contributed significantly to the
balanced scorecard's popularity as a management approach.

Objectives, measures, targets, and initiatives

 CHAPTER - 4
Perception:
Perception is the process of organizing, identifying, and
interpreting sensory data in order to reflect and comprehend
the world.
All vision is mediated by nervous system impulses,
which are induced by physical or chemical activation of the
sense organs.
It is not a passive reception of these signals; rather, it is
influenced by learning, recollection, anticipation, and focus.
The analysis of these perceptual processes
demonstrates that their operation is influenced by three groups
of variables: the stimuli or activities being perceived, the
context in which perception happens, and the person
performing the perceptual task.
How is perception defined?
Perception is dependent on dynamic nervous system
processes but seems to be largely effortless subjectively since
this perception occurs outside of conscious consciousness.
According to Joseph Reitz, perception encompasses
all of the mechanisms by which a person obtains knowledge
about his environment—seeing, listening, sensing, tasting, and
smelling.
Perception, according to s. P. Robbins, is "the
mechanism through which people arrange and perceive
sensory impressions in order to make sense of their
surroundings."
Perception is comprised of the five senses:
 Touch, hearing, taste, and scent. Additionally, it
encompasses what is referred to as vision, a set of
senses that have the capacity to perceive differences in
body positions and gestures.
 Additionally, it entails the neural mechanisms
necessary for knowledge processing, such as
remembering a friend's face or identifying a recognizable
scent.
 The analysis of these perpetual processes demonstrates
that their operation is influenced by three distinct types
of variables: the stimuli or activities being interpreted,
the context in which perception happens, and the
person performing the perceiving.
 In basic terms, vision is the process of seeing what is
visible.
 However, what is perceived is contingent upon the
perceiver, the entity, and its environment. All three of
these points are emphasized in the definition of
perception..
Importance of perception
Perception is a contextual, active, and imaginative
mechanism through which we provide sense to sensory data in
order to gain a better understanding of ourselves and others. It
can be characterized as our ability to recognize and perceive
sensory data. Additionally, it encompasses our response to the
facts.
Not only does perception shape our view of the world
around us; it also enables us to function inside it.
a. Perception is critical for comprehending human nature
when each person perceives the environment and
addresses life issues uniquely. What we see or
experience is not always indicative of what is true.
When we purchase anything, we do it not because it is
the greatest, but because we believe it is.
b. If people respond according to their perceptions, we
may forecast their future behaviour by considering their
current view of the world. One person's perception of
the facts can vary from the perception of another
audience.
c. Awareness enables the determination of the desires of
various individuals, since individuals' perceptions are
affected by their needs.
d. Perception is critical for a manager who wishes to stop
committing mistakes while interacting with others and
activities in the workplace. This issue is compounded
even by the reality that various individuals view the
same circumstance differently. To work successfully
with employees, administrators must have a firm grasp
on their views.
e. Perception is significant when it produces something
more than rational output; it consumes an observation
and creates an altered reality enriched by prior
perceptions.
f. Perception shapes character (not inherently positive or
evil character), defining the various positions into which
people fall: fool, hypocrite, self-righteous, survivor, etc.
g. It is important if we want to get along with someone
that we attempt to view life from their eyes or step in
their shoes for a while. By putting ourselves in their
shoes, we will develop a different outlook on life and
therefore really appreciate the other, as well as love and
assist the other.
Thus, it is important to consider human nature in order
to comprehend their thinking, including how they interpret
various circumstances.
 Individuals' actions are determined by their
interpretations of fact, not by reality itself.
Factors affecting perception
Perception is the method by which a person chooses,
organizes, and interprets data in order to construct a coherent
image. Perception is contingent on not only the physical objects
itself, but also on their relationship to the external field and to
the individual's own circumstances. Individuals arrange and
analyze their sensory perceptions in order to make sense of
their surroundings.
However, what one perceives can vary significantly from
objective truth. It is the procedure for selecting, receiving,
organizing, and interpreting data from the external world in
order to render it relevant. This ingestion of relevant data
results in judgments and behaviour. Numerous influences
influence and sometimes distort vision. These considerations
may be found within the perceiver, within the entity or goal
being viewed, or within the sense of the circumstance in which
the interpretation is being produced.
When a person looks at a target and tries to understand
what he or she sees, the perception is highly affected by the
perceiver's personal characteristics.
Specific traits such as an individual's behavior, appearance,
motivations, desires, previous interactions, and perceptions all
have an effect on interpretation.
Numerous variables affect the objective, including
novelty, motion, sound, scale, context, proximity, and
similarity. The characteristics of the observable object may
have an impact on what is interpreted. Since goals are not seen
in isolation, their connection to their context has an effect on
cognition, as does our natural ability to group nearby objects
and related objects together.
Additionally, there are certain environmental influences
that affect the perception phase, such as the duration of
perception, the job environment, and social environment.
Apart from these, there are certain other considerations such
as visual conditioning, which is dependent on prior
interactions or the specific training we receive; each of us
learns to prioritize those sensory stimuli while ignoring others.
Another aspect is the mental collection, which
corresponds to the state of preparation or preparedness to
absorb sensory information.
This expectation makes the person alert and focused.
Our degree of experience can also influence how we interpret
his or her behavior. For instance, if an individual is aware that
her friend is stressed out about family issues, she can forget
her snappy remarks. Perception is significantly influenced by
learning.
It instills in people a sense of expectation. The essence
of the objects that must be viewed often plays a role. By
nature, we refer to whether the material is visual or auditory in
nature, and whether it contains images, humans, or animals.
Perception is defined by both physiological and
psychological characteristics of the individual, while feeling is
defined solely by physiological characteristics. Thus, vision is
not just what one observes through the eyes; it is a far more
complicated mechanism through which a person selectively
experiences or assimilates input in the world, cognitively
organizes the sensed knowledge in a particular way, and then
interprets the information in order to shape an opinion on what
is happening in one's environment.
When a person looks at a target and tries to understand
what he or she sees, the perception is highly affected by the
perceiver's personal characteristics.
Personal characteristics that influence interpretation include
an individual's behaviors, personality traits, motivations,
interests, prior experiences, and aspirations.
Perceptual process
The visual mechanism enables us to interact with our
environment.
In this summary of awareness and the perceptual
method, we can discover how we progress from sensing input
in the world to eventually acting on that knowledge, and how
that information can be structured into our pre-existing
constructs and habits and then interpreted based on prior
experiences.
Though perception is primarily a cognitive and
psychological mechanism, our perception of the people and
items around us have an effect on our communication.
Indeed, perception is a series of steps that starts with the
context and culminates in our perception of a stimulus and
reaction to it.
To have a complete understanding of how vision
functions, we must go through each of the following stages.
3 stages of perception process are; \s
1. Selection.
2. Organizing.
3. Interpretation.
The universe around us is densely packed with stimuli
to which we can attend, but our minds do not have the energy
to attend to anything.
Thus, perception begins with the choice of whether to
attend to.
 When we focus our attention on one particular aspect of
our world — whether it's a scent, a sensation, a tone, or
anything else altogether — that aspect becomes the attended
stimulus.
Selecting is the initial stage of the vision phase, during
which we direct our attention to specific sensory input. We
choose stimuli that capture our interest during collection.
We concentrate on those who immediately catch our attention
(sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch). We receive input from
all five of our senses, but our perceptual field contains so many
sensations that our brains are incapable of processing and
making sense of it all.
Thus, when input is received through our senses, a
variety of variables affect what ultimately occurs during the
perception phase.
Organization
When we want to pay attention to a signal in the world,
our decision triggers a cascade of responses in our brain. Our
sensory receptors are activated at the onset of this neural
pathway (touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing). Organizing is
the second stage of perception, during which we filter and
categorize perceived knowledge using innate and acquired
cognitive habits.
We classify objects into patterns in three ways: through
their proximity, resemblance, and difference (Stanley, mo).
Interpretation
After our attention is drawn to a stimulus and our
brains obtain and arrange the material, we perceive it in a way
that makes sense in light of our prior knowledge of the
universe. Simply put, interpretation is the process by which we
take the knowledge we have sensed and arranged and
transform it into something that can be classified.
By categorizing objects, we will improve our
understanding and response to the environment around us.
Perception of others entails detecting, arranging, and
analyzing data regarding individuals, their words, and
behavior. Sensation is a primary feature of experience in terms
of external feedback. To begin the perceptual phase, the
perceiver must first choose what will be interpreted.
After that, organization occurs as listeners recognize the
source of sound and equate it to previously encountered
sounds. Interpretation and categorization are generally the
most subjective aspects of experience, since they include
judgments on whether or not audiences like what they are
hearing and want to continue listening.
We make instant decisions that result in subconscious
judgments of positive and negative responses against others,
which arise unconsciously. Perceptions are selected, organized,
and interpreted differently by individuals.
On the basis of these, the perceiver's perceptual
performance, which includes meanings, beliefs, attitudes, and
actions, may vary. Thus, as individuals respond differently in a
given environment, a portion of their actions may be clarified
by analyzing their cognitive mechanism and the way their
expectations influence their responses.
Perception errors
As stated previously, interpretation is the process of analyzing
and comprehending a signal in its natural state.
However, it is not often easy to interpret stimuli just as
they are.
Whether intentionally or unintentionally, we
misinterpret the stimulus and misperceive it. Oftentimes,
biases within the pupil, the time of perception, an unfavorable
context, a lack of clarification in the stimuli, uncertainty,
mental dispute, and such other factors contribute to perception
errors.
Illusion
A delusion is an erroneous interpretation. In this case,
the person may misinterpret a signal and will experience it
incorrectly.
For instance, a rope can be confused for a snake or vice
versa in the dark. The speech of an anonymous individual is
mistaken for that of a mate. A stranger standing at a distance
can be viewed as a recognized person.
Hallucination
Occasionally, we encounter instances in which an
organism perceives a stimulus even though it is not present.
This is referred to as hallucination. The individual can perceive
an entity, human, or speech, even if there are no objects or
sounds in fact.
Selective perception
Selective interpretation refers to the process by which
individuals perceive what they see according to their desires,
context, knowledge, and attitudes.
This suggests that any features that distinguish an
entity, item, or occurrence would improve the likelihood of it
being viewed.
Since we cannot assimilate anything we see, only some
sensations can be absorbed.
Halo effect
Individuals are assessed on the grounds of presumed
good qualities, characteristics, or traits. When we form an
opinion regarding a person based on a single trait, such as
intellect, sociability, or beauty, we are experiencing the halo
effect. In other terms, this is the proclivity to score a man
consistently high or low on other traits whether he is
exceptionally high or low on a single trait: although an
employee is absent infrequently, his employer will award him a
high ranking in all other areas of work.
Stereotyping
Individuals are often classified into at least one broad group
depending on their physical or behavioral characteristics before
being tested. When we pass judgment on another based on our
interpretation of the society to which he or she refers, we use a
technique known as stereotyping. For instance, a supervisor
can believe that a worker from a Middle Eastern country is
slothful and incapable of meeting performance goals, despite
the worker's best efforts.
Similarity
Sometimes, people gravitate toward and offer higher
ratings to others that are close to them. This proclivity for
approval of similarities can lead evaluators to offer higher
ratings to employees who share similar preferences, job
methods, perspectives, or standards.
Horn effect
When an object is entirely judged on the basis of a
perceived negative attribute or function. As a consequence, the
average ranking is lower than a reasonable rate. He is not
dressed properly in the workplace, which is why he can dress
casually at work as well.
Contrast
The proclivity to evaluate individuals in comparison to
other people rather than on the basis of their individual
success. Other than that, the employee's success would be
compared to that of other workers. Wilhelm Wundt defined
contrast as a central theory of interpretation in the early
twentieth century, and the result has been verified in a wide
variety of fields since then.
These influences have an impact on not only perceptual
characteristics such as colour and light, but also on other
aspects of feeling, such as how heavy an item feels. One
experiment discovered that when participants considered the
word "Hitler," they rated a human as more aggressive.
Essentially, we use the above shortcuts before passing
judgment on others. Perceiving and understanding the
behavior of others is taxing. As a consequence, individuals
devise methods for completing the mission more easily. These
strategies are often beneficial since they enable us to quickly
form accurate perceptions and provide objective evidence for
predictions. However, it will sometimes cause complications.
And, as previously said, these are the shortcuts.
 We may assess others in this manner in a brief amount
of time, but we sometimes judge others incorrectly using these
shortcuts.
Techniques for impression management
We are aware that citizens are perpetually curious about how
others view and judge them.
For one, North Americans invest billions on diets,
fitness club memberships, makeup, and plastic surgeries –
both of which are aimed at increasing their attractiveness to
others. Being favorably viewed by others can favor individuals
inside the organisation. It can, for example, assist them in
obtaining the positions they need inside a company and, if
recruited, in obtaining favorable ratings, higher pay raises, and
more rapid advancement. It can help sway the allocation of
advantages in their favour in a political sense.
Impression management refers to the mechanism by
which individuals seek to exert influence over the impressions
others form about them. It is a topic that has only recently
captured the interest of ob scholars. bear in mind that im does
not actually mean that the impressions people express are
inaccurate.
For one, excuses can be made with honesty. Using the
example in figure, you can assume that advertisements have a
negligible impact on sales in your country. However,
misrepresentation will come at a high price. If the picture
claimed is fake, you risk losing your credibility.
Techniques for impression management;
1) Conformity.
2) Excuses.
3) Apologies.
4) Self-promotion.
5) Flattery.
6) Favors.
7) Association.
The following table provides some examples of impression
management techniques;

Conformity Agreeing with someone else’s opinion in order to

gain his or her approval.
 Example: a manager tells his boss, “you are
absolutely right on your reorganization plan for
the western regional office. I couldn’t agree with
you more.
Explanations of a predicament-creating event
aimed at minimizing the apparent severity of the
predicament.
Excuses
Examples: sales manager to the boss, “we failed
to get the ad in the paper on time, but no one
responds to those ads anyway.”

Admitting responsibility for an undesirable event

and simultaneously seeking to get a pardon for
Apologies the action.
Example: employee to the boss, “i’m sorry i made
a mistake on the report. Please forgive me.”

Highlighting one’s best qualities, downplaying

one’s deficits, and calling attention to one’s
achievements.
Self-promotion Example: a salesperson tells his boss, “matt
worked unsuccessfully for three years to try to get
the account. I sewed it up in six weeks. I’m the
best closer this company has”.

Complimenting others about their virtues in an

effort to make oneself appear perceptive and
likable.
Flattery
Example: new sales trainee to peer, “you handled
that client’s complaint so tactfully! I could never
have handled that as well as you did.”

Doing something nice for someone to gain that

person’s approval.
Example: sales person to a prospective client, “i’ve
Favors
got two tickets to the theatre tonight that i can’t
use. Take them. Consider it a thank – you for
taking the time to talk with me.”
 Enhancing or protecting one’s image by managing
information about people and things with which
one is associated.
Association
Example: a job applicant says to an interviewer,
“what a coincidence. Your boss and i were
roommates in college.”
The majority of research conducted to determine the
efficacy of interpersonal communication strategies have been
restricted to deciding whether interpersonal communication
behavior is associated with work interview performance.
Employment interviews are an especially pertinent field
of research since candidates are impression management
trying to project a favorable picture of them and the result
tests are reasonably impartial. The evidence suggests that
impression management action is efficient.
For example, in one report, interviewers felt that
candidates for a job as a customer care representative who
utilized impression management tactics performed better
during the interview and were somewhat more likely to employ
them. Furthermore, as the researchers considered the
applicants' qualifications, they concluded that the interviewers
were swayed solely by the impression management
techniques.
That is, it did not seem to matter whether candidates
were eligible or not. They performed well in the interview if
they used impression management strategies.
Personality - corporate behavior The term "personality"
originates from the Greek word "persona," which translates as
"to talk by." the term "personality" refers to the set of
characteristics or attributes that define an individual's
distinctive identity. It refers to a person's public position.
Each entity has a distinct, intimate, and significant
determinant of his or her actions that helps describe his or
her personality.
Personality traits are mostly determined by two factors:
• inherited characteristics
• learned characteristics.
Characteristics that are inherited
The characteristics that a person inherits from their
ancestors or forefathers, or the gifted characteristics that an
individual is born with, are referred to as inherited
characteristics. It possesses the following characteristics:
o The color of a person's eye
o The religion/race of a person
o The shape of a person's nose
 o The shape of a person's earlobes
Learned characteristics
Nobody is born knowing everything. Our school is our first
residence, preceded by our culture and educational
institutions. The characteristics that a person acquires by
observation, practice, and observation of others and their
environment are referred to as learned characteristics.
The following attributes have been acquired:
o Perception result of various senses such as
touch, listening, and so on.
o Values have an impact on how a problem is
perceived and on the decision-making process.
o Personality patterns of thinking, emotion,
comprehension, and behavior.
o Attitude − positive or negative attitude like
expressing one’s thought.
Personality characteristics
The persistent characteristics that characterize an
individual's behaviour are called personality traits. A
personality attribute is a characteristic that is peculiar to an
entity. According to psychologists, there are five main
personality characteristics, and each human fits into at least
one of them. These five attitude characteristics are as follows:
• Extrovert • neurotic • pleasant • agreeable • aware
Significant personality characteristics
The following are the five most significant personality
characteristics that affect ob.
Locus of control
The locus of authority refers to the point at which an
individual's code of ethics is in control. Individuals may be
classified into two groups, internals and externals. Individuals
who believe they are in charge over their own fates are referred
to as internals, whereas those who believe their lives are
governed by external powers are referred to as externals.
Internals aggressively seek knowledge prior to making
decisions; they are goal-oriented and want to command their
world. Thus, internals thrive in jobs that require sophisticated
knowledge management, effort, and autonomy.
Externals, on the other hand, are more obedient and inclined
to obey directions, which enables them to do well in formal,
repetitive occupations.
Self-esteem
It refers to the degree to which individuals like or hate
themselves. Self-esteem is inextricably linked to performance
goals and career satisfaction.
Individuals with a healthy self-esteem believe they possess the
necessary skills for success. As a result, they face greater
obstacles when choosing a job.
Individuals with poor self-esteem, on the other hand, are more
vulnerable to social disturbances. As a result, they are more
inclined to search out and adapt the values and attitudes of
people they admire.
Self-monitoring
Self-monitoring refers to the capacity to adjust one's
behaviour in response to social contexts. Individuals with a
strong capacity for self-monitoring are adept at adjusting their
behaviour in response to external, situational stimuli. Their
impulsive abilities allow them to portray public personae that
are diametrically opposed to their private selves. However,
individuals with inadequate self-monitoring abilities are
unable to protect themselves. They are still themselves,
regardless of the circumstance. They operate under the
philosophy that "what you see is what you receive."
Risk taking
Managers are generally averse to taking chances.
Person risk tolerance, on the other hand, has an impact on
the amount of knowledge needed by managers and the time
required to make decisions. Thus, it is critical to consider
these distinctions and match risk-taking proclivities to specific
work requirements that make sense.
Personality theories
a theory is a simplified representation of truth that
enables one to comprehend, describe, forecast, and interact
with it. We have some hypotheses of how an individual's
personality develops.
Sigmund freud’s psychoanalytic theory
This hypothesis is predicated on the premise that man
is motivated more by unforeseeable powers than by rational
reasoning. According to Freud, the majority of things in
existence exist on an implicit basis.
Freud's philosophy is described by three characteristics: id,
ego, and superego.
• Id it is a term that refers to the inherent aspect of
personality. The impulsive and unaware mind finds instant
fulfillment. A starving kid, for example, will cry before he or
she is fed.
• Ego is born from id and is responsible for interacting with
the real universe. Additionally, it aids in the translation of
inner desires into phrases. It is concerned with realistic and
logical thought processes. For instance, we have a
disagreement with a friend and want the friend to speak first,
despite the fact that all of us want to speak.
• Superego is distinct from ego in that it is partly
unconscious. It encompasses the society's cultural beliefs as
interpreted by our ancestors. Additionally, it contributes to an
integral view of punishment. For instance, ram arrived late
today, and as a result, he has been grounded for a week.
Erikson’s theory
According to this hypothesis, personality is developed
over the course of a lifespan. He proposes eight distinct steps,
each of which has a potential outcome of two. Successfully
completing each stage results in the development of a
balanced personality. These steps are as follows:
• Infancy is described as the time between birth and one year
of age. Children develop the willingness to trust others at this
period, based on their caregivers. Failure to complete this
stage successfully results in fear and uncertainty. For
instance, children of this age are more at ease with familiar
faces than with strangers.
• Early childhood is described as the time between the ages
of 1-3 years. Children develop independence at this time. They
gain trust when offered support; otherwise, they become
reliant on others. For instance, children of this age are learned
to walk and speak.
• Play age is described as the time between the ages of three
and six years. Children often assert themselves at this time.
Their loss results in the creation of a feeling of remorse. For
one, children in this age range should be taught proper
behavior and how to maintain attention.
• School age is described as the time between the ages of six
and puberty. Children become more inventive at this point.
They are self-assured and motivated to succeed. They should
feel inferior if they are not promoted. Teenagers, for example,
should be safe, and parents should understand them and
treat them with patience.
• Adolescence is a transitional period between infancy and
adulthood. Here, children develop their own selves and should
be encouraged and assisted to assist them in making the best
choices. For instance, decisions about which stream to
pursue, such as research or commerce, occur at this point.
• Early childhood this stage is often referred to as
adolescence. They begin to open up and develop a sense of
intimacy with others at this stage. For instance, developing
strong friendships.
• Adulthood at this stage, they prioritize building a profession
and settling down with meaningful relationships. For
instance, when applying for work.
 • Mature adulthood at this period, an individual becomes
elderly, and as a result, their productivity declines. For
instance, taking care of one's family.
Attitude definition
Attitude refers to a person's or thing's manner, mood,
emotion, and role against that person or thing, inclination, or
orientation, especially in the mind.
Gordon all port defines an attitude as "a mental and
neural condition of preparation that is structured by practice
and exerts a directive or complex effect on the individual's
reaction to all objects and circumstances with which it is
associated."
According to frank freeman, an attitude is a
dispositional readiness to react consistently to particular
institutions, individuals, or objects in a manner that has been
trained and has become one's default mode of action.
Thurston defined an attitude as "the sum of a person's
inclinations and emotions, bigotry or bias, preconceived
conceptions, thoughts, fears, and risks, and any other topic."
According to Anastasia, attitude is "a proclivity to
respond favorably or negatively to a certain class of stimuli,
such as a national or ethnic community, a tradition, or an
organization."
Attitude characteristics
a. Attitudes are a dynamic mixture of what we refer to as
personality, interests, morals, attitudes, and motives.
b. It may exist on a spectrum ranging from extremely
beneficial to extremely unfavorable.
c. Any individual, regardless of their rank or intellect,
has attitudes.
d. Single person has an attitude. It contributes to the
formation of our identities, directs our behavior, and
shapes our judgments of others.
e. Although the emotion and belief elements of attitude
are intrinsic to an individual, we may observe an
individual's attitude by their subsequent actions.
f. Attitude enables one to identify our perceptions of
circumstances and our behavior against the
circumstance or object.
g. It generates internal cognitions, perceptions, and
feelings regarding individuals and things.
h. Additionally, it may be overt or implied. While explicit
attitudes are ones that we are mindful of, implicit
attitudes are those that are latent but still influence
our actions.
i. Attitudes influence our behavior against an entity or
individual.
 j. Since a mindset is a description of a person's history,
one that is based on direct experience more reliably
forecasts potential behaviour.
k. It encompasses such facets of personality as desires,
respect, and social behavior.
l. It encapsulates a man's inclinations and emotions.
m. An attitude is a preconceived notion, substantiated or
not, real or false, about a thought, object, or
individual.
n. It has a path, intensity, a degree of generality, or a
degree of specificity.
Attitude-shaping factors
By behaviors, we mean an individual's or an
individual's values, emotions, and behavior tendencies toward
things, thoughts, and people.
Attitudes imply any familiarity with a case.
However, the fundamental feature of the behaviour is
contained in the idea that a distinctive sensation or reaction is
perceived, and is correlated with a distinct propensity to
behave. Thus, the critical component subjectively is the
sensation or sentiment. Numerous influences may have an
effect on how and when perceptions form. These include the
following: • social factors.
o Direct instruction.
o Families.
o Prejudices.
o Personal experience.
o Media.
o Educational and religious establishments
o Physical factors.
o Economic status and jobs.
Types of Attitudes
Attitude is a term that refers to the space between
feelings and thought processing. It may be both optimistic and
bad.
 Attitude change obstacles
 Attitudes should be changed, although often it is in
management's best interests to do so.
 For instance, if workers feel their boss does not care
about their health, management may attempt to adjust
their behavior and cultivate a more favorable attitude
toward them.
 However, modifying one's mindset is not always easy.
 Indeed, hurdles are the impediments that hinder an
organisation from accomplishing its predetermined
objectives.
  As a result, any company should be mindful of these
risks and take appropriate corrective measures.
Barriers to attitude
Prior commitment
When individuals are committed to an already agreed-
upon course of behavior, it becomes more complicated for them
to alter or consider alternative forms of operating.
Inadequate information
Additionally, it serves as a significant impediment to
changing behaviors. Occasionally, individuals are unable to see
why they can alter their attitudes due to a lack of sufficient
knowledge. Occasionally, individuals are unable to see why
they can alter their attitudes due to a lack of sufficient
knowledge.
Consistency and balance
Another impediment to changing one's mood is the
principle of attitude equilibrium and continuity. Human beings
desire that their feelings toward other people and items match
their actions toward other people and objects.
Inadequate resources
As proposals become overly optimistic, they may often
be stymied by a company's or organization's shortage of
funding.
Thus, if the company wishes to alter its workers' mindset about
the new strategy, it will become unlikely due to a shortage of
funding.
Inadequate reward system
At times, an ineffective incentive scheme serves as a
deterrent to behaviour adjustment. If a company puts an
excessive focus on short-term success and outcomes,
management can overlook longer-term concerns when they set
targets and devise strategies to increase short-term income.
Employees would be unmotivated to improve their attitudes if
this incentive scheme is implemented in the enterprise.
Resistance to change
 Another impediment is a version of shift.
 Essentially, transformation is an ongoing mechanism
that occurs both inside and beyond the organisation in
order to accomplish an objective.
 As the organization's plan is altered by the authority,
the workers must adapt.
 However, some of them object to this. If their mindset
about the strategy transition cannot be modified, the
company would fail.
Attitude modification techniques
 Attitudes will be altered if we distinguish between
pessimistic and optimistic attitudes.
  A positive outlook will result in positive changes in one's
life; it's impossible to improve one's attitude, but it is
possible with some effort.
 The person from a culturally deficient community who
possesses a variety of hostile attitudes can undergo
frequent changes if he is provided with educational
opportunities.
 A member of a privileged subculture who has often
maintained a democratic attitude may develop a
negative attitude toward a certain community as a
result of one unpleasant encounter.
 Though existing habits are typically resistant to reform,
others may be more adaptable.
 Attitudes may be influenced in a number of respects.
Ways of changing attitude
o New information can aid in the transformation of
perceptions.
o Negative views are mostly developed as a result
of a lack of knowledge.
o Attitudes may shift as a result of direct
experience.
 Another approach to influence behaviors is to resolve
inconsistencies in attitudes and actions.
 Attitudes can shift by the influence of colleagues or
peers; • attitudes can also change as a result of
legislation.
 Given that a person's attitudes are formed by his
affiliation and comparison groups, one strategy for
altering the attitude is to adjust one or the other.
 Fear has the ability to alter an individual's mood. When
low amounts of anxiety are used, people often disregard
them.
 Changing one's mood often depends on the
circumstance.
Attitudes and the workplace
 Taking this a step further, we might conjure up several
scenarios in which these three elements could have an
impact on the workplace.
 The problem for the workplace is that these elements
are now inextricably linked to job functions, policies,
practices, corporate structure, and the persons and
entities who work there.
 For instance, we may have thoughts or beliefs
(cognitive) about managers in general, which may
manifest as a lack of trust in a manager (effective). As a
 result, we would never desire a close relationship with a
manager (behavioral).
 It is important to emphasize that these are attitudes –
and indeed, they will be incorrect. Simply because we
have an attitude does not mean it is correct.
Learning definition
Every comparatively lasting shift in behavior that
happens as a consequence of practice is referred to as learning.
Robbins, Stephen p.
Learning is the mechanism by which an individual's
behavior is altered, more or less indefinitely, as a result of his
actions and the effects of such actions, or as a result of what
he learns.
N.l. Munn
Learning is described as a reasonably permanent
modification of behavior that may occur as a consequence of
reinforced practice or experience.
Porter and steers
Meaning of learning
The essence of learning is composed of two main
components:
a. Change must be reasonably permanent: this ensures
that after "learning," our actions must be altered, either
for the best or for the worst, in comparison to our
previous behavior.
b. For instance, you "study" how to drive a car or how to
use a machine.
c. This modification must be the result of a kind of
experience or practice. This form of learning would not
occur as a result of biological maturation.
For instance, an infant does not acquire the ability to
walk; rather, it is a normal biological process. We may not
acquire the ability to eat or drink.
Nature of learning: It is a comparatively permanent
modification of one's awareness or actions caused by practice
or experience. This description contains many critical aspects.
To begin,
a. Learning entails change.
b. For instance, as you acquire a second language, your
understanding of how to talk expands and your
behavior when interacting with native speakers of the
language improves.
c. The improvement in understanding or action must be
long term or reasonably irreversible.
d. For instance, if you try to connect with others in
another language by looking up terms in a dictionary
that you easily overlook once the conversation is over,
 understanding did not occur and the comprehension of
the second language did not improve permanently as a
result of the interaction.
e. Learning occurs as a function of practice or experience.
f. For instance, learning a second language involves
extensive practice of vocabulary, word use, and
grammar.
Differentiated learners
There are some different categories of learners:
1. Visual learners
(a) Visual learners learn primarily through the written word.
(b) They tend to be readers who diligently take down every
word.
2. Auditory learners
(a) Auditory learners learn primarily through listening.
(b) They focus their ears and attention on your words,
listening carefully to everything you say. (c) they like to talk
rather than write and relish the opportunity to discuss what
they’ve heard.
Kinesthetic learners
(a)kinesthetic learners learn better by doing (b) this group
learns best when they can practice what they’re learning (c)
they want to have their hands on the keyboard, the
hammer, or the test tube because they think in terms of
physical action.
Characteristics of learning
Learning is purposeful
Each student approaches a learning condition uniquely.
Each student is a person with specific experiences that
influence their readiness to learn and comprehension of the
requirements.
Learning is a result of experience
Since studying is a personal process, the teacher
cannot facilitate the process for the student. Since the
student may only learn from personal interactions, learning
and understanding cannot occur independently of an
individual.
Multiple dimensions in education:
In another context, education is multifaceted. When
students are studying the topic at hand, they might even be
studying other subjects. They may be forming opinions
regarding aviation, either positive or negative, based on
their experiences.
Learning is a process that requires active participation:
Students do not consume information in the same way
as a sponge consumes water. The teacher cannot believe
that students would recall anything just because they were
present in the school, store, or airplane when the subject
was introduced.
Learning process
The following measures include the learning process:
Stimuli
Stimuli are certain things or language that attracts
people's interest. Employees get stimuli through their
supervisors' behavior. Superiors instruct and counsel staff
that is sensitive to these triggers. Both sensations cannot
be attended to fully.
Attention
The degree of concentration required is determined by
the quality of the stimulus. Both inputs are ignored.
Technical and intriguing sensations attract a large
audience. Employees normally tolerate career-related
stimulation. Employees' personality types have an impact
on their motivations for learning, need fulfillment, and
stress reduction.
Recognition
Attractive stimuli are accepted as appropriate
considerations in the development of modern life types.
Employees that pay attention to objects are recognizing
them for the benefit of understanding. The degrees of
appreciation are determined by the workers' interests,
expectations, wants, and wants.
Translation and assessment are critical steps in
incorporating stimuli into behavior through reinforcement.
Employees demonstrate appropriate behavior as a result of
attitude improvements, objectivity, and emotional and
physical growth. It is evident in improved results.
Reinforcement
Perception that is reinforced is a type of learning.
Stimuli, concentration, recognition, translation, and
behavior also contribute to the perception phase. Though
perception facilitates learning, perception itself does not
constitute learning until it is reinforced. Reinforcement
occurs after an event is repeated. Strong, pessimistic,
punitive, or extinction reinforcement are all possible.
Learners acquire information according to their perception
stages. Strong reinforcement is generally more efficient at
modifying behavior permanently.
Efforts
Habits assist in achieving superior efforts and results.
This is a never-ending operation. Efforts are the natural
result of learned positive behaviors through the learning
phase. Self-development is a process that requires self-
effort. Employees that are able to improve themselves are
self-motivated and effort-oriented. Educational psychology
has established many concepts that seem to be universally
common to the learning method over time. They shed
additional light on the factors that influence how efficiently
people learn.
The six most important concepts of learning are as
follows:
Readiness
Readiness entails a certain degree of concentration and
eagerness. When students are prepared to learn, they
approach the teacher from a position of strength, which
simplifies the instructor's work.
Exercise
The theory of exercise says that the things that are
repeated more often are the most memorable. It serves as
the foundation for drill and exercise. Human memory is
prone to error. After a single experience, the subconscious
scarcely retains, evaluates, and applies novel ideas or
behaviors.
Effect
The influence theory is dependent on the student's
emotional response. It notes that when learning is followed
by a good or rewarding feeling, it is enhanced, and that
when learning is accompanied by an uncomfortable feeling,
it is weakened.
Primacy
Primacy, or the condition of being first, often leaves an
indelible mark. This ensures that the instructor's
instruction must be correct the first time.
Intensity
Effort: a lively, dramatic, or thrilling learning experience
imparts knowledge more effectively than a repetitive or dull
experience. A pupil is more likely to grasp sluggish flight
and stalls by practice than by hearing about them.
Regency
The theory of regency notes that the most newly
acquired information is the most vividly recalled. In the
other hand, the farther a pupil is from a new reality or
concept in terms of time, the more challenging it is to learn.
Factors affecting learning
The critical factors impacting learning are as follows: •
their capital • their perception of learning • the benefits
associated with some kind of learning experience • the
availability of knowledge about available learning
opportunities The availability of suitable learning
environments; • the prevailing atmosphere for learning,
especially that fostered by government and employers.
 Motivation
Motivation is characterized as an inner raging passion
fueled by a sense of need, want, or desire that propels a
person to expend physical and mental energy in order to
accomplish desired goals. Motivation is action that is
geared toward a certain target. People are inspired because
they anticipate that a particular course of behavior may
result in the accomplishment of an objective and the receipt
of a valuable incentive – one that meets their expectations
and desires.
Motivation consists of three parts.
Direction: what an individual is attempting to do.
Effort: the degree to which a person makes an attempt.
Persistence: the length of time an individual attempts
something.
Read: what is organizational behavior?
Motivation is described as the desire to expend
significant effort against organizational objectives,
contingent on the effort's potential to meet certain personal
needs.
Stephen p Robbins
Individuals are motivated to behave by their desires.
George r. Terry
It is the process by which human beings' impulses, drives,
wishes, goals, strivings, or needs guide, regulate, or justify
their behavior.
Motivation meaning
Motivation is derived from the Latin term "movers,"
which translates to "to transfer."
Concept of motivation
Need: a requirement is a state of absence or deficiency of
something that the organism/person requires.
Justifications: motive is characterized as an internal state
that energizes, stimulates, and guides (or channels)
behavior toward specific goals.
Types of motivation
There are two distinct forms of motivation:
1. Intrinsic motivation
2. Extrinsic motivation
1. Intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation may emerge as a result of self-
generated influences that affect individuals' behavior. It is not
generated as a result of external rewards. It may take the form
of intrinsic encouragement, where individuals believe their job
is meaningful, exciting, and challenging, and provides them
with a fair degree of control (freedom to act), potential for
advancement, and opportunities to utilize and improve their
talents and abilities.
Extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic encouragement happens as something is
presented to or for the sake of individuals in order to inspire
them. They provide both benefits and penalties, such as
bonuses, additional wages, recognition, or advancement.
Extrinsic motivators may have a strong and immediate impact,
but they do not always last. Now, let us proceed and attempt to
comprehend the significance of inspiration and its motivational
characteristics.
Motivational characteristics
The below are some of the characteristics of motivation:
1. Motivation is a psychological term that refers to a state
of mind.
It is an individual's deepest drive to do something
greater. Individuals are more likely to improve their success
and organizational relationships.
2. Motivation is a never-ending method
Due to the infinite nature of necessity and want, need is
a constant phenomenon; if one need is met, another arises.
3. Motivation arises as a result of the anticipated perceived
benefit of an intervention.
The likelihood or expectation is the perceived meaning.
Motivation equals expectation of value.
4. Motivation differs between individuals and over time.
Motivation varies between individuals and often varies
by time and location, as desires vary between individuals and
by time and place.
5. An person is inspired either positively or negatively.
Positive reinforcement is founded on rewards or
benefits. The incentive may be monetary or non-monetary in
nature. Negative incentive is founded on sanctions, demands
for clarification, intimidation, and terror, among other things.
Fear of being laid off or promoted
Importance of motivation
High level of performance
the organization must ensure that its workers are
highly motivated. A highly engaged person will go beyond and
above the call of duty and will have a sense of belonging to the
company. Work would be more effective, waste will be
minimized, resulting in enhanced production, and output levels
will be good.
Employee turnover is low, as is absenteeism.
Poor motivation is a major contributor to low
productivity and absenteeism. Absenteeism results in
decreased demand, reduced efficiency, waste, and disruptions
to production schedules. Increased turnover is detrimental to
any organisation because it strains the financial status of the
company by necessitating increased recruitment, procurement,
preparation, and growth.
Acceptance of organization change
External social and technological transitions have a
larger effect on an employee's morale. Management must
ensure that reforms are implemented in the organisation and
their advantages are communicated to workers in order to
avoid opposition to change and achieve organizational success.
Reengineering, empowerment, career enrichment, job
rotation, and the implementation of innovative technologies
and procedures both contribute significantly to increasing
employee productivity and encouragement.
Image of the organization
Employees are the organization's mirrors. Regular
training and learning programs can be implemented to ensure
all employees have the most up-to-date expertise. It will benefit
workers and boost the organization's reputation.
A positive corporate picture can add to the public image
of the products and services being marketed by the company.
Motivation theories
Two types of motivation theories exist: material and
method theories.
Content theory
The aim of content theories is to ascertain "what"
motivates people. The following are few inspiration theories
from a material theory standpoint.
1. Hertzberg’s two-factor theory
in the 1950s, psychologist Frederick Herzberg
founded the two-factor principle of motivation (also known as
dual-factor theory or motivation-hygiene theory).
Herzberg discovered two variables that affect employee
morale and happiness after analyzing the answers of 200
accountants and engineers when questioned about their
optimistic and negative feelings about their jobs...
1. Motivator variables – in a nutshell, these are the factors
that contribute to employee happiness and inspire them to
work harder. Examples involve loving your job, getting
recognized, and progressing throughout your profession.
2. Hygiene factors – where these factors are lacking, they may
result in frustration and a loss of encouragement. Salary,
corporate rules, incentives, and partnerships with management
and coworkers are all examples.
Herzberg discovered that although both motivator and
hygiene influences affected motivation, they tended to operate
entirely independently of one another. Although motivator
variables contributed to employee retention and inspiration,
their absence did not often result in frustration. Similarly,
although the inclusion of hygiene influences did not seem to
improve happiness or encouragement, their absence increased
frustration.
How to apply it at work
This hypothesis suggests that in order to provide the
happiest and most efficient workers, both motivator and
hygiene considerations must be improved. To assist in
motivating the staff, ensure they feel valued and protected.
Provide frequent reviews and ensure that the workers
appreciate their opportunities for growth and advancement
within the organisation. To avoid workplace dissatisfaction,
ensure that the workers are handled fairly by providing them
with the best available working conditions and compensation.
Maintain an eye on the staff and cultivate positive partnerships
with them.
Bear in mind that each of the workers is unique, and
what motivates one person does not motivate another.
According to Paul Hebert of symbolist, benefits programs
cannot be one-size-fits-all. “Before an organization can achieve
genuine loyalty, it must address the root causes of discontent –
the basic services provided by the company that meet the
employee's hygiene needs. Then you must concentrate on the
customer and what they hope to gain from their relationship
with your business.”
2. Maslow's needs hierarchy
Abraham Maslow coined the hierarchy of needs
hypothesis in his 1943 article "a theory of human motivation."
The theory's central tenet is that individuals' most fundamental
desires must be fulfilled before they are inspired to pursue
higher level goals.
The hierarchy is composed of five tiers:
1. Physiological – these requirements, such as food, water,
and shelter, must be fulfilled in order for a human to live.
2. Safety – which includes personal and financial protection,
as well as physical and mental wellness and well-being.
3. Love/belonging – the need for connections, friendships,
and families.
4. Esteem – the need to be self-assured and valued by others.
5. Self-actualization – the ability to do anything possible and
to become the best version of oneself.
According to the hierarchy of needs, you must be well,
stable, and comfortable, with positive relationships and trust,
until you can be your best.
How to apply it to the workplace
 Chip Conley, creator of the joie de vivre hotel chain and
airbnb's head of hospitality, transformed his company by using
the hierarchy of needs pyramid. According to chip, often
administrators struggle with the abstract notion of self-
actualization and instead dwell on the pyramid's lower tiers.
Conley discovered that one approach to assist at the upper
levels was to teach his subordinates the sense of their positions
through a team retreat...
“In one experiment, we seated groups of eight
housekeepers at a table and posed an abstract question: what
would you be called if anyone from mars came down and saw
what you were doing as a hotel housekeeper? They coined the
terms "the serenity sisters," "the clutter busters," and "the
police with peace of mind." there was an impression that
individuals were accomplishing more than simply cleaning a
space. They were establishing a secure haven for a stranger
who was far from home.”
Conley's staff recognized the critical nature of their
work with the organization and the individuals they were
assisting. By demonstrating the importance of their tasks, the
team gained recognition and motivation to work harder. To
bring the best out of the employees, you can also help them in
their personal life outside of work. Perhaps you should provide
flexible work hours and allow workers to spend time with their
family but still ensuring they are compensated equally to help
them feel financially secure.
3. Hawthorne effect
Henry a. Landsbergis first identified the Hawthorne
effect in 1950, when he found that certain individuals worked
faster and performed more when they were observed by
researchers. The Hawthorne effect is named for a sequence of
psychological studies conducted in the 1920s and 1930s at
western electric's factory in Hawthorne, Chicago, on the effect
of physical environments on production.
Throughout the trials, the researchers altered a variety
of physical environments, including lighting, operating hours,
and breaks. Employee morale improved in both situations
where a reform was implemented. The researchers concluded
that workers were driven to work harder as a result of the
publicity lavished on them, rather than as a result of the real
physical improvements.
How to apply it at work
According to the Hawthorne effect, workers can perform
better if they are certain they are being watched. Although i do
not advocate hanging over your staff all day, you might
consider giving daily updates and let them know you are aware
of their activities and results.
 Demonstrating your concern about your workers and
their working practices can therefore encourage them to work
harder. Solicit input and advice from your staff about their
workspace and creation.
4. Expectancy theory
According to expectancy theory, individuals can
respond differently based on the consequences they anticipate
as a consequence of their actions. In other terms, we make
decisions dependent on our expectations of the result. At
college, it is possible that we work extra hours in anticipation
of a wage increase.
However, expectancy theory argues that the mechanism
through which we choose our behaviors is often affected by our
perceptions of the likelihood of obtaining certain incentives.
Staff will be more motivated to work more in this case if they
have been offered a wage increase (and therefore view the
result as more likely) rather than if they have merely hoped
they would receive one (and perceived the outcome as possible
but not likely)
The expectancy theory is comprised of three components:
1. Expectancy –
The conviction that your efforts would succeed in the
accomplishment of the objective. This is determined by your
prior knowledge, your self-confidence, and your perception of
the difficulty of achieving the target.
2. Instrumentality –
The conviction that you would be rewarded for meeting
success standards.
3. Valence – the monetary amount assigned to the payout.
Thus, expectancy theory states that people are most
motivated when they believe they will receive a desired reward
for meeting an achievable goal. They are unmotivated if they do
not desire the reward or do not believe that their efforts will
result in it..
How to apply it at work
The trick here is to establish attainable expectations for
your workers and to provide them with opportunities that they
need. Rewards do not have to take the shape of salary
increases, promotions, or all-expenses-paid evenings out
(although i have found that these are frequently appreciated!).
Praise, advancement prospects, and “employee of the month”-
style awards will also further motivate the workers. In need of
any motivation? Take a look at these 51 affordable approaches
to compensate workers from mike Michalowicz, creator of the
toilet paper entrepreneur.
5. Three-dimensional attribution theory
Acknowledgement theoretical explanations describe how we
give sense to our own and other people's actions. There are
several attribution hypotheses.
According to Bernard Weiner's three-dimensional
principle of attribution, people want to understand why we do
what we do. According to Weiner, the explanations for our
behavior will affect our future behavior. For instance, a student
who fails an exam will assign their failure to a variety of
reasons, and this attribution may influence their potential
motivation. Weiner postulated that the particular attributions
(e.g., poor luck, not training hard enough) were less important
than their features. Weiner identifies three distinct features of
attributions that may influence subsequent inspiration.
1. Stability – to what extent is the attribution stable? For
instance, whether a student thinks they missed the exam due
to a lack of intelligence, this is a stable consideration. An
unhealthy element is one that is not irreversible, such as
illness. According to weiner, stable attributions for good
accomplishments, such as completing tests, will foster
optimistic hopes for potential performance and therefore
increased encouragement. Stable attributions, on the other
hand, may result in lower potential standards in unfavorable
circumstances, such as failing an exam.
2. Locus of control – was the event caused by an internal or
an external factor? For instance, if a student feels it is their
own fault they missed the exam (an internal cause), they will
feel less inspired in the future. If they thought an external
cause, such as ineffective instruction, was to blame, they
would not suffer such a decline in motivation.
3 Controllability – to what extent was the condition
controllable? Individuals who think they should have done
differently could be less likely to attempt again in the future
than others who assume they struggled due to reasons outside
their control.
How to apply it at work
The three-dimensional principle of attribution
established by weiner has consequences for employee reviews.
Ensure that you have clear guidance to the staff, letting them
know when they can progress and how they can do it. This
should help them from attributing their inability to an inherent
lack of ability and therefore see that performance is beyond
their reach whether they try harder or use various tactics.
Additionally, you may commend your workers for making a
change, even though the result was incorrect. For instance,
you might commend others for using the right approach even
though the findings were not what you desired. Through doing
so, you encourage employees to assign failures to controllable
causes, which can be changed in the future.
 Chapter - 5
Group dynamics:
Individuals can underestimate the value of society and
community affiliations in their lives. Although individuals also
embark on solitary journeys, the majority of our life activities
include interaction with others and communities. Inside an
association, a variety of categories exist. Individuals entering
communities – whether formal or informal – is a fact. People
often operate in communities in a variety of different aspects of
their lives, including work, school/college, sport, and hobbies.
Managers must consider group dynamics in order to deal with
them effectively.
Group
Each organisation is a self-contained entity. A
community is made up of two or more individuals who have a
shared definition and assessment of themselves and work
together to accomplish common goals. In other terms, a
community is a collective of individuals that engage with one
another; recognize membership privileges and responsibilities;
and share a shared identity.
A group's characteristics:
Regardless of size or function, each category shares the
following characteristics:
1) Two or more individuals (if it is one person, it is not a
group)
2) Affiliation with a formal social structure (the rules of
the game are defined)
3) Common fate (they will swim together)
4) Common goals (the destiny is the same and
emotionally connected)
5) Face-to-face collaboration (they will talk with each
other)
6) Interdependence (each one is complimentary to the
other)
7) Party participants' self-definition (what one is who
belongs to the group)
8) Recognition by others (yes, you belong to the group).
Group development/evolution process/stages:
Group development is a mechanism that is always
changing. How do organizations evolve? Groups progress
through a five-stage phase.
Process of group.
The group's objectives can be re-defined. Develop in
light of external environmental knowledge and demonstrate an
independent will to achieve certain targets. The viability of the
group is established and nurtured.
Groups are classified into the following categories:
One way to categorize the classes is according to their
formality – formal and informal. Though structured groups are
formed by organizations to accomplish their objectives,
informal groups develop spontaneously. Command classes,
mission groups, and functional groups are also examples of
formal groups.
1. Command groups: the organizational map defines
command groups, which often consist of a leader and the
subordinates that report to the supervisor. A command group
is exemplified by the ceo of a market analysis company and his
research associates.
2. Task groups:
Task groups are made up of individuals who collaborate
to accomplish a shared goal. Members are grouped together to
achieve a limited number of specific objectives within a given
time frame. Additionally, task organizations are often referred
to as task forces. The company appoints members and sets
objectives and responsibilities. Assigned activities may include
the introduction of a new product, the refinement of a
manufacturing procedure, or the creation of a semester-based
syllabus.
Additionally, ad hoc commissions, mission councils,
and standing committees are often used work groups. Ad hoc
committees are temporary bodies formed to address a
particular complaint or establish a procedure. They are often
dissolved after the assigned mission is completed.
3. Functional groups:
The company establishes a functional community to
achieve certain objectives within an arbitrary time period. Until
existing priorities and targets are met, functional communities
continue to operate. A publicity department, a customer care
department, or an accounting department is also examples of
practical categories. In comparison to organized organisations,
informal groups develop spontaneously and as a result of
individuals' mutual desires and beliefs. They are produced for
reasons other than achieving corporate objectives and are not
time-bound. The association does not appoint informal
committees, and representatives can allow others to participate
on a case-by-case basis.
Informal groups may have a significant amount of
control within organisations, which may be beneficial or
harmful. For instance, workers that join an informal
community may negotiate how to change a manufacturing
method or how to develop shortcuts that jeopardize efficiency.
Interest groups, friendship groups, and comparison groups are
also examples of informal groups.
i. Interest groups:
Interest groups often last longer than more general
casual groups. Members of interest groups may not be
affiliated with the same corporate agency, but they have a
shared interest. Community interests include their own set of
priorities and objectives that may or may not be relevant to
corporate goals and objectives. Students that join a research
group for a certain class are an illustration of a concern group.
ii. Friendship groups:
Friendship groups are created of individuals who have
shared interests, political views, religious ideals, or other
relations. Members appreciate the company of one another and
often gather after work to partake in these events. For instance,
an employee friendship group can include a yoga group, a
Rajasthan association in Delhi, or a monthly kitty party lunch.
iii. Reference groups:
A comparison category is a form of group that
individuals use to assess their own abilities. The primary goals
of reference groups are social affirmation and evaluation.
Individuals can defend their beliefs and ideals by social
affirmation, while individuals should judge their own behavior
by reference to others. Members' activity is strongly influenced
by their reference classes. These associations are created
voluntarily. For the majority of people, family, acquaintances,
and religious affiliations serve as good comparison groups.

Factors affecting group behavior:

The success or failure of a group depends upon so
many factors. Tools available to community members, group
composition (group size, group responsibilities, group
standards, and group cohesiveness), group processes
(communication, group decision-making mechanisms, power
dynamics, and contradictory interactions, among others), and
community activities (complexity and interdependence).
1. Group member resources:
The resources that community participants bring to the
table are their intelligence, talents, expertise, and personality
traits (sociability, self-reliance, and independence). Progress is
contingent upon certain services being helpful to the mission.
2. Group structure:
Group size:
The size of the group will range from two to a very large
number of individuals. Small groups of two to ten people are
believed to be more successful since each participant has
enough time to participate and contribute effectively. Large
gatherings will squander time debating procedures and
determining who should join next.
the evidence suggests that as the group's size grows,
happiness rises up to a threshold. When a group's scale
exceeds 10-12 participants, happiness decreases. The ability of
representatives of big communities to identify with one another
and experience cooperation is becoming extremely challenging.
Group roles:
 Roles are often fixed and delegated to participants of
structured classes. Each job will have distinct roles and
responsibilities. However, emergent functions arise
spontaneously to satisfy the needs of individuals. When
individuals continue to articulate themselves and become more
assertive, these emergent positions often supplant assigned
roles. Following that, group functions may be categorized as
task roles, repair roles, or blocking roles. Work tasks are task-
oriented operations centered on achieving the group's
objectives. They entail a range of distinct positions, including
initiator, informant, and clarifier, summarizer, and fact tester.
Maintenance tasks are social-emotional experiences
that assist participants in becoming involved and increasing
their personal contribution to the community. Harmonizer,
gatekeeper, consensus tester, encourager, and compromiser
are the maintenance functions.
Blocking functions are those that cause disruptions
within the party. Blockers will obstinately oppose the group's
proposals, will have personal disagreements with group
members, and will have secret motives. They can manifest
themselves in the form of monopolizing conversations, verbally
threatening other group members, or disrupting the group with
irrelevant details or excessive humor.
Frequently, the blocking behavior is not meant to be
negative. Occasionally, a participant may share a joke to break
the stress, or may challenge a decision to compel group
members to reconsider the problem. Aggressor, blocker,
dominator, comedian, and avoiding behavior are all examples
of blocking positions.
role conflicts occur where there is ambiguity
(confusion over delegation and the absence of specific job
descriptions) between the sent and received roles, resulting in
frustration and dissatisfaction and therefore turnover; when
there is inconsistency between the perceived role and role
behavior (conflict between work and family roles); and where
there are conflicting demands from different sources when
performing.
Group norms:
Norms provide the appropriate norm or boundaries of
acceptable and inappropriate behavior for community
participants to adhere to. They are often created to aid in group
survival, to make behavior more predictable, to prevent
embarrassing circumstances, and to express the group's
principles. Each community will establish its own standards,
which will govern everything from job success to dress to
making remarks at meetings. Groups apply leverage on
participants in order to coerce them into adhering to the
group's norms and, at times, refraining from performing at a
higher stage. Norms also represent the group's degree of
engagement, inspiration, and success.
To be admitted, the plurality of the party must believe
that the norms are acceptable. Additionally, there must be a
common belief that the community supports the defined
norms. It should be remembered, though, that participants will
sometimes break community norms.
If a number of representatives do not conform to the standards,
they may inevitably deteriorate and cease to function as a
yardstick for judging conduct. Individuals who do not adhere to
the organization's standards will be disqualified, ignored, or
requested to leave the group.
Group cohesiveness applies to the bonding or unity of
community members, their feelings of attraction towards one
another, and their ability to be a part of the group. Numerous
variables affect the degree of community cohesiveness –
consensus on group objectives, contact level, personal
attractiveness, inter-group competitiveness, favorable
assessment, and so forth. The more daunting it is to enter the
squad, the more integrated it would be. Additionally,
individuals appear to become more cohesive when they are
engaged in direct conflict with other groups or are confronted
with a significant external challenge to their existence.
Additionally, smaller communities of people that spend
significant time together are more integrated.
Cohesion of work groups has a number of beneficial
consequences, including increased employee retention,
decreased unemployment and absenteeism, and increased
efficiency. However, extremely cohesive organizations may be
disruptive to corporate success if their objectives are out of
sync with that of the organisation. Additionally, highly cohesive
communities can be more susceptible to groupthink.
Groupthink happens as members of a group put strain on one
another to reach a decision-making agreement. Groupthink
leads in hasty conclusions, exaggerated assessments of
alternative courses of action, and a deficiency of fact checking.
When activities demand a diverse set of abilities,
expertise, and decision-making, research indicates that
communities usually outperform individuals. Groups are
frequently more adaptable and may rapidly shape, accomplish
aims, and disband or transition to another group of targets.
Numerous organisations have discovered that individuals
possess numerous motivating characteristics. Members of
groups are more able to engage in decision-making and
problem-solving practices, resulting in greater empowerment
and competitiveness. In an organisation, groups do the
majority of the work; hence, the success of the organization is
limited by the effectiveness of its groups.

Norms' violation and Role Role ambiguity and role

Ambiguity. conflict lead to achieving
group goals rather than the
organizational goals.
Groupthink and conformity Illusion that they can do no
problem wrong, illusion that group is
in agreement, seeks
consensus and
ignore/suppress alternative
ideas.
Social loafing. Members reduce their
performance levels.
3. Group processes:
Group decision-making is superior because it provides
more input and expertise, different solutions, encourages
adoption of a solution, and increases credibility. Decisions take
longer, the minority is dominated, coercion to adhere to
community decisions is imposed, and no one is held
accountable for the decisions. Additionally, group processes
include coordination, dispute resolution, and leadership, which
we will address in depth in the chapters that follow.
Along with formal groups, any organization has
informal groups that grow spontaneously as a result of the
responses and shared desires of participants who can readily
associate with the informal groups' aims or independent
activities. Occasionally, the actions are motivated by a shared
purpose that complements or contradicts the structured
group's objectives. An informal community is one that forms
naturally, outside of the organization's system, with the aim of
meeting the participants' personal and social needs.
Informal group vs. Informal organization: an informal
group is a cooperative association of individuals who meet for
the sake of personal satisfaction when they have some similar
and mutual experiences, characteristics, and desires (values /
preferences / activities / friendship). Although the distinction
between a formal association and a formal organization is
straightforward, the distinction between an informal group and
an informal organization is frequently more complex. The
distinction between an informal association and an informal
community is that an informal organization is a broader body
that encompasses all informal organizations within an
organization.
Informal organisation= sigma informal groups: an informal
collective serves as the organization's base. When an
unstructured entity adopts a systematically specified
framework and group procedures, it ceases to be
unstructured..
Informal group vs. Formal group:
The two are different in very many ways.
basis Formal Group Informal Group
Formation Legally Emerges
constituted, naturally and
spontaneously
rationally
designed, and
consciously
planned
Existence Normally formal Informal group
group does not emerges while
arise because of working in a
informal Group Formal Group
Purpose Well-defined and 111-defined and
centers around centres around
survival, growth, friendship,
profit, Service to goodwill, unity
Society and so on
Relationship Superior-
subordinate
relationship

Influenced by Rationality Personal,

and leaves no social, and
scope for
emotional
personal,
social, and factors
emotional
factors
communication Unity of Pattern is
Command grapevine,
and line of which is
authority natural,
followed haphazard and
intricate
Leadership Based on Based on
formal individual
authority and competence and
position
 group acceptance
Boundaries Operates within No bounds,
set boundaries operates in
different
directions

Nature & Normative and

Emphasis Reflects actual
idealistic, functioning,
emphasis on characterized by
efficiency, relative freedom,
discipline, spontaneity,
conformity, homeliness and
consistency and warmth
control bring in
rigidity and
bureaucracy in
processes and
practices
Characteristics of informal groups:
1. Creation:
It is not created by the organisation but springs up
spontaneously.
2. Satisfaction of needs:
The needs which cannot be satisfied within the framework of
formal organisation, like social and psychological needs of
people, such people create informal groups.
3. Voluntary membership:
Nobody is compelled to join an informal organization.
4. Multi-group membership:
A member of an informal group can be a member of more than
one informal group to pursue different interests.
5. Systems and processes:
Members of such groups follow their own norms, leadership,
communication, etc. To remain cohesive. The communication
channels are referred to as ‘grapevine’. Grapevine i.e., informal
channel runs very fast to spread the information across the
organization.
6. Leadership:
Every informal group has a leader, selected by the group, and
who is capable of helping to realize their goals. The moment it
is realized that the leader is incapable, (s) he is replaced with a
new leader.
Reasons for the emergence of informal groups:
1. Collaborative efforts can bring people together.
2. Individuals that have common ideals, views, behaviors,
 and desires are often drawn together.
3. Fulfillment of a need – to belong, to connect, and so
forth.
4. Elimination of monotony of repetitive activities –
elimination of monotony and psychological exhaustion,
job-related dissatisfaction and agitation allows for more
normal and calm conduct.
5. Promotion of other causes and achievement of
objectives – members of rotary or lions clubs enter in
order to broaden their network of connections, which
may assist them in achieving their personal goals.
Benefits of informal groups:
The benefits of an informal group are as follows:
1. Integrating into an organized association enables
individuals to function with a formal organization.
2. The informal task party alleviates the formal manager's
workload.
3. Contributes to the overall satisfaction and prosperity of
the organization.
4. Has an advantageous mode of contact.
5. Inspires management to prepare more diligently and
behave more prudently.
Limitations of informal groups:
The limitations are as follows:
1. Resistance to change, since they do not want to depart
from established traditions and acquire new skills.
2. Because of malice, a shortage of proper correspondence
mechanisms and procedures, and vague situations,
informal groups are the most fertile ground for rumour
mongering.
3. Since an informal party participant is often a member of
a structured group, position tension may arise at times.
4. The community member's (s) creativity is constrained by
the group's intense demand for conformity.
Organizational conflict
Everything you need to know about organizational
conflict. Conflict can be defined as a difference that exists
between needs, values, and interests of individuals or groups in
an organization. Conflict can be constructive, and it can be
destructive. The distinction is based on how the conflict is
managed. Conflict cannot always be avoided. Many positive
outcomes can result from working through conflict. Properly
managed conflict can help in bringing constructive change.
Conflict is any situation in which two or more parties feel
themselves in opposition. It is an interpersonal process that
arises from disagreements over the goals or the methods to
accomplish those goals. Therefore, conflict may be defined as an
expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties
who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources, and
interference from the other party in achieving their goals.

According to s. R. Robbins defines conflict as “a process in

which an effort is purposefully made by a person or unit to block
another that result in frustrating the attainment of others goals
or furthering of his or her interests.”
Organizational conflict:
In simple terms, interpersonal problems are "situations
in which decision-making fails solely as a result of an
unreasonable and incompatible stance adopted by one or more
of the decision-making groups." This is what is referred to as a
crisis case. Strikes, lockouts, sluggish strategies, high
absenteeism, and high labor turnover are also examples of
contradictory circumstances that may occur inside an
organisation. It is important to approach these conditions with
caution and tact.
Conflict is characterized as a gap between the desires,
beliefs, and priorities of individuals or groups within an
organisation. Individuals at work have a range of concepts,
abilities, and ways of thought. These distinctions can result in
person and community distinctions. These distinctions are the
source of organizational tension. In every organization, conflict
is unavoidable. Conflict is a normal part of any commercial or
personal arrangement of any depth. The seriousness of a
dispute is determined by its composition. Not all workplace
disputes is negative.
Conflict consists of three components. The first
component of confrontation is the nature of a kind of battle.
Second, the people concerned must have incompatible
interests, or believe they do. Finally, there must be a degree of
interdependence among the participants. Conflict may be
beneficial or detrimental. The differentiation is made on the
basis of how the dispute is resolved. Conflict cannot be
prevented at all times. Numerous beneficial effects may occur
as a consequence of resolving disagreement. Conflict that is
well handled will contribute to the development of positive
progress.
Organizations are made up of individuals of a variety of
desires, perceptions, preferences, behaviors, ideals, and points
of view. This results in disagreements within the company.
Disagreement is the root cause of organizational strife. This
occurs mostly as a result of individuals' or organizations'
competing desires. Conflict is described as any circumstance in
which two or more parties perceive themselves to be at odds
with one another. It is an organizational mechanism that
results from disputes over the objectives or strategies for
achieving certain objectives. Thus, dispute can be described as
an outward struggle between at least two interdependent
parties who perceive conflicting aims, limited resources, and
the other party interfering with their pursuit of those goals.
Several critical characteristics of war include the following:
1. It aids in analytical thinking: conflict can call into
question viewpoints, beliefs, laws, practices, objectives, and
strategies, among other things, necessitating careful
consideration in order to explain them as-is or to make
necessary adjustments. As h. M. Carlisle said it, "no
circumstance is more harmful to an organization than allowing
bad choices to stand unchallenged."
2. It contributes to organizational solidarity: conflict within
organizations fosters commitment and cohesion within the
organization, as well as a stronger sense of collective identity in
order to contend with outsiders. It contributes to corporate
commitment and determination.
3. Rivalry increases competitiveness and therefore efforts:
it has been found that some people are particularly motivated
by confrontation and extreme competition. For example, a
professor who has been refused promotion due to departmental
dispute can strive harder to demonstrate that he is more
competent and deserving of advancement. As a result, it can
result in an increased amount of commitment and
performance.
4. It acts as a foundation for organizational development:
disagreement with the status quo is essential for progress to
occur. Individuals who are creative and ambitious are always
on the lookout for reasons to question the status quo. These
obstacles motivate individuals to seek out solutions to
established trends, which results in internal progress and
growth.
5. It reduces tensions: unresolved differences will result in
creative distortions of reality, feelings of anger and tension,
extreme mental exaggerations, and distorted views, both of
which contribute to mistrust and suspicion. As it is articulated,
though, it can reveal the source of the dispute to be trivial,
resulting in cooperation and resolution.
Type 1. Task conflict:
Task conflict relates to the content and goal of the work.
According to graves, task conflict arises among members of
team and affects the goals and tasks they are striving to
achieve. It can be based on differences in vision, intention, and
quality expectation. It is essential to focus and channel any
task conflict so that these differences become collaborative and
lead to improvements in the way and go about accomplishing
current and future task. Converting conflict to friendly
competition might be one way of taking the best from both
sides.
Type 2. Role conflict:
Conflict surrounding roles and responsibilities are
especially common during or immediately following
organisational change, particularly restructurings. People may
be unclear on who is responsible for which decisions and
outputs. For example, after an international strategic business
consulting firm restructured its managerial staff, an individual
who formerly managed two key customer segments was
unwilling to relinquish all the responsibility to the new
manager. He continued to question staff and issue orders while
his replacement was trying to set a new direction. With two
managers giving input, employees were stuck in the middle,
which created conflict among them as well as between the
managers.
To identify the root cause of a role conflict, each party
needs to examine his or her responsibilities as well as the other
persons. One or both may need to change their perception, and
then they will need to collaborate to clarify who will handle
what.
Type 3. Process conflict:
This is related to how the work gets done. This form of
conflict centres around, the process, procedures, steps or
methods used to reach goal. One person might like to plan
many steps ahead while others might like to dive in headfirst.
These differences in approaches or processes can lead to
communication break downs and ultimately conflict. Healthy
differences in approaches to process will often lead to improved
way of doing job.
Process conflict commonly arises when two
departments, teams, or groups interact on a process. They may
view the process differently and disagree on how it should be
accomplished or point fingers rather than communicating
effectively when problems arise. For example, at a global
manufacturer of heavy lifting equipment, three shifts were
involved in the production of a machine, which often suffered
from poor quality or low production rates. No standard process
existed to build the machine, and each shift believed its
approach was best. If one shift ended before the product was
completed, the next group would either send the machine
through without completing it – which resulted in poor quality
– or take it apart and rebuild it – which slowed production.
To identify the root cause of process conflict, examine
the process controls in place and how employees interact with
them. Get teams or individuals to collaborate to define the
process more effectively and establish communication channels
to address problems.
Type 4. Directional conflict:
Directional conflict arises when organisations are forced
to rethink their strategies and focus on shorter-term activities,
as many did during the economic downturn. Employees may
not know how to prioritize long-term versus short-term needs,
or one department may work tactically while another remains
strategic.
For example, a regional insurance brokerage,
representing several prominent insurance providers, was
developing a succession plan and selected several managers to
be groomed as next- generation leaders. This action resulted in
directional conflict because the managers were unclear
whether to focus on meeting their short- term goals or on the
longer-term succession efforts.
To identify the root cause of directional conflict,
individual employees should ask themselves-what do i believe
our direction is or should be? Is that aligned with what others
are saying? What are senior managers saying? Answering these
questions will enable individuals to change their own direction
if necessary and help others change theirs.
Type 5. External conflict:
External conflict arises when pressures from customers
or other stakeholders impact internal decisions. Recent
economic challenges compelled organisations to adjust and
adapt, for example, by lowering prices while providing
enhanced customer service. Sales or customer service
personnel advocating for customers’ needs may have come into
conflict with operations trying to meet internal goals.
For example, a health care software company was
pushing to bring a new product to market. Sales and customer
service employees continued to bring customer input to the
programming group, which did its best to incorporate the ideas
into the product. As the requests continued to come in, it
extended the development process beyond the planned release
date. When management finally decided to release the product
without further enhancements, additional conflict arose
because customers now complained that their inputs are not
incorporated.
To identify the root cause of external conflict, ask if
anyone internally has the control to resolve the problem. It may
be possible to create a can- do list, which may answer
questions such as-what can we do to address the external
demand? The solution might involve collaboration among
several departments to adjust to the external pressures more
effectively.
Type 6. Relationship conflict:
It focuses on interpersonal relationship. They are
directly between people and may be over roles style, resources
or even personalities. This conflict can penetrate and damage
all aspect of an organisation. Relationship conflict can quickly
demand all the attention and energy.
Although poor chemistry between individuals can exist,
most interpersonal conflict tends to grow from the other five
sources of conflict. For instance, when two managers attempt
to direct the same department or when employees see external
circumstances differently, interpersonal conflict builds.
However, at times, genuine interpersonal conflict may exist.
For instance, a national business services firm hired a new
vice-president whom the divisional personnel disliked because
they felt he was not as open and direct as his predecessor. This
created conflict between the leader and the team, which
affected performance.
To find the root cause of interpersonal conflict, look for
a particular bias or prejudice. Can negative emotions be
overcome? An open, direct conversation is always the best way
to bring issues out in the open and begin working on a
resolution.
Three main levels of conflict are discussed below:
1. Individual-level conflict: individual-level conflict
demonstrates that human activity is motivated by needs that
control an individual's behaviors. Individuals attempt to
balance their desires with the organization's offers in terms of
pay arrangements or other incentives prior to entering.
However, whether they observe some inequity within their
peers, this can result in an individual dispute. Individuals can
experience tension, anger, and undesirable behavior as a result
of such a dispute.
Individual-level disagreement can be classified into two
types:
1. Intra-individual conflict: this type of conflict occurs within
an individual and is classified as psychological in nature.
It can be classified into two types:
I. Goal conflict – refers to a conflict in which a person or a
collective is forced to sacrifice its own objectives in order to
advance organizational objectives. Person or collective
objectives are at odds with corporate goals because they are in
disagreement.
Ii. Role conflict – occurs as people discover that their
anticipated positions do not match their current roles.
B. Inter-individual conflict: this is a term that refers to
conflict between two people. Generally, this rivalry occurs as a
result of the scarcity of money or benefits. It may also arise as
a result of individuals' differing perspectives, attitudes, belief
systems, and working styles.
2. Group-level conflict: group-level conflict occurs when two
organizational entities, such as management and workers,
diverge, compete, or collide.
Conflict at the party stage may be classified as intra-group
conflict or inter-group conflict, as follows:
i. Intra-group conflict – is a term that refers to conflict within
a particular group.
ii. Inter-group conflict – is a term that refers to conflict
between two or more parties. Intergroup rivalry is a
common occurrence within an enterprise as two departments
compete over precious resources.
3. Organizational-level conflict:
Organizational-level conflict refers to the conflict which
occurs at the level of the entire organization.
It is of two types, which are as follows:
i. Intra-organizational conflict:
Refers to the conflict occurring within an organization.
Intra-organizational level conflict can be of three types,
which are as follows:
A. Horizontal conflict:
Indicates that conflict between two functional groups at
the same organizational stage is possible. It may occur for a
variety of purposes, including mutual capital and
interdependence, as well as goal incompatibility. For instance,
at times, services such as printers can be shared by several
organizations, resulting in a lengthy queue of documentation to
be printed. This can cause operations to be delayed. Similarly,
any discrepancy between the statistics and figures in reports
shared by two interdependent departments could result in
dispute. Similarly, one department's priorities can clash with
those of another, resulting in mission incompatibility and
conflict.
B. Vertical conflict:
This term refers to conflict between hierarchical levels,
for example, between a supervisor and subordinates. Vertical
dispute may arise as a result of inefficient or insufficient
contact, as well as skewed expectations. For instance, if a
superior delegated certain responsibilities to subordinates but
failed to include specific orders, a disagreement between the
subordinates and supervisor regarding the responsibilities
could occur.
ii. Inter-organizational conflict:
Affects two or more organisations. Due to inter-
organizational rivalry, organizations in the same sector can
engage in unethical activities and unhealthy competition.
1. Latent conflict:
This type of conflict occurs where the collective need for
services by participants exceeds the organization's usable
resources. Latent disputes may be classified into four broad
categories: (a) rivalry for finite capital, (b) autonomy, (c)
separation in sub-unit priorities, and (d) position dispute.
Autonomy must be a source of contention where one party
wishes to exert authority over an action that another party
considers as its own province, or attempts to insulate itself
from such power. Conflict arises when two groups tasked with
cooperating on a collective operation are unable to find an
agreement on the coordinated effort. Additionally, two or more
forms of latent disputes can exist concurrently.
2. Perceived conflict:
According to another school of thought, presumed
conflict happens as individuals misinterpret one another's real
positions. Conflict can sometimes be perceived even though
latent conflict factors do not occur, and latent conditions can
exist in a partnership without either of the participants
noticing. Such a dispute may be settled by enhancing the
parties' coordination.
3. Felt conflict:
A critical difference between perceiving and
experiencing conflict is that x might be well conscious that he
is at odds with y over a particular policy. However, this does
not cause x to become nervous or anxious, and it may have
little impact on x's love towards y'. The personalization of
confrontation is the process through which certain individuals
become nervous with conflict dysfunctions. In other terms, it
causes them to become aware of the confrontation.
There are two possible reasons for the individualized
nature of dispute – i individuals experience anxiety as a result
of the contradictory demands of productive organization and
personal development. Anxiety may also be a function of an
identity disorder or external stresses. Individuals need outlets
for their anxieties in order to preserve internal equilibrium; (ii)
conflict becomes intimate because the whole identity of the
individual is engaged in the partnership.
4. Manifest conflict:
We define manifest conflict as any of many types of
conflictual conduct, including overt hostility, apathy, sabotage,
withdrawal, and complete compliance with laws. With the
exception of jail protests, democratic movements, and serious
labor strife, violence as a manifestation of manifest conflict is
uncommon. While the motivations for aggression may persist,
they are often articulated in less violent ways.
5. Conflict aftermath:
 Based on how a conflict is handled, the result may
bring either beneficial or detrimental consequences for the
organization. If the dispute is truly settled to the benefit of all
partners, the groundwork for a more cooperative partnership
can be laid; instead, participants seeking a more ordered
relationship may concentrate on latent tensions that were not
previously perceived or addressed.
in the other side, if the dispute is merely subdued but
not overcome, the latent circumstances of conflict which
become exacerbated and erupt in a more severe way before
they are corrected. This is referred to as "conflict aftermath."
The following six factors help in surfacing conflict
in an organisation:
Factor 1: member heterogeneity:
In major organizations, member heterogeneity is evident
due to ethnic and theological backgrounds, ideals and
convictions, educational status, and age factor, among others.
Heterogeneity is expected to be supplanted by homogeneity
through time.
Factor 2. Inconsistency of status hierarchy:
conflict may often arise as a result of work place or
neglected feelings in various divisions and units, as well as not
being accorded the appropriate status within the organizational
framework. As a result, it becomes a matter of rank and vanity
for the staff.
Factor 3: job dissatisfaction:
This occurs when people and departments are not
assigned the positions they seek. Simultaneously, these
positions have been assigned by the organization to several
other persons and divisions. This type of position dispute often
happens when the organization's formal authority fails to act or
becomes inefficient. In such a situation, resolution of
disagreement is only feasible if a suitable formal activity is
assigned.
Factor 4: defective formalization:
Formalization is the process of standardizing an
organization's behavioral patterns through the use of laws and
regulations. If the functions of persons and units are well
described in a way that minimizes the possibility of
confrontation. In either scenario, a lack of formalization
increases the likelihood of disagreement regarding positions,
functions, and authority.
Factor 5. Decision-making system:
Decision-making is a critical feature of management in
an organization. A department's structure can be standardized.
Any authorized to make significant managerial, economical,
and disciplinary decisions, etc., shall be defined and
communicated to divisions, sub-sections, and groups.
Simultaneously, responsibility for routine decisions necessary
for smooth operation must be assigned to all heads of agencies
and divisions in accordance with administrative requirements.
This would ensure that there are no misunderstandings or
disputes.
Factor 6: consolidating competing units:
in an organization, where one or more units are prone
to disagreement on a variety of problems and are uninterested
in resolving them, this is not a good scenario. In such
instances, position differences, ego issues, and insufficient
output data should be analyzed by management, and if
possible, integration of such divisions should be advised in the
best interests of the organization to prevent confrontation.
Organizational conflict –
Different patterns of conflicts in an organisation can be mainly
considered under the following heads:
1. Behavioral pattern: it has been observed that the majority
of organizations' issues are mostly human-related. Person
disputes, for example, manifest due to a variety of factors such
as unacceptability, complexity, and incompatibility. When a
person aspires for a result but does not obtain it, the aspiration
to attain becomes incompatible.
As a result, there is no fulfillment. Individuals are
constantly confronted by intolerance and confusion for a
variety of purposes.
Individuals may become embroiled in dispute for a variety of
reasons, including i frustration and (ii) goal disagreement.
i frustration: this occurs in an individual's behavioral style
when his motivational impulses are thwarted prior to
accomplishing a task. Frustration contributes to a variety of
other psychiatric issues, such as decision-making and
subjective insecurity in finding appropriate alternatives. The
solution for such cases is for the person to be appropriately
motivated to consider conflict-avoidance alternatives.
(ii) Goal conflict: wherever a state of opposing interests
occurs, it causes conflict between parties, since one is unable
to choose from a suitable agenda in order to reach an
agreement that is agreeable to both. Similarly, there could be a
variety of unions, each with its own ideology. These unions'
and management's perspectives can differ. As a result, in the
organization's best interest, management and unions will need
to cooperate to ensure smooth operation. Collaboration is
critical as partners have conflicting commitments and an
agreement may jeopardize their desires.
2. Structural conflict: in an organization, structural conflict
may be classified into four broad categories:
I. Hierarchical;
ii. Functional;
iii. Line and staff; and
iv. Formal and informal communication.
i. Hierarchical conflict – it is that conflict, which exists
among different levels of management of an organisation. For
instance, top management and middle management can clash.
ii. Functional disagreement – this occurs within the
organization's different functional units. For instance, a
disagreement between the manufacturing and marketing
departments.
iii. Dispute between line and staff members – this can be
described as conflict between line and staff members. This is
often the case, since team members lack control regarding line
management.
Iv. Conflict between formal and informal organizations –
this naturally happens between formal and informal
organizations that operate inside an institution. Formal
organizations are organized in such a way that they serve the
organization's interest. They are typically established to
accomplish a particular mission assigned to an organization.
They are developed in accordance with defined rules and
regulations. Whereas informal organizations are formed to meet
a variety of social needs on an individual basis. The friction
emerges here as 'organisational needs' and 'social needs'
collide.
Three major causes of organizational conflict:
interdependence between departments and groups, disparities
in objectives and perceptions
The following categories apply to the sources of dispute within
an organization:
Cause 1: departmental and group interdependence:
Though interdependence is at the heart of the modern
processes strategy, it often occurs often between divisions and
classes. When an organization's resources are small, mutual
interdependence results in conflict. With scarce capital, each
department or community attempts to project its own
unavoidable need.
The organization or community that manipulates its
way to a larger share creates discontent within the agency, and
can be robbed of all its rightful needs. It is impossible to
develop a foolproof system for administering the organization's
limited resources in the form of revenue, staff, and equipment
evenly or even equitably among its various departments. As a
result, friction will inevitably occur before the resource
situation changes. As resource reliance grows, the rate of
conflict is likely to rise uncontrolled.
The other source of contention is the activities'
interdependence on one another in terms of timing.
Occasionally, the success of one department / group is
contingent upon the execution of a mission by another
department / group on time. If one department is unable to
accomplish a mission on schedule, the other department would
be unable to begin and complete its tasks. Individuals often
have a finite amount of time. Diverse tasks are required to be
completed under the time constraint. Interdependence is the
underlying cause of dispute, and arises as a result of
specialization.
Increased specialization, increased interdependence, and
increased potential for confrontation within the organization.
if environmental environments are not correctly
predicted, the tension that results from specialization becomes
much more acute.
Cause 2. Difference in goals:
Conflicts can arise as a result of divergent objectives between
subunits or divisions.
This disparity in subunit objectives is attributable to
four organizational characteristics:
A. Mutual reliance on scarce capital.
B. Compensation schemes that is competitive.
C. Person differences in goals.
D. Disparities in organizational operational objectives.
When resources are scarce and operational-level
employees seek high salaries, a dispute between the operating
force and management can occur. In light of the capital
limitation, the management views the demand as
unconstitutional and untimely. Additionally, a competitive
incentive scheme fosters conflict between various units and
classes. Any party that exerts pressure earns more and
succeeds in obtaining. It will engender discord among the
group's other participants.
Individual differences in priorities contribute to
organizational tension as well. Individuals of heterogeneous
personalities as a result of their varied life patterns,
sociopolitical backgrounds, and attitudinal growth should have
disparate individual objectives. This distinction is reflected also
in departmental or company objectives. According to latent
variability, little uniformity may be achieved.
Intergroup discord often occurs where the
organization's organizational objectives are not stated
objectively and plainly. The opposing parties defend their
disagreements with the alibi of organizational goal subjectivity.
It is advantageous for planners to define also the operational
objectives precisely and critically.
Cause 3: perceptional disparities:
Perceptions can be described as the process of
processing knowledge through various senses and interpreting
and organizing it based on prior experience. Perception is a
neurological aspect of human identity that is dependent on
both the knowledge and communication systems and the
individual's personality growth.
Personality, which consists of psycho-physical components, is
formed by the conditions in which the individual was raised. As
a result, various individuals and organisations have varying
perspectives on specific events and actions within the
organization. Individuals with a callous attitude toward
employment are likely to clash with others who see work as a
kind of worship.
Perception is often contingent upon the origins of
knowledge flow. Time horizon frequently refers to vision
differences. The difference in time horizon is often due to the
person's role within the organization and the activities
undertaken by individuals in various groups, divisions, and
departments.
Traditional and modern approaches to conflicts:
When a person becomes aware of a confrontation, he
immediately believes that something untoward has occurred. It
is an inescapable occurrence in every organization. Conflict is
not often beneficial to the organization. Recently, this viewpoint
on violence in multinational organizations has emerged from
the belief that there is a generational gap in how conflict is
approached.
According to management scholars, citizens from
eastern cultures such as china, korea, japan, taiwan, and other
asian countries and those from western cultures such as the
united states of america and canada have somewhat different
ways to resolving dispute.
The primary distinction between western and eastern
cultures seems to be a strong individualistic orientation, with
an emphasis on ego needs, accomplishments, and so forth,
rather than collective needs and accomplishments. Whereas
eastern society seems to be intensely 'collectivistic,' placing a
premium on community needs and accomplishments above
human needs and accomplishments.
This is not to say that conflict viewpoints must always
be framed in terms of cultural context. However, it seems as if
cultural history plays a significant role in comprehending and
resolving dispute circumstances.
Approach 1. Traditional:
There are two schools of thought in the conventional approach
to conflict:
Classicists (those who adhere to classical popular opinion) ii.
Neoclassicists (emphasis on individual psychology).
I. Classicists: this perspective is widely held.
The below are few methods or directions to express gratitude:
A. To prevent the emergence of violence.
B. If the dispute persists, it can be resolved immediately.
C. The source of dispute must be recognized and eliminated
permanently.
Classicists believe that these approaches can be effectively
implemented by a clearly-defined authority system, as well as
the duty and transparency of the involved staff in the
hierarchy.
ii. Neoclassicists: this is the conventional methodology that
emphasizes human psychology.
They hold the following positions:
i. Acquainting oneself with one's own psychology and
behavioral patterns.
ii. Facilitating and promoting informal participatory
leadership.
iii. Prevent individual discontent and promote organizational
unity.
iv. Informal associations should be allowed to compensate for
the shortcomings of structured organization.
v. Career enrichment and expansion within an organization
may affect both employee and company job satisfaction.
vi. They also believe that a participatory democratic approach
to decision-making could be essential for progress.
Approach 2. Modern:
According to modernists, confrontation is a common
occurrence. Conflict is an integral part of the system, through
which there will be no 'development,' inventions, or
advancement.
The following are few contemporary perspectives on conflict:
a. Conflict is an inescapable part of every organization.
b. Conflict is neither divisive nor singular in essence.
c. It happens where an organizational framework
adjustment is necessary.
d. Conflict occurs when a person or a party encounters
difficulty in decision-making.
e. Conflict within an organization is regarded as a
positive attitude that fosters improvement and growth
for the sake of improvement, given that the goals are
good.
f. Disagreements between experienced people and work
groups generate fresh concepts. Where it comes to
 claims, people, groups, and organizations are aware of
the advantages and disadvantages of the topic, and it
is advantageous to accept the right view in these
instances.
g. Management must approach conflicts with a
constructive attitude and treat them appropriately,
since they may have both positive and negative
implications.
h. Contemporary management must carefully investigate
a disagreement and reach a conclusion, whether
favorable or not.

As mentioned below, he has delineated five stages that he

refers to as a 'conflict episode':
1. Latent conflict: this is the initial stage in which conflict-
promoting scenarios between people or groups emerge on the
scene. This is the point from which possible conflict-inducing
powers withdraw. For instance, departmental demand for
different services, which certain departments can obtain and be
pleased with, while others may not obtain and be frustrated. As
a result, a condition between two groups can occur. The seed of
discontent has been sown at this stage.
2. Perceived conflict: as one side frustrates the other party's
appetite, people consider the existence of a contradictory
circumstance. For instance, the sales department could need
additional funding for advertising events that the finance
department may be unable to provide. The sales department
could point to a shortage of financing as a possible reason for
the scales to fall. As a result, a dispute between the two can
develop. At this stage, the tension is dormant.
3. Manifest conflict: at this moment, not only is conflict
recognized or acknowledged, but it is often manifested by
covert or explicit conduct. It is a period of unresolved conflict.
All sides formulate tactics for dealing with the other. The sales
department can advocate for additional promotional funds,
especially during festival season.
Finance departments can publicly deny the request if they lack
funds to obtain better raw materials for the production
department. The sales department can contend that superior
raw materials are meaningless unless and unless the details
are communicated to customers, which can only be
accomplished by an advertising strategy. The argument can
seem endless and infuriating.
4. Conflict resolution: conflicts should be settled, and when
they are, there is usually one side who loses. When the
resolution is the result of a win-loses or compromise approach,
the table is set for future confrontation episodes.
5. Conflict aftermath: a losing party can begin planning and
be on the lookout for an opportunity to exact revenge. The
aftermath of a dispute is directly related to the outcomes of the
conflict negotiation style that was implemented and practiced
in each particular circumstance.
Ii. Thomas – kilmann model of conflict resolution:
Whenever an issue involving organizational tension
arises, a remedy exists in the context of conflict mediation
tactics. When working together at the University of Pittsburgh,
Kenneth Thomas and Ralph Kilmann created their model of
how we resolve dispute. Their theories are based on empirical
analysis and well-respected psychological science (Jung, Blake,
and mouton, etc.). The model explains how individuals respond
when confronted with conflict—a scenario in which two
people's interests tend to be mutually exclusive. As in several
other styles, there is no one correct style—effective dispute
resolution allows all sides to be adaptable. However, most of us
will have a favorite style(s), and it helps to be mindful of which
ones these are and how to incorporate them into the grid are
other boxes.
The organization's most often used tactics are as follows:
1. Avoidance: here, the incompatible parties should withdraw
or hide the incompatibility. The organization employs
avoidance tactics. Where there is a simple benefit of deferring
resolution. Avoiding is necessary if businesses are
overburdened by more pressing concerns.
We do not pursue our own or the other person's right,
and therefore do not resolve the dispute. We may simply avoid
discussing it, defer the topic, or withdraw from the situation.
Avoidance is useful where the condition is emotionally
fraught and reasonable negotiation is impossible, where there
is little chance of resolving the issues (e.g., business policy), or
where other persons might be best equipped to address the
issue.
2. Competition: it is a type of win-lose strategy in which an
individual tries to further his or her own interests regardless of
the consequences for the other conflicting parties. When
dealing with powerful personalities, organizations use
organizational tactics. This senior individual would use their
position to mediate the dispute.
we want to claim or 'win' our status without regard for
the other person's needs. We will use whatever power (rank,
intelligence, etc.) Is available to us to accomplish this goal.
Competing behavior may be useful in emergency circumstances
or where drastic measures are needed that are not in the other
person's best interests, such as expense savings,
redundancies, laws, and compliance.
3. Collaboration: as groups collaborate, they plan to resolve a
conflict by resolving conflicts rather than by accommodating
divergent points of view. It is a win-win situation in which all
sides profit. Collaborations are unacceptable when time is
critical, problems are trivial, and the other party's intentions
are incorrect or unconstitutional.
Collaborating is regarded as one of the better tactics,
particularly where the organization's interests are at stake; this
strategy is typically employed where the organization believes
the issue is critical. This strategy is primarily employed in all
organizations where internal tension may be resolved. It
encourages problem-solving creativity. It is more time
consuming than the other tactics.
We collaborate closely with the other party to properly
address all parties' issues. We analyze and collect evidence,
look at root causes, and attempt to see the problem on both
angles, such that neither party is forced to concede.
Collaboration enables the fusion of divergent perspectives on
an issue (e.g., the approach is one that no party might have
created alone), the acquisition of engagement from others that
would be responsible for implementing the solution, and the
formation of long-term relationships.
4. Accommodation is a lose-lose scenario in which one party
wants to satisfy an adversary; that party must be able to put
the adversary's interests ahead of his or her own, i.e., one party
willing to be self-sacrificing. When a controversy arises over a
relatively minor problem, the organization employs
accommodating tactics to settle the dispute.
We disregard our own needs in favor of the other
person's desires. We have a natural proclivity towards selfless
kindness – including charities – and are completely
noncompetitive. Accommodation is beneficial in the long run,
for example, when giving in on this point would result in
improved ties in the future, or when peace is more relevant
than this specific problem.
5. Compromise: it is a well-known method of settling
disagreement. There is no simple victor or loser in it. It is a
condition in which all parties are able to make a concession. It
is necessary where collaboration is desired but time/resources
are scarce, or where achieving a result, even though it is less
than ideal, is preferable to being without a solution. It is not
appropriate where an innovative approach is needed.
Compromise solutions are the organization's second
preference. When organizations are grappling with topics of
moderate importance, they use a compromising approach. It
always results in a fast resolution. We seek a compromise that
is acceptable to all sides and addresses their issues in part. It
necessitates a desire to share and take and presupposes that
all sides are capable of yielding land. Compromise is
advantageous where a temporary resolution to a difficult
problem or an expedient approach under time constraints is
required, and where satisfying the concerns is not worth the
effort or inconvenience associated with more assertive models.
The manager's job is to provide a perspective on his
unit's activities. Employees must be closely monitored on a
regular basis. Unfortunately, while colleagues are dissatisfied
with one another or their job environment, they are not
necessarily candid regarding their concerns. Other than that,
they can be packed with rage but never attempt to express it.
The traditional 'win-win' outcome that we often pursue when
settling a conflict by negotiation can be accomplished through
collaboration, but is often reached by compromise. While a
win-win resolution will settle the current dispute, it will not fix
latent differences or divergent attitudes.
Introduction
the term "organizational culture" applies to a common
structure of meaning shared by its participants. It is
articulated in terms of common organizational traditions,
principles, behaviors, and convictions. The organizational
culture must be developed and maintained in such a way that
it fosters a hospitable work climate. On the other side,
organizational environment refers to a set of attributes and
influences that workers feel in their employer.
the organization must foster a desirable organizational
environment in order to maximize its effectiveness. This unit
introduces the meaning, fundamental elements, roles, causes,
and consequences of organizational culture. You can gain an
understanding of the idea of cultural compatibility and the
mechanisms through which organizational culture develops.
You can also gain an understanding of the definition and
aspects of organizational environment, as well as the method of
establishing a desirable organizational climate.
Concept of organisational culture
Culture is the axis around which every community or
society revolves. It establishes how representatives
communicate with one another and with other parties.
According to stoner, freeman, and gilbert, culture is a dynamic
amalgamation of assumptions, behaviors, legends, theories,
metaphors, and other concepts that come together to
characterize what it implies to be a citizen of a given
community. However, the focus of this chapter is restricted to
the examination of organizational culture.
When an organization develops a self-sustaining
existence independent of all of its participants and attains
salvation, it is considered to be institutionalized. As an
organization achieves structural permanence, its participants'
accepted styles of behavior become increasingly self-evident.
Thus, a better understanding of what constitutes an
organization's culture and how it is developed, maintained, and
learned would improve our capacity to explain and forecast
employee behavior. The term "organizational culture" refers to a
set of critical understandings held by representatives of an
organization, such as norms, principles, behaviors, and beliefs.
According to recent understandings of organizational
culture, the critical center of organizational culture is a ‘system
of common sense among members.'
According to eliott jacques, organizational culture refers to the
customary or conventional forms of thought and doing things
that are shared by all participants of the organization to a
greater or lesser degree and that new members must learn and
at least partly embrace in order to be admitted into the firm's
service. According to numerous surveys, the principal features
of an organization's society are as follows:
Innovation and risk taking: the extent to which workers are
motivated to innovate and take calculated risks; attention to
detail: the extent to which employees are required to pay
attention to detail.
Outcome orientation: the extent to which management is
outcome-oriented rather than process-oriented;
People orientation: the extent to which management
considers the impact of actions on the organization's employees
and shareholders;
Unit orientation: the extent to which projects are organized
around a team rather than specific contributors;
aggressiveness: a person's proclivity to be offensive or
competitive rather than passive; stability: the degree to which
the maintenance of the status quo is prioritized over growth;
Person autonomy: the degree to which persons in an
organization have accountability, flexibility, and opportunities
to exercise initiative;
Structure: the number of laws and regulations in place, as well
as the level of strict oversight used to monitor and regulate
behavior;
Support: the degree to which managers offer assistance and
comfort to their subordinates; The extent to which participants
associate with the organization as a whole, rather than with
their own task group or area of technical expertise;
Performance-reward: the extent to which an organization's
rewards are contingent on employee performance;
Tolerance for confrontation: the degree to which conflict
exists between colleagues and work groups, as well as the
ability to be candid and transparent regarding disagreements;
Attitude towards change: the manner in which modern
approaches, forms, and principles are viewed;
Focus: the vision of an organization's aims and priorities as
articulated by those in control;
Standard and values: the success and behavior standards that
are deemed suitable by formal and informal criteria;
Rituals: symbolic events that serve to support and affirm
organizational expectations and values;
Openness, contact, and supervision: the degree and nature
of exchange permitted; communication may flow downward,
upward, through the organization, or in other directions as
defined by the community.
Business and consumer orientation: the organization's
sensitivity to its markets and customers;
Excitement, pride, and corps esprit: a visibly positive
attitude toward the organization and its activities;
Individuals' ability to strive for targets on an ongoing basis.
The essential elements of culture
According to Schein, organizational culture is
composed of three fundamental components:
Objects: it is the organizational culture's foundational level.
That is the organizations' visible icons and marks. It
encompasses the organization's observable components, such
as systems and procedures. Artifacts are notoriously difficult to
decipher. Espoused values: they are the justifications (e.g.,
policies, objectives, and philosophies) that an organization has
regarding its behavior. It is the organizational culture's second
phase.
Fundamental assumptions: fundamental assumptions are the
values that representatives of an organization take for granted.
These are the ultimate basis of principles and behavior, and
they involve the unconscious, attitudes, implicit views,
emotions, and feelings, among others. It is the organizational
culture's third phase. Organizational cultures may be classified
according to their fundamental beliefs. Core principles are the
organization's predominant or dominant values. The
organization's dominant ideals define its dominant community.
Thus, the overarching community represents the organization's
basic beliefs, which are held by the majority of its participants.
Martin identifies four other fundamental values:
 Sensitivity to the wishes of consumers and employees;
 Independence to initiate innovative ideas;
 Willingness to take new risks;
however, the existence of a prevalent culture within an
organization does not exclude the existence of subcultures
within that culture. Subcultures can exist within the dominant
community, especially in large organizations. Subcultures are
micro cultures within an organization that are usually
characterized by department names and regional
differentiation.
 Certain organizations may have a robust community,
whereas others may have a shallow one. Core beliefs are
fervently kept and commonly expressed in organizations of
solid cultures. Managerial types can be more person-centered
in poor societies. Strong environments result in increased
behavioral stability and employee retention.
Additionally, strong cultures may act as a replacement for
formalization.
numerous findings indicate that national culture has a
greater influence on workers than organizational culture does.
This is an important aspect to recognize when implementing
behavioral interventions in a multicultural organization.
Functions of organisational culture
The social framework that holds the organization intact
is its culture. Organizational culture has three primary
functions: it provides participants of a sense of identity; it
increases devotion to the organization's mission; and it clarifies
and strengthens behavioral expectations. Child has clarified
that culture is one of the psychological techniques used by
organizations to exert influence. According to him, cultural
influence benefits four areas: • fostering a close identification
with management goals; • fostering semi-autonomous work
with little formal controls; • placing a premium on workforce
acquisition, recruitment, and development; and • fostering a
reward-oriented environment conducive to tenure protection
and career advancement.
There is, though, another aspect of the coin. Although
organizational culture can be an advantage, it can also become
a detriment at times. Community, especially a powerful one,
may have a detrimental impact on an organization's
effectiveness. Several of the obstacles provided by a good
organizational culture, in particular, include the following:
Change obstacle: when an organization is confronted with a
secure world, consistency in behavior is an advantage. It can,
however, strain the organization and make it more difficult to
adapt to environmental changes.
Barrier to diversity: individuals with diverse cultural
backgrounds, particularly in multicultural organizations, may
bring diverse strengths to the workplace. Nonetheless, these
disparate talents and behaviors are likely to dwindle in
organizations with a large organizational culture, as a result of
intense pressure to adapt. Again, organizational culture may
become a disadvantage if it fosters institutional racism or
institutionalizes an insensitive attitude toward individuals with
diverse cultural backgrounds.
Acquisition and merger obstacles: during acquisition and
merger, there is a strong degree of cultural convergence. When
two or more businesses with disparate organizational cultures
unite, they must both develop a distinctive culture for the
newly formed organization. However, whether one or more
parties have an obstinately powerful culture, the culture can
have a detrimental effect on the whole transaction and merger
episode.
Factors influencing organisational culture
In an organization, culture is developed by a variety of
influences. Once an organizational culture is established, it is
maintained by a variety of other influences. Following this
point, cultures are created, and workers acquire culture by
simple exposure to a specific cultural atmosphere. Let us now
examine the origins of culture, its maintenance, its
development, and employee culture learning.
Culture is created in three distinct ways:
Employers recruit and retain workers who share their
beliefs and values; employers indoctrinate and socialize these
employees; and employers' own behavior serves as a reference
model for employees to associate with. Three forces are critical
in maintaining a culture: selection practices; top management
actions; and socialization process.
Thus, an organizational culture is created as a result of
the presence of several forces. These influences include, but
are not limited to, the following: organizational philosophy;
hiring criteria; top management as a role model; and
socialization method. Employees learn about their
organization's culture in a variety of ways. Several critical
pathways are discussed below:
Symbols are material symbols that convey messages
that transcend their inherent value;
Stories highlight critical facets of an organization's
ethos, and telling them to workers is an important way to
adopt or reaffirm certain values;
Impact of organisational culture
Numerous findings have shown that some aspects contribute
to the effectiveness of certain organizational environments
over others. According to one study conducted by Kotter and
Heskett, culture has a significant effect on an organization's
success. The report concludes with four major findings:
• Corporate culture may have a significant impact on a firm's
long-term economic performance; • corporate culture can
almost certainly become a more important factor in
determining a firm's success or failure in the future; •
corporate cultures that inhibit strong long-term financial
performance are not uncommon; they develop easily, often in
firms staffed by reasonable and intelligent people;
In an organization, a set of objective variables
(innovation, risk taking, attention to detail, result orientation,
people orientation, team orientation, aggressiveness, and
stability) is viewed as organizational culture, which may be
strong or weak, or somewhere in between, which contributes
to success and satisfaction. Community has a practical as
well as a dysfunctional impact on an organization's
effectiveness. On the plus hand, culture has an impact on
control, normative order, creativity, advancement, and the
success and happiness of employees. On the downside,
society will foster groupthink, collective blind spots, and an
aversion to change and creativity.
Culture-person compatibility
Culture is mostly a descriptive analysis, not an
evaluative study. Each society has both functional and
unstable facets. It will be fascinating to see how various
cultures fit different kinds of people. According to Goffee and
Jones' research, organizational culture is determined by two
variables. The first characteristic is sociability. It is associated
with a strong people orientation, a strong team orientation,
and a process-oriented approach rather than an outcome-
oriented approach. The second is altruism. It is an indicator
of mission orientation and is associated with a high level of
information sensitivity and aggressiveness. Both
measurements can be high or low in a given society.
These two dimensions result in four distinct
organizational cultures, which are explored in detail below:
• Networked society (characterized by a high level of sociability
and a low level of solidarity): the positive side of this culture is
that knowledge is freely shared; the negative part is that it
tolerates bad results and fosters the emergence of political
cliques. If you have strong social skills and empathy, enjoy
developing near work-related partnerships, excel in a
comfortable and convivial environment, and are not
concerned with productivity and job success, you will fit into
networked culture.
• Mercenary society (low sociability, high solidarity): positive
aspects involve a heavy emphasis on target achievement and
objectivity; negative aspects include cruel exploitation of
individuals considered to be low performers. You are more
likely to blend into mercenary culture if you are goal-oriented,
competitive, enjoy well-structured job assignments, enjoy
taking calculated risks, and are capable of dealing freely with
confrontation.
• Fragmented community (poor sociability; low solidarity):
employees are evaluated purely on their productivity;
detrimental characteristics entail unfair criticism towards
others and a lack of team spirit. Perhaps you are suited to
fractured society if you are self-sufficient, lack a deep need to
belong to a community, are pragmatic rather than intuitive,
and have a strong sense of self that is not easily disturbed.
• A communal society (characterized by a strong level of
sociability and solidarity): positive aspects involve a sense of
identity while maintaining a ruthless emphasis on mission
achievement; negative aspects include the leader's excessive
involvement, which also results in the creation of adherents
rather than followers. If you have a deep desire to associate
with something larger than yourself, enjoy operating in teams,
and are eager to put the organization first, you will fit into
communal culture.
Developing organisational culture
to build organizational culture, it is necessary to first
understand what an organization's culture might look like. If
Robins and Kilmann's ideas are combined with rensis likert's
idealistic writings, a perfected culture can emerge. We might
suggest that an optimal culture for achieving an
organization's goals is one in which:
a. The organization's goals are identified and revised on a
regular basis with the involvement of both persons and
organizations within the organization.
b. Decisions are taken at the required organizational level
by others who must deal with the outcome.
c. Behavior is consistent with the organization's priorities
and objectives.
d. The organization is receptive to the unique interests of
its workers.
e. Individuals and associations demonstrate a strong
degree of confidence and reverence for one another.
f. There is a strong degree of trust and faith between
superiors and subordinates.
g. Cooperation and coordination are ingrained in the
organization at all stages.
h. The primary methods of motivation are incentives and
engagement.
i. Individuals are frugal.
j. Messages are routed upward, downward, or through the
organization when necessary to ensure that
communication reaches the intended recipients.
k. Subordinates are receptive to downward correspondence.
l. Correspondence with others is truthful and obtained
with an open mind.
m. Improvements are made to efficiency and target
achievement.
n. Changes are received and approved in a transparent
manner.
 o. Individuals express joy in their accomplishments and
their boss.
p. Individuals are driven by the satisfaction associated with
achieving the organization's goals
q. individuals are motivated by the pleasure associated
with achieving the organization's goals.
r. Conflict is seen as a theoretically positive activity rather
than a disruptive power.
s. The idealistic culture can seem implausible, and in
certain instances, it is. However, management's job is to
do as much of this as practicable.
after mission statements have been made, the typical
starting point for organizing and designing an organization's
community is after mission statements have been created.
Mission statements define the goals and objectives of an
organization. Typically, mission statements provide
information about the goods or services that would be sold,
the consumers that will be served, the partners with which
the organization will communicate, the organization's
obligations to its stakeholders, and other objectives that will
guide the organization's activities. Additionally, value
declarations can be used to demonstrate how an
organization's obligations can be fulfilled.
After vision statements are completed and approved,
management's role in creating the necessary framework for
target accomplishment begins. The formal frameworks (as well
as the informal patterns of interaction) lead to an
organization's culture by laying the groundwork, forming
planned partnerships, and delineating the general limits
under which organizational operation can occur.
Oftentimes, simply outlining a purpose statement and
establishing an appropriate framework would not suffice to
achieve the desired organizational culture. Changes in
organizational culture could necessitate one or more of the
additional measures listed below:
 Change reward systems.
 Add new members.
 Implement culture shock.
 Change the key personnel in top management.
 Involve people.
Concept of organisational climate
although organizational culture and organizational
environment are often used interchangeably, there are
several significant distinctions between the two terms.
Whereas organizational culture is concerned with the
existence of beliefs and expectations regarding
organizational life, environment is concerned with the
extent to which certain beliefs and expectations are met.
Essentially, organizational environment represents how an
individual views the organization of which he or she
belongs.
The organizational environment is a set of
characteristics and influences that workers consider
regarding their organizations, and which exert a
significant influence on their behavior. These
considerations involve, but are not limited to, the work
description, organizational framework, success and
appraisal criteria, leadership style, difficulties and
developments, organizational principles, decision-making
processes, inspiration, coordination, objectives, and
control processes.
The term "organizational environment" refers to the
general atmosphere around the organization, to its degree
of morale, and to the strength of participants' feelings of
belonging, concern, and goodwill. According to Tagiuri
and Litwin, organizational climate is a reasonably stable
quality of an organization's internal atmosphere that is
encountered by its participants, affects their conduct, and
can be defined in terms of the principles associated with a
specific collection of organizational characteristics.
Hodgetts categorizes organizational environment into
two distinct subcategories. He used the example of an
iceberg, where a portion of the iceberg is clear from the
shore while another portion is submerged and invisible.
The observable portion that can be observed or calculated
includes the hierarchy framework, the organization's
priorities and strategies, success expectations and
assessments, and the technical condition of the
operations.
The second group includes intangible yet quantifiable
considerations such as supportiveness, workers' emotions
and behaviors, beliefs, productivity, personal and social
contact with colleagues, supervisors, and supervisors, and
work satisfaction.
Improving the organisational climate
The organizational environment has an impact on the
degree of motivation and behaviors that employees carry
to their job and personal relationships. As a result, it is
critical to foster a positive organizational environment. A
healthy organizational climate is likely to exhibit the
following characteristics: • integration of organizational
 and personal goals; • a flexible structure with a network of
authority, control, and communication, as well as
autonomy for individual members; • leadership styles that
are appropriate for specific work situations; and • mutual
trust, consideration, and support among diverse
employees.
Numerous strategies have been established that
contribute to organizational growth in order to create a
functioning organizational environment. One such
interference is the creation of an organizational culture
using Pareek's Octapace profile. It proposes to create the
following: transparency, confrontation, trust, authenticity,
proactively, autonomy, collaboration, and
experimentation. Once these eight factors are identified in
an organization, they will contribute to the development of
a positive organizational environment.
A stable environment would not always translate into
increased organizational effectiveness. However, an
organization is unable to achieve optimum organizational
efficiency unless the environment fosters a culture of
teamwork and is conducive to inspiring participants to
collaborate enthusiastically and efficiently.
Stress
Definition
Stress is described as "a condition of psychological
and/or physiological imbalance caused by a mismatch
between situational demands and an individual's capacity
and/or motivation to fulfill those demands."
Stress is the body's answer to a transition that
necessitates an alteration or response on a physical,
behavioral, or emotional level. It may be triggered by both
positive and negative interactions. When people experience
discomfort as a result of everything happening around
them, their bodies react by releasing chemicals into the
bloodstream. This chemicals increase a person's vitality
and resilience, which may be beneficial if the stressor is
physical hazard. However, this may be detrimental if their
tension is emotional in nature and there is little outlet for
their increased energy and strength.
Stress may be beneficial or detrimental. When a
scenario presents a chance for a person to achieve
something, stress may be beneficial. It serves as a catalyst
for achieving optimal efficiency. When an individual is
confronted with relational, physical, organizational, or
emotional difficulties, stress may be detrimental. Stress
may manifest itself in a variety of ways, ranging from
headaches, eating disorders, allergies, nausea, backaches,
chronic colds, and exhaustion to diseases such as
hypertension, obesity, diabetes, heart problems, and even
cancer.
What stress is?
Since the term "stress" has been thrown around too
widely and so many perplexing meanings have been
proposed, it is necessary to define what may not constitute
stress. Any of the following is not considered to be a
source of stress:
1) Stress is not synonymous with anxious tension:
2) Individuals that display certain behaviors might
not be under duress.
3) Stress is not an amorphous product of harm to:
normal, even pleasurable, tasks may generate
significant stress without causing obvious injury.
4) Stress is not what triggers an alarm response:
5) That is accomplished by the stressor, not by stress.
6) Stress is not an ad hoc reaction:
7) The stress response follows a very particular
sequence. It has an extremely selective effect on
specific organs.
8) Stress is not an answer to a single stimulus; it can
be elicited by almost any agent.
9) Stress is not often detrimental; it just depends on
how you react to it. Stress associated with
disappointment and embarrassment is detrimental;
moreover, the stress associated with exciting,
imaginative, and profitable work is positive. Stress
reactions, including energy intake, may have
beneficial or detrimental consequences.
10) Stress cannot be avoided and should not be:
11) All is always under a kind of tension. "he is
stressed" is as pointless as "he is running a
temperature." by using those terms, we say an
abnormally high level of tension or body
temperature.
Consider these points, and it's easy to infer that stress
cannot be established and that the term is just not
straightforward enough to act as the subject of clinical
research. Nonetheless, tension manifests itself in a very
visible, physical manner. Numerous individuals either
improved or lost as a result of it. Stress is rather true and
concrete, manifesting itself through precise physiological
shifts.
The stress model of Hansselye
Stressors such as fire, discomfort, poisons, and viruses
elicit a fight-or-flight reaction in the body.
Alarm When confronted with a stressor, the body responds
phase with a "fight-or-flight" reflex, activating the
sympathetic nervous system. Cortical and adrenalin
are released into the bloodstream in response to a
challenge or risk. The body's abilities have now been
enabled.
Resista Although the sympathetic nervous system restores
nce certain bodily processes to regular levels, the
phase sympathetic nervous system directs energy against
the stressor. Blood glucose levels remain elevated,
cortical and adrenalin levels remain elevated, but
the body seems to be stable on the outside. Increase
heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing the body is
already on red alert.
Exhaus If a stressor persists past the capability of the
tion organism, the organism depletes its properties and
phase becomes vulnerable to disease and death.

Stress consists of physiological reactions that occur in

three stages:
Stress levels
Stress may be both beneficial and detrimental. Our approach
to stress—how we treat stress—determines how it impacts us.
There are two categories of levels:
Eustress
Eustress is the term used to describe tension caused by
fun occurrences or circumstances. Eustress is a term that
refers to a fun or curative form of stress. We cannot all escape
stress; in particular, there are days that we wish we could.
Sometimes, it is managed tension that provides one with a
strategic advantage in high-performance activities such as
fitness, public speaking, and acting.
Distress
Distress is the product of stressful occurrences or
circumstances.
Negative tension
When we respond negatively to a sensation, we are simply
experiencing "distress," even though we do not mark it as such.
For instance, the death of a near friend.
Acute stress
Acute stress often lasts a brief period of time and may be
caused by job strain, hitting expectations, a small injury, over
exertion, increased physical exercise, looking for something
you've lost, or related events.
Chronic stress
Chronic stress is an extended period of stress that may
last weeks, months, or even years. This burden is brought
about by poverty, fractured or stressed-out families and
relationships, chronic disease, and a series of life
shortcomings. Individuals who are subjected to this level of
stress become used to it and may also be unaware that they
are experiencing persistent stress. It is very detrimental to their
welfare.
Both anxiety and eustress cause the body to undergo the
same biochemical changes. Though stress is not necessarily
detrimental, our reactions to it may be detrimental or
unhealthy. Both optimistic and negative traumatic experiences
put additional pressures on the body—regardless of whether
the transition is positive or negative, the body responds to an
unforeseen change or a deeply emotional encounter. When
discomfort is brief, the cumulative impact is slight, and the
body will relax, refresh, and revert to normal.
Potential stressors
The term "stressors" refers to the factors that contribute to
stress. The origins or triggers of organizational and non-
organizational tension are as follows.
Individual level stressors:
1) Career changes: when a person is abruptly transferred to a
different position, he is put under pressure to assume new
duties properly. Stress may also be caused by under- or over-
promotion, demotion, or relocation.
2) Career concerns: if an employee believes he is falling
behind on the organizational ladder, or believes there are no
prospects for self-growth, he will encounter tension. As a
result, unmet job goals are a significant cause of tension.
3) Role ambiguity: this happens when an employee is unsure
of his or her role on the job. His roles and duties remain
unclear. The employee is unsure about his responsibilities.
This causes doubt in the worker's head which results in
discomfort.
4) Role conflict: this occurs when various individuals have
varying perceptions about an individual playing a specific role.
It will also arise if the work does not meet expectations or if the
job requires a certain form of behavior that conflicts with the
individual's core beliefs.
5) Role overload: individuals who work multiple shifts can
experience stress. Employees could be forced to work day shift
for a few days and then night shift for the remainder of the
week. This can cause difficulties in transitioning to transfer
schedules, which can impact not just the employee's personal
life, but also his or her family life.
6) Frustration: another source of tension is frustration. When
goal-directed behavior is obstructed, frustration results.
Management should make an effort to eliminate impediments
and assist workers in achieving their objectives.
7) Life changes: life changes can be stressful for a person. Life
transitions may be gradual or abrupt. Slow life changes involve
aging, whereas abrupt life changes include a loved one's death
or injury. Sudden life transitions are very painful and
impossible to deal with.
Group level stressors:
1) Managerial conduct: some managers contribute to
employee stress by displaying erratic behavior. Failure to offer
appropriate assistance inadequate course demonstrating a lack
of interest and creating an ecosystem conducive to high
efficiency.
2) Lack of community cohesiveness: each group is defined
by its cohesiveness, but the degree of cohesiveness varies
greatly. Where there is disunity among the participants of a
work community, individuals feel stress. In communities, there
is distrust, jealousy, regular quarrels, and so on, which results
in tension for employees.
3) Lack of participation in decision making: many
experienced employees feel that management should consult
them on matters affecting their jobs. In practice, bosses seldom
meet with affected staff prior to making a judgment. This
creates a sense of abandonment, which may result in tension.
4) Interpersonal and intergroup conflict : interpersonal and
intergroup conflict arises when two or more people or entities
have divergent views, behaviors, ideals, and convictions. This
dispute may be stressful for community participants.
5) Inadequate social care: as people feel they have the
friendship and support of their coworkers, their capacity to
deal with the consequences of stress improves. Without this
type of social reinforcement, an employee will feel increased
tension.
6) Workplace violence is a significant source of interpersonal
tension. Individuals that have been subjected to abuse exhibit
extreme depression after the violent incident. Workplace
brutality is often a source of tension for those who see it.
7) Sexual harassment: this is unwelcome sexual behavior that
has a negative effect on an employee's work efficiency.
Organisational level stressors:
1) Organizational climate: a high-pressure work atmosphere
that puts workers under constant task pressures exacerbates
the stress response.
2) Organizational structure: it establishes the degree of
separation, the extent to which laws and regulations apply, and
the location of decision-making. Excessive guidelines and a
lack of involvement in important decisions affecting an
individual are two instances of systemic factors that which
function as stressors.
3) Organizational leadership: represents the senior
executives' management style. Certain chief executive officers
foster an environment of stress, fear, and anxiety.
4) Organizational transitions: as changes arise, individuals
must transition, which can result in tension. Stress levels rise
as significant or unusual shifts occur, such as the conversion
or adaptation to modern technologies.
5) Career requirements: some occupations are more
demanding than others. Risky and dangerous jobs are more
difficult. According to research, demanding occupations
typically involve continuous supervision of machines and
instruments, uncomfortable physical environments, and
decision-making.
6) Job overload: an excessive work load results in tension
because it places a person under extreme strain. Work overload
can manifest itself in two distinct ways: - qualitative work
overload occurs when an individual is required to conduct a
task that is difficult or outside his or her capabilities.
Quantitative work overload occurs when the amount of tasks
required to be completed in the allotted period is large.
7) Job under load: in this situation, the employee is forced to
do either little or very easy work. Doing fewer work or tasks
that are repetitive and easy will result in frustration and
monotony, which may result in tension.
8) Working conditions: employees can work in inhumane
conditions. This includes insufficient lighting and ventilation,
unsanitary hygiene services, unnecessary noise and pollution,
the presence of poisonous gases and fumes, and insufficient
protective controls, among other things. Both of these
unpleasant environments disrupt humans' physiological and
psychological equilibrium, resulting in discomfort.
Extra- organisational stressors:
1) Technological changes: as a technological environment
undergoes transition, workers are often stressed out with fear
of losing their work or having to adapt to emerging technology.
This can be stressful.
2) Civic amenities: inadequate civic infrastructure in one's
neighborhood may be a source of tension. Inadequate or non-
existent municipal services, such as inadequate water supplies,
unnecessary noise or air pollution, or a shortage of sufficient
transportation, may be very stressful.
3) Caste and religious conflicts: employees who live in places
prone to caste and religious dispute experience tension. In
terms of faith, minorities and lower-caste citizens (particularly
in India) face greater discrimination.
4) Economic factors: market cycle fluctuations cause
economic uncertainty. When the economy is in recession,
citizens become concerned for their own safety. Minor stressors
often contribute to workplace stress.
Stress management
Individual strategies:
1) Biofeedback: biofeedback is a technique for increasing
knowledge of a variety of physiological processes, mainly by
the use of instruments that offer details about the
operation of certain mechanisms, with the aim of
manipulating them at will. Brainwaves, muscle tone, skin
conductance, pulse rate, and pain sensitivity are only a few
of the mechanisms that can be manipulated. Biofeedback
may be used to enhance health and efficiency, as well as
the physiological improvements that often accompany
changes in feelings, attitudes, and behavior. Eventually,
these modifications can be sustained without the use of
additional equipment, even though biofeedback would not
involve the use of additional equipment. Biofeedback has
been shown to be beneficial in treating migraines and
headaches.
2) Time management is the act or method of planning and
maintaining deliberate control over the amount of time
expended on particular tasks, with the goal of increasing
efficacy, reliability, or productivity. Time management may
be assisted by a variety of abilities, resources, and
strategies that are employed to handle time effectively
when completing complex activities, assignments, and
priorities on time. This collection of operations covers a
broad range of tasks, including preparing, allocating,
establishing priorities, delegation, time analysis, reporting,
coordinating, arranging, and prioritizing. Initially, time
management was used to refer to either company or work-
related tasks, but the concept was gradually expanded to
cover personal activities as well. A time management
framework is a system of procedures, resources,
strategies, and approaches that has been developed.
Generally, time control is required throughout the
construction of every project, since it dictates the project's
completion date and scope.
3) Meditation is an activity in which a person exercises the
mind and/or creates a state of awareness in order to
achieve some gain, though one might claim that
meditation is a purpose in and of itself. The term
meditation encompasses a broad range of practices (much
as the term sports), ranging from relaxation techniques to
more technical exercises aimed at developing compassion,
 love, patience, and generosity. As a result, it is important
to be precise regarding the style of meditation technique
being examined.
4) Cognitive therapy: based on the idea that depression is
caused by perceptual distortions in the patient, such as
all-or-nothing thought, overgeneralization, and selective
vision. The psychiatrist attempts to bring these distortions
to light first, and then helps the patient to alter his or her
behaviors.
5) Relaxation technique: a relaxation technique (also referred
to as relaxation training) is any tool, mechanism, practice,
or operation that assists an individual in relaxing;
achieving a state of enhanced calmness; or otherwise
reducing discomfort, tension, or frustration. Relaxation
exercises are often used as part of a larger stress control
program and have been shown to reduce body pain, lower
blood pressure, and slow the heart and respiration speeds,
among other health benefits.
Organisational strategies:
Stress is a factor that everybody must deal with on a
regular basis, both in their professional and personal lives.
Given the body's limited capacity to react to stress, it is critical
for individuals to control their stress levels optimally in order to
survive as fully functional human beings.
There are many strategies to manage tension in order to
minimize the dysfunctional effects. Among them are the
following:
1) Role analysis technique (rat): the role analysis technique
assists both the boss and employee in determining the job's
conditions and goals. Through dissecting the work into its
constituent parts, the role of the job for the whole structure
becomes clear. This often contributes to the elimination of jobs,
thus lowering the stress level.
2) Employee assistance program: another often utilized
technique is employee assistance programs, which provide staff
with a range of services. These services include counseling
workers who need help with substance and opioid misuse,
resolving workplace disputes, and resolving marriage and other
family issues. It entails the following:
• Diagnosis. When an employee with a problem seeks
assistance, the eap team makes an effort to identify the
problem
• Treatment. Counseling or support care is delivered by
internal personnel or by recommendation from other sources
• Screening. Employees in high-stress positions are
examined on a regular basis to spot issues early
• Prevention. Persuasion and education was used to
persuade high-risk workers to obtain assistance in changing
2) Organizational stress management program targets:
It includes:
• Anger management and coping skills training;
• Workplace redesign to minimize stressors.
• A change in management style toward one that
emphasizes support and coaching in order to assist
employees in achieving their objectives
• The the flexibility of job hours
• Emphasizing work/life harmony in relation to infant
and elder care
• Improving teamwork and team-building activities
• Improving input on employee success and
management expectations
4) Career counseling: career counseling helps the employee to
obtain professional advice regarding career that would help the
individual to achieve personal goals. Additionally, it informs
staff of any additional educational requirements or advanced
professional preparation that they may pursue. By gaining
awareness about potential job development opportunities,
workers who value their jobs will alleviate uncertainty by being
more positive about their choices and beginning to prepare for
them.
5) Delegation: another strategy for dealing with workplace
pressures is to assign certain tasks to others. Delegation will
directly alleviate the manager's workload and contribute to
stress reduction.
6) Additional information and assistance: certain prospective
hires are required to invest more time on a job than expected
due to their inexperience. Thus, assistance should be given
prior to doing the work that will result in increased efficiency
and effectiveness. Additionally, it will alleviate employee fear
and tension.
7) Job relocation assistance: assistance is given to relocated
workers in locating alternate jobs for their partners and
enrolling their children in schools in their new city. These
plans tend to alleviate the fear and tension associated with
relocation.
8) Supervisor training: companies are experimenting with
another form of stress control program: supervisor training.
The supervisory training program places a premium on
preventing work tension. Managers receive training in how to
conduct more accurate performance appraisals, respond to
workers' concerns, and express work tasks and orders more
clearly.
3) Individual stress reduction workshops: however, several
companies have funded individual stress reduction workshops
for their workers. Biofeedback, yoga, job counseling, time
control, and organizational skills courses are also used in these
services. Participants gain a basic knowledge of the triggers
and effects of stress during lectures and seminars.

Links:
Unit 1
Management Https://www.papertyari.com/
general-awareness/
1
management/concept-
management/
Organization Https://
www.yourarticlelibrary.com/
2 organization/organization-
meaning-definition-concepts-and-
characteristics/53217
Importance of Https://
3 management www.managementstudyguide.co
m/management_importance.htm
Nature of Https://
management www.yourarticlelibrary.com/
4 process management/process/
management-process-nature-
features-and-functions/53139
Functions of Https://
management courses.lumenlearning.com/
5 suny-principlesmanagement/
chapter/primary-functions-of-
management/
System approach to Https://
management freebcomnotes.blogspot.com/
6
2016/10/system-approach-to-
management.html
Taylor’s scientific Https://byjus.com/commerce/
7 management taylor-principles-of-scientific-
theory management/
Fayol’s principles of Https://www.toolshero.com/
8 management management/14-principles-of-
management/
9 Leadership styles Https://www.imd.org/hpl/
leadership-reflections/leadership-
styles/
 Https://www.mindtools.com/pag
es/article/newldr_84.htm
Social Https://
responsibilities of content.personalfinancelab.com/
management finance-knowledge/
10
management/social-
responsibility-management/?
v=c4782f5abe5c
Designing Https://studiousguy.com/
11 organizational organizational-design-structure/
structures
Mbo process and Https://
concepts www.businessstudynotes.com/
12 hrm/principle-of-management/
steps-in-process-of-management-
by-objectives/
Unit 2
Human resource Https://
1 management www.humanresourcesedu.org/
what-is-human-resources/
Concepts of hrm Https://www.quora.com/what-
2 are-the-basic-concepts-of-
human-resource-management
Basic functions of Https://
hr manager www.businessmanagementideas.
3 com/human-resource-
management-2/functions-of-
hr/20362
Manpower planning Https://
4 www.managementstudyguide.co
m/manpower-planning.htm
Recruitment Https://
www.smartrecruiters.com/
5
resources/glossary/
recruitment/
Selection Https://www.toppr.com/
guides/business-management-
6 and-entrepreneurship/human-
resource-management/selection-
process/
Training and Https://www.toppr.com/
development guides/business-management-
7 and-entrepreneurship/human-
resource-management/training-
and-development/
8 Wage and salary Https://
 administration www.economicsdiscussion.net/
wages/wage-system/wage-and-
salary-administration/32097
Performance Https://
appraisal www.economicsdiscussion.net/
9 performance-appraisal/
performance-appraisal-in-hrm/
31873
Grievance handling Https://
and welfare www.yourarticlelibrary.com/
administration human-resources/grievance-
handling-definition-features-
10 causes-and-effects/32387,
Https://www.yourarticlelibrary.c
om/human-resource-
management-2/employee-
welfare/employee-welfare/99778
Job evaluation and Https://accountlearning.com/
merit rating merit-rating-meaning-objectives-
merits-dangers-uses-
11 suggestions/,
Https://backup.pondiuni.edu.in
/storage/dde/downloads/hrmiv
_cm.pdf
Marketing Https://
management www.economicsdiscussion.net/
12 marketing-management/what-
is-marketing-management/
31788
Marketing mix Https://creately.com/blog/
13 elements diagrams/elements-of-
marketing-mix/
Marketing strategies Https://www.weidert.com/
14 blog/top-10-most-effective-
marketing-strategies
Unit 3
Strategic Https://
management www.managementstudyguide
1
.com/strategic-
management.htm
Strategy - definition Https://
2 and features www.managementstudyguide
.com/strategy-definition.htm
3 Components of a Https://
strategy statement www.managementstudyguide
.com/strategy-statement-
 components.htm
Importance of vision Https://
and mission www.managementstudyguide
4
statements .com/importance-of-vision-
and-mission-statements.htm
Strategic Https://
management www.managementstudyguide
5
process - .com/strategic-management-
process.htm
Environmental Https://
scanning - www.managementstudyguide
6
.com/environmental-
scanning.htm
Steps in strategy Https://
formulation process www.managementstudyguide
7
.com/strategy-formulation-
process.htm
Strategy Https://
implementation - www.managementstudyguide
8
.com/strategy-
implementation.htm
Strategy formulation Https://
vs strategy www.managementstudyguide
9
implementation .com/strategy-formulation-
vs-implementation.htm
Strategy evaluation Https://
process and its www.managementstudyguide
10
significance .com/strategy-
evaluation.htm
SWOT analysis - Https://
11 www.managementstudyguide
.com/SWOT-analysis.htm
Features of Https://
corporate planning: www.yourarticlelibrary.com/
business/corporate-
12 planning/corporate-
planning-features-process-
and-analysis-management/
69738
What is value chain Https://www.visual-
analysis? paradigm.com/guide/
13
strategic-analysis/what-is-
value-chain-analysis/
Generic strategy Https://www.iedunote.com/
14 alternatives levels-of-strategy
 Bench marking Https://www.oberlo.in/
15 ecommerce-wiki/
benchmarking
Balanced score card Http://
16 as contemporary www.whatishumanresource.c
business strategies om/balanced-scorecard
Unit 4
Perception Https://
1 www.iedunote.com/
perception
Impression Https://www.iedunote.com/
2 management impression-management-
techniques
- personality Https://
development www.tutorialspoint.com/
3 organizational_behavior/
organizational_behavior_pers
onality.htm
Theories of Https://
personality www.tutorialspoint.com/
4
organizational_behavior/
theories_of_personality.htm
Socialization Https://open.lib.umn.edu/
5 sociology/chapter/4-1-the-
importance-of-socialization/
Learning Https://
6 www.geektonight.com/what-
is-learning/
Reinforcement Https://
7 motivation www.geektonight.com/what-
is-motivation/
Theories of Https://contactzilla.com/
motivation blog/5-psychological-
8
theories-motivation-increase-
productivity/
Unit v
Group dynamics Https://
www.yourarticlelibrary.com/
management/group-
1
dynamics-its-characteristics-
stages-types-and-other-
details-management/5363
2 Organizational Https://
conflicts www.yourarticlelibrary.com/
organization/conflict-
 management/organizational-
conflict/99695
Organizational Http://egyankosh.ac.in/
climate and culture bitstream/
3
123456789/12256/1/unit-
17.pdf
Stress Https://
www.slideshare.net/
4 rajatgupta4ever/stress-
management-15823556?
from_action=save