Journal of Energy Research and Reviews

Volume 14, Issue 1, Page 9-25, 2023; Article [Link].98538

ISSN: 2581-8368

A Review of Improved Cooker Stove

Utilization Levels, Challenges and
Benefits in Sub-Saharan Africa
Kingsley Kaputo a*, Mabvuto Mwanza a
and Stephen Talai b
a
School of Engineering, University of Zambia [Link]-32379, Lusaka, Zambia.
b
School of Engineering, Moi University, [Link]-3900, Kesses, Eldoret, Kenya.

Authors’ contributions

This work was carried out in collaboration among all authors. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.

Article Information
DOI: 10.9734/JENRR/2023/v14i1274

Open Peer Review History:

This journal follows the Advanced Open Peer Review policy. Identity of the Reviewers, Editor(s) and additional Reviewers,
peer review comments, different versions of the manuscript, comments of the editors, etc are available here:
[Link]

Received: 22/02/2023
Accepted: 26/04/2023
Review Article
Published: 05/05/2023

ABSTRACT

Many attempts to enhance cooking stoves have been implemented in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).
These programs aim to limit indoor air pollution, improve the lives of women, reduce the usage of
fuel (charcoal), which reduces deforestation, alleviate the financial burden of energy costs on low-
income people, and improve user health by lowering environmental toxins. Other objectives include
reducing global warming and improving the social well-being of people in developing countries. The
efficiency of the Improved Cookstove programs has gotten mixed evaluations. Several of the
projects fell short of their planned objectives, however some did. The use, challenges, and benefits
of programs to enhance cookstoves across sub-Saharan Africa are examined in this essay. It starts
by looking at a few specific Cookstove technologies, which are divided into groups according on the
fuels they burn and whether or not they are mobile. It has been found that factors such as the
technical compatibility of the stoves with social expectations, the conformity to local needs and
cultures, the attitude of the users, who are frequently reluctant to adopt new technology, and the
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

*Corresponding author: E-mail: kingsleykaputo@[Link];

J. Energy Res. Rev., vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 9-25, 2023

Electronic copy available at: [Link]

 Kaputo et al.; J. Energy Res. Rev., vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 9-25, 2023; Article [Link].98538

price of the stove all affect how challenging the programs are. Also, "bottom-up" strategies ensure
the program's success by involving users and regional artisans in the creation of a self-sustaining
sector.

Keywords: Sub-Saharan Africa; cook stove; sustainable utilization; deforestation.

1. INTRODUCTION charcoal demand and furthermore possibly lower

expenses of cooking [5]. With a proceeded focus
1.1 Background and Overview and designated execution endeavours, clean
cooking can directly convey gains across 10 of
A clean, sound, and supportable climate is the SDGs and add to an enabling climate for
viewed as the underpinning of human existence accomplishing the whole Agenda 2030 [6].
[1]. In order to accomplish sustainable
development, there is a need for clean and Wood fuel (charcoal and firewood) make up over
efficient energy. A third of the world's population, 70 percent of the national energy consumption in
or about 2.4 billion people, cook over open Zambia as only about 25 percent of the
flames or inefficient stoves powered by population has access to electricity. The nation's
kerosene, biomass (wood, animal manure, and low pay is ceaselessly impacted by the low
crop waste), and coal, which causes dangerous accessibility of maintainable, clean, and
indoor air pollution. In 2020, household air dependable energy. Cooking with solid fuels and
pollution was thought to be the cause of 3.2 inefficient cookstoves has adverse effects on
million annual deaths, including over 237 000 human health and the environment. One initiative
deaths of children under the age of five. 6.7 for sustainable energy provision in urban Zambia
million premature deaths per year are attributed has been the introduction of improved
to the impacts of household and ambient air cookstoves (ICS) based on sawdust pellets to
pollution combined. Exposure to household air replace traditional cooking on charcoal braziers
pollution increases the risk of developing non- that have dominated usage in homes since the
communicable diseases such as lung cancer, 1930s [7]. In order to improve household air
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), quality, requires defining “clean” for health at
ischemic heart disease, and stroke. The highest point of use. The WHO has set guidelines for the
health costs associated with the use of polluting quality of indoor air. The guidelines discourage
fuels and technologies in households are borne the use of charcoal in homes. An improved
by women and children who are often in charge cookstove (ICS) depicts a stove with higher
of household tasks like cooking and collecting effectiveness or lower emissions than a
firewood. To reduce indoor air pollution and customary stove, yet can incorporate an
safeguard public health, it is crucial to increase extensive variety of use [8].
the use of clean fuels and technology. These
include biomass stoves that fulfil the emission Household energy consumption in urban Zambia
targets in the WHO Guidelines, solar energy, is dominated by charcoal. Charcoal is widely
electricity, biogas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), available, affordable, and the first choice for
natural gas, and alcohol fuels [2]. In addition, domestic cooking for more than 75% of urban
household air pollution (HAP) accelerates Zambians, regardless of income. The charcoal
environmental change on a global scale. value chain also functions as an economic and
Biomass burning pollution and fuel demand- social safety net by providing livelihood and
related deforestation speed up environmental employment opportunities for men, women and
change, which has significant effects on global youth [9].
health [3].
According to the World Bank [10], dependence
Accomplishing general admittance to clean on solid fuel cooking in Sub-Saharan Africa
cooking solutions by 2030 will require a (SSA) is a huge and developing issue. Nearly
significant speed increase in the direction of 700 million Africans (82%) utilize strong
progress, as companies keep on rising out of the energies, for example, wood, charcoal, manure,
monetary aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic crop waste, and coal, for their essential cooking
[4]. The reception of such cook stoves will needs-a number that will arrive at 850-900 million
prompt better ignition of the fuel, and further before the decade's over [10]. This elevated
developed heat transfer prompting a decrease in degree of solid fuel use joined with family

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dependence on wasteful and risky traditional address innovations as old as the revelation of
cookstoves, establishes a first-request general fire and human civilization. The most established
wellbeing emergency: HAP from solid fuel and realized stoves date from around 400,000
cooking kills almost 600,000 Africans yearly and BC (China) to 500,000 BC (Europe), when men
is currently perceived as the second-biggest generally inhabited caves and made fires inside
health risk factor [10]. a circle of stones. In those chilly times, the
reason for the fire was most likely to provide
The world can't accomplish its objectives of warmth. The utilization of fire to plan and protect
tending to environmental change without food indeed became known in the Middle
moreover tending to the fuel energy need of Palaeolithic, i.e., around 100,000 BC [12].
millions for homegrown and institutional cooking Following the advancement of domesticated
[5]. However, the opposite is the case with rural animals and plant cultivation, as well as
areas of Zambia, where the population rely advancements such as ceramics and the
heavily on wood fuel. Charcoal is mainly development of mud houses, the stoves reverted
preferred in urban households generally because to their natural fundamental structure, which has
it is easier to transport and store. However, it is been around for roughly 12,000 years. It is
burned using a traditional Mbaula (brazier), a comprised of stones that hold a cooking pot, a
small, round stove fabricated with metal by local grill, or a ceramic platter. Placed inside the
tinsmiths. Charcoal use contributes to house, sheltered from the wind and rain, or
deforestation and air pollution, especially when outside in the yard, the stove became the focal
burned indoors, also damages people’s health point of the home. It was variable in size, simple
[11]. to introduce, and multi-functional. Further, not
only did it serve for smoking, boiling, or frying
Therefore, there is critical need for development food but also for heating the space occupied by
of an effective and efficient cook stove that can individuals and animals [13]. To secure the pot
use various raw materials such as few woods, an arrangement of three stones was used, and
briquettes, pellets etc for improving the this kind of fire was called the three stone fire
environment by reducing deforestation and (TSF). The TSF Not only made it possible for a
health of the general community. cooking pot to rest securely on it, but it also
helped protect the fire from the whims of the
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
wind. The fundamental hindrance to a three
Most of the accessible literature on improved stone fire is its low efficiency. Users primarily
cooker stoves exhibits the evolution of cook created the improvements to the cook stove
stoves (from traditional to improved cooker design based on their own experiences. Despite
stoves), design, fabrication, and testing. Over the human evolution and the advancements in fuel
long haul, these advancements have helped and stoves, the majority of the estimated 75% of
reduce greenhouse gas emissions and indoor air people who live in the developing world still use
pollution. In addition, this study is to a great three-stone or shielded fires for cooking [14].
extent founded on multidisciplinary literature, and These drawbacks with the TSF are well
it draws on other insightful works on industry and documented. When using biomass fuel, smoke is
improvement that contend that a connection vented into the house rather than outdoors,
exists between the advancement of stoves and which leads to health concerns, wastes fuel
the development of improved multipurpose because heat escapes into the open air, and
cooker stoves. Moreover, the review centres on forces the user to gather more fuel, which may
the advancement of improved multipurpose cause more deforestation because wood is used
stoves and the optimal efficiency achieved to as fuel. When cooking, people, especially
reduce emissions. women, only use one cooking pot at a time,
increasing the risk of burns and scalds [15].
2.1 Historical Review of Cooking Stoves However, the three-stone fire generally still had
the same problems as the open fire, so the
In general, it was noted that "advanced shielded fire was changed to a U-shaped mud or
technology" went hand in hand with the global mud/stone enclosure with a front opening for fuel
issue of deforestation and the significant feeding and combustion air entry. A "built-in
consequences of high energy prices throughout stove" or "mud stove" is an improvement over
the middle and late 1970s. This ushering process the TSF. A "built-in stove" is a semi-durable mud
for cook stove projects is primarily or solely structure that encloses fire from at least three
funded by international organizations [5]. Stoves directions, other than the ground itself [13]. At the

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top rim of the enclosure, three little humps which is a clean-burning and effective cooking
served as a pot rest, an induction point for fuel. For many poor people in urban and rural
secondary air required for improved burning of areas, it has long been a fuel of desire. Due to its
volatile substances, and an exhaust gas exit. A no renewability, LPG is disliked by some in the
decrease in the primary air supply to the fuel can development sector. However, there is a global
cause incomplete combustion, which raises IAP. LPG excess since it is an unavoidable by-product
Laboratory testing of mud stoves revealed rapid of the extraction and refining of oil and natural
boiling, high CO and PM emissions, an average gas. LPG has a far smaller environmental impact
thermal efficiency of about 29%, and a moderate than biomass and other fuels thanks to its
safety rating, primarily due to contained fire [13]. extremely efficient and complete combustion as
Due to the exposure to the fire, the TSF is not well as its long-lasting performance in field use
safe. [16]. Black carbon and other short-lived
pollutants that cause global warming are barely
emitted by LPG. LPG has a low sulphur content
and clean emission profile. LPG cooking is
regarded as the practicable counterfactual level
of pollution in research on the global burden of
disease since it is typically the first clean fuel
customers switch to after using biomass [16].
Africa's low-income nations are attempting to
learn from the widespread use of LPG for clean
cooking in Indonesia, India, and other parts of
Fig. 1. Types of stoves (a) three-stone fire the world, as well as to show that it is affordable
stove and (b) mud stove [3] when the proper supports are in place.
Accessibility might be the main obstacle, with
Although the clean cooking market has advanced
affordability acting as a secondary one that can
substantially, the improved cooking industry in
be overcome by cross-subsidization. If
SSA is still very underdeveloped. Only 11% of
consumers are paying for those fuels, LPG may
Africans cook primarily with "clean" cookstoves
not be more expensive than using biomass for
that employ contemporary fuels, such as
cooking, especially when the rising price of
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) (5%) and electric
charcoal is taken into account [16].
stoves (6%). (The World Bank, 2014). Moreover,
other stoves available in SSA include:

Improved Cook Stoves (ICSs): (For instance,

rocket stoves) are significantly more fuel-
efficient, but they fall short of the required
emission reductions for clean cooking that fully
enhance human health and the environment. 9–
10% more SSA households have access to both
basic ICS (less than 5%) and legacy cookstoves
(less than 5%), which offer only modest gains in
fuel economy and emissions compared to
conventional cooking technologies. In
comparison to other regions worldwide, Africa
Fig. 2. ICSs (improved cookstoves)
has the lowest overall access rate to clean and
better solutions (25%, excluding legacy stoves)
[10]. ICS are intended to be cleaner and more
effective than conventional stoves. They may
burn a range of fuels, including biomass pellets,
wood, charcoal, and other solid fuels. Some
models also have chimneys to exhaust smoke
and lessen indoor air pollution. Fig. 2 shows a
rocket stove.

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG): Nearly three

billion people utilize LPG, also known as
propane, butane, bottled gas, or cooking gas, Fig. 3. Liquefied petroleum gas [17]

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Electric stoves: Electric stoves are clean and Sachs, 2022). Zambia, on the other hand, use
effective because they are fuelled by electricity, the conventional Mbaula stove, which burns
despite Africa’s Sub-Saharan region having a low charcoal and has the pot mostly sitting on the
electrification rate, electric stoves are expensive fuel. Due to inadequate insulation and an
to buy and run [18]. In Sub-Saharan Africa, just excessive number of holes, it produces a lot of
30% of the population has access to electricity, cold extra primary air and has a low combustion
compared to roughly 65% in South Asia and over temperature. Charcoal serves as the main fuel
90% in East Asia [18]. Fig. 4 [19] shows an source for this type of stove [22]. 83.4% of
electric two plate cooker. homes in Zambia use biomass for cooking. More
than 46% of the families use a three-stone open-
fire stove, primarily burning wood, and more than
36% use traditional stoves (mbaula), primarily
burning charcoal. Only 0.4% of people in the
population use improved stoves [22]. Fig. 6
Traditional Mbaula [7] shows the traditional
brazier (Mbaula), while Fig. 2 shows charcoal
which is the conventional fuel for a traditional
stove (Mbaula).
Fig. 4. Electric two plate cooker [19]

Solar cookers: Commonly seen in regions with

abundant sunlight, these burners harness the
sun's energy to cook meals. Solar cookers
employ clean, emission-free solar energy that is
available everywhere. Since solar cooking
technology is less expensive than other
alternative cooking methods like firewood and
gas cookers, which require frequent refilling, it is
one approach to lessen deforestation [20].
Although they are renewable and clean, they
might not be appropriate for all sorts of food. An
example of a solar cooker is shown in Fig. 5 [21].

Fig. 6. Traditional Mbaula [7]

Fig. 5. solar cooker [21]

The accessibility of these various stove types

varies within SSA, and for many residents of the
area, finding clean and effective cooking options Fig. 7. Constant handling and cracking of
continues to be difficult. charcoal [7]

According to the sustainable Development report The constant handling and cracking of charcoal
(2022), only 15.7% of the population of Zambia when using a brazier result in sores and cuts on
cook using clean fuels and technologies. (Jeffrey the hands. Burn dangers exist, and smoke is

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produced. Additionally, it soils pots and hands. Up to four times as many women who cook with
Smoke from a brazier keeps you awake at night biomass develop chronic obstructive lung illness,
because it gives you migraines, intoxicates you, such as chronic bronchitis. The use of coal-
and makes it impossible for you to breathe [7]. burning stoves has been directly connected to
lung cancer in Chinese women. Additionally,
2.2 Deforestation there is evidence connecting indoor air pollution
to cataracts, low birth weight, TB, asthma, and
Deforestation has disastrous effects on the low infant mortality [27]. Particulate matter (PM),
environment. They range from the devastation of carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur oxides (SO), and
crops and deserts to the erosion of watersheds nitrogen oxides (NOx) are pollutants that are
and flooding. And once the trees are gone, so is related to incomplete combustion and are
the firewood that up to 90% of people in some frequently connected to indoor air pollution [5].
developing nations rely on as their main fuel The usage of solid fuels and the manufacturing
source. Simply cooking food has become more of charcoal in the area contribute to the Kyoto
and harder for the world's impoverished. The Protocol's greenhouse gas targets of 120–380 Mt
energy equivalent of around two billion barrels of CO2e (0.4–1.2% of the world's CO2 emissions)
oil is being utilized annually to fuel over one and up to 600 Mt CO2e when particulate matter is
billion cubic meters of wood worldwide. Eighty considered [28]. More than 300 million tons (MT)
percent of this, or the majority of the energy of wood are consumed each year throughout
utilized by the world's poor, is used for cooking SSA as a result of the manufacture and usage of
[23]. Reducing fuel use and consequently having solid fuels for cooking [10]. The figure below
an impact on the rate of deforestation was one of shows black carbon and GHG emissions from
the main drivers behind the "first wave" of solid-fuel cooking in SSA.
improved stove distribution. Between 30% and
50% more fuel might have been saved by To be able to use emissions data to inform
improved wood stoves than what was required to decisions, it is crucial to comprehend the typical
cook over the 3 Stone Fire [24]. ICS have pollutants linked to poor air quality [3]. In Zambia
advantages for the environment in addition to the 0.4 Gg CO2eq is produced from solid fuels [29].
health benefits. More than 300 million tons (Mt) While incomplete combustion of wood results in
of wood are used to produce solid fuels for the release of volatile organic gases, much
cooking each year in Sub-Saharan Africa [25]. higher levels of particulates, carbon monoxide
An estimated 200,000 hectares of forest are (CO), and other undesirable substances, some of
removed annually in Zambia, which is one of the which are carcinogenic, complete combustion of
countries with the highest deforestation rates in wood emits carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen
the world. Due to it predominate use for cooking oxides (NOx), and fine particulates. Black smoke
in households across all income levels in coming from a chimney is a definite indicator of
Zambia, the use of charcoal is a major cause of incomplete combustion [30]. Strong, short-lived
deforestation and forest degradation in Zambia climate pollutants include black carbon (sooty
[26]. Tetra Tech, Alternative to charcoal through particles) and methane released by inefficient
the use of ICSs seeks to lessen the amount of stove combustion (SLCPs) [2].
deforestation directly linked to the manufacture of
charcoal by reducing the consumption of Air pollution is primarily believed to occur
charcoal and boosting the usage of alternatives, outdoors in industrialized nations where fossil
by making alternative technologies and fuels fuels are the main sources of emissions.
available, affordable, and culturally acceptable. However, indoor air pollution (IAP) is typically
thought to be a problem that is related to
2.3 Emissions cigarette use [5]. An estimate of the emissions
from various sources of air pollution can be made
Improved cookstoves (ICS) have been shown to using the emission factor, which is a relative
reduce emissions that contribute to global metric [31]. The unique composition of the fuel,
warming, protect forests and ecosystems, and ambient and combustion temperatures, the rate
reduce HAP, which has a negative impact on at which air enters the fire, the mode of burning,
health [25]. Acute lower respiratory infections are and the type of stove being used during the
among the illnesses brought on by emissions cooking process are just a few of the variables
from indoor air pollution. If exposed to emissions, that affect the composition of the pollutants
a child has a two to three times greater chance of released during the combustion of biomass fuels
developing an acute lower respiratory infection. [5]. This incomplete combustion or the

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recombination of partially oxidized components pollutants including CO2, CO, Particulate Matter
during the combustion process are the causes of (PM), etc. inside the indoor environment,
these undesirable organic compound emissions. according to research (KANDPAL, et al., 1994).
Usually, tar aggregates, inorganic particles, and These cook stoves must be made to burn fuel
the presence of water combine to produce efficiently enough to assist lessen the pollutants'
smoke. The majority of the contaminants that negative effects on health. Fig. 9 below shows
consumers are exposed to can have harmful the available fuels used in Zambia.
health impacts of varying complexity. According
to toxicology, the circumstance, concentration, 2.4.1 Stove body
time, and extent of exposure, as well as the
user's physiological health status, all influence Numerous studies show a strong association
the severity of the effects on users. From a between stove weight and efficiency, with
health perspective, CO and the heavier organic heavier stoves having lower efficiencies.
chemicals, which together make up the majority However, without full combustion chambers, very
of the total suspended particulate matter (PM), light stoves with low heat capacity walls (such
are likely the most significant and harmful thin steel) cannot achieve large power outputs,
pollutants [5]. It has been determined that carbon high efficiencies, or a constant burning. The
monoxide, even in low concentrations, is a very efficiency has typically been greatly boosted by
potent poison, primarily because it reduces the insulating the combustion chamber with burnt
blood's ability to carry oxygen, robbing the body's pottery, low-density pottery, clay, ash mix,
tissues of their essential supply. Sleepiness, pumice stone, cement/vermiculite combinations,
headaches, and loss of consciousness are a few or other heat-resistant insulators [5].
signs of acute CO poisoning. Long-term
exposure to these pollutants may cause 2.4.2 Thermoelectric Generators (TEGs)
physiological disturbances, including lowered
blood PH and smaller new-borns at birth [2]. Thermoelectric generators, often known as
Since haemoglobin, the pigment in human blood TEGs, are solid state energy sources that use
that carries oxygen, is 200 times more attracted the thermoelectric effect to convert heat directly
to carbon monoxide than to oxygen, even a small into electricity. The Seebeck effect, Thomson
amount of CO exposure can be fatal. Because effect, Peltier effect, Joule effect, and Fourier
foetuses primarily rely on their mothers to meet effect are some of the additional forces that
their oxygen needs through blood exchange via combine to create the thermoelectric effect.
the placenta, this is very harmful to them [2]. TEGs are commercially available in a range of
Acute, subacute, and chronic effects on health sizes, shapes, and power levels and have no
are generally the three categories used to moving parts [32]. According to the life cycle
describe the main effects of pollution. Acute study, in addition to the TEG being ecologically
effects, which arise from smoke inhalation and friendly, the demand for alternate power
carbon monoxide poisoning, are the deadliest production methods will increase as fuel prices
and are thought to be the most serious, often rise [33]. In Fig. 5, the operating principle is
even killing those who are affected. Pollutants' shown. Between a heat source and a heat sink is
inflammatory effects on the conjunctiva and a thermoelectric module that is fixed. The module
mucous linings of the respiratory tract, from the generates electricity while heat is transferred
nose to the bronchi, cause sub-acute from the heat source and dissipated via the heat
consequences. The disorders of the lungs and sink. P-n thermoelement pairs make up the
heart, as well as cancer, are the most serious thermoelectric module. The electrical
consequences of chronic impacts. Other types of connections between the positive (p-type) and
consequences in this group include chronic CO negative (n-type) doped semiconductor elements
poisoning, conjunctivitis, and corneal are in series, while the thermal connections are
inflammation that result in poor eyesight and in parallel. The conductors in the module have an
cataract after prolonged exposure to infrared light even distribution of charge carriers at first. The p-
[2]. n thermoelements experience a temperature
difference as a result of the heat input to the
2.4 Fuels Characterization module, QH [32]. The fundamental concept
The use of traditional charcoal, kerosene, and behind TEG is the Seebeck effect of
LPG cook stoves during indoor cooking has the thermoelectric materials, where the voltage
potential to accumulate large concentrations of produced is directly proportional to the

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temperature gradient (Cekdin, et al., 2020), as primarily enable the fan functionality necessary
illustrated mathematically below: to achieve the extremely low emissions levels of
the best gasifier stoves. They increase the
(1) economic value to the end user by enabling
Where T is the temperature differential between phone charging (which can cost more than
the two generator surfaces at K and is the US$0.25 per charge in many African markets)
Seebeck coefficient (V ) of the thermoelectric and possibly reducing household lighting costs
by powering light-emitting diode (LED) lights
materials (TE).
instead of inefficient and pricey fuels like
TEGs are associated with advanced biomass kerosene [10]. The TEG is applied in the biolite
stoves (ACS) which are called electricity- camping stove. This technology was first
generating biomass stoves. Stoves with built-in introduced in 2014 and called it is the Kettle
electric power sources (such as those that Charge [10]. A few examples of ACS are BioLite,
produce their own electricity or those that are Home Stove, Philips Smokeless Stove, and Jiko
powered by outside energy sources like solar Bomba Qintas TLUD (Nigeria). Fig. 6 shows a
panels) may provide a number of benefits. They TEG BS stove by thermonamic.

Fig. 8. Black carbon and GHG emissions from solid-fuel cooking in SSA [10]

Table 1. Description of some fuels and their cook stove efficiency

Type of Fuel Composition of carbon Calorific value Type of cook stove-

(kcal/kg) average efficiency
Wood pellets 75.25–81.41% 4400
Briquettes 41.6 to 50.1 wt% 4000
Charcoal 43% 22000 Coal Cook Stove-32%

Fig. 9. Primary stoves for Zambian households [22]

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the burning fuel, low density and specific heat

walls to contain the fire, a short internal chimney
above the fire, suitably designed channels to
force heat into the pot, and provision of any of
these design tactics are popular. There are
several ICSs that can boost fuel efficiency by
over 30% and cut emissions by 40-75% [13].
Using a cleaner fuel to cook is the healthiest
choice to solve the problem of indoor air pollution
[36]. A clean and efficient stove not only reduces
6,600 Ibs (3 metric tons) of carbon dioxide
emissions annually, but it also provides the users
with a number of benefits like less time and effort
spent gathering firewood and less exposure to
toxic cooking smoke [37]. The improved cooker
stove has been created separately by numerous
research teams. The primary objective of
Fig. 10. Thermoelectric power generation [32] enhancing cooking technology is to raise
implementation success rates by striking a
balance between technical stove performance
and user needs [38]. The burden on the world's
forests has been extensively acknowledged as a
result of improved woodstoves [23]. They have
worked on the carbon monoxide (CO) emissions
from cook stoves in developing nations. The
"water boiling test" protocol, which has become a
recognized international standard method, was
applied in these experiments. For each
experiment, a pot with a known volume of water
was set on the cook stove. The ability to test
emissions and stove efficiency simultaneously is
Fig. 11. Teg BS stove an additional benefit of this method [39]. Other
methods and protocols currently in place for
2.5 Improved Cook Stoves and Pellets testing the performance of an ICS include
Stove Controlled Cooking Test (CCT), and Kitchen
Performance Test (KPT). The WBT is used most
Since 1970, stoves with increased efficiency often to quantify the energy transferred from fuel
have been made available in developing nations. to cooking pot [38]. Improved stoves must be
The goals have been to lessen deforestation, resilient, satisfy user demands, and adhere to
shorten cooking times, lessen the negative cultural norms in order to raise adoption rates
effects of environmental pollution on health, save and, ultimately, lower indoor air pollution and
money, and increases cooking satisfaction [34]. deforestation over the course of the stove's
Despite that, the number of individuals without working life [3]. Fig. 3 [7] shows an improved
access to clean cooking continue to increase in cooker stove by mini moto and Fig. 9 shows the
Sub-Saharan Africa. Between 1990 and 2020, type of fuel used called Pellets.
Sub-Saharan Africa's access deficit has doubled;
since 2000, it has increased by more than 50%, The primary advantage of ICSs over
reaching 923 million (898–946) [35]. The conventional stoves is the use of insulating
"Improved Cookstove" is a cookstove that was materials like clay or fibreglass to retain heat and
created using specific scientific principles to help increase the efficiency of the cookstove. For the
with improved combustion and heat transfer, to available cookstove technology, various
improve emissions, and to work more efficiently classification schemes can be employed. Based
[13]. It may also use contemporary building on the material used to construct the stove and
materials to achieve this goal. An ICS design whether it is fixed or portable, cookstove
seeks to address the disadvantages of traditional technology can be divided into many categories.
stoves while maintaining their affordability and It may also depend on whether the stove has
usability. The use of insulation, a fuel-grate under chimneys and whether the fire box has grates or

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a fan to improve fuel combustion [34]. Depending Envirofit cutting-edge research and development,
on the environment and the type of fuel readily engineering, and rigorous emissions and
available, many types of stoves are in use. durability testing. In comparison to the
Various Cookstove technologies utilized in conventional three-stone open fire, Envirofit's
various nations are addressed below. cookstoves consume 60% less biomass fuel
(wood, crop waste, etc.), emit 80% less smoke
and toxic gasses, and can cut cooking cycle
times by up to 40%. Their chamber life may be
up to 5 years. Currently, Envirofit Cookstoves
can be found all over the world in South America,
Central America, Africa, and Asia [34].

Fig. 12. Cookstove technology [7]

Fig. 14. ROCKET stove [34]

4. UGA STOVES

In a factory in Uganda, uga stoves are made.

Improved charcoal stoves and rocket wood
stoves for domestic use are the two main
varieties. They have a metal sheet covering a
ceramic lining. Ugastoves come in a variety of
shapes and sizes. A metal "pot skirt" is
permanently attached to the outer edge of the
top of the rocket-style wood-burning stove.
Numerous sizes of Ugastoves are produced. Up
to 36% fuel efficiency in charcoal stoves and
58% in wood rocket kinds has been found.
Depending on usage, the stoves have an
estimated functioning life of 3 to 10 years [34].

Fig. 13. Raw biomass [7]

3. ENVIROFIT INTERNATIONAL FAMILY

OF ROCKET STOVES

The stoves have either a ceramic or a metal

chamber and are composed of metal. Advanced
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and heat-
transfer modelling are the foundation of the stove
design. They are made to burn both raw biomass
(wood) and other biomass-derived materials like
charcoal. Engines and Energy Conversion Lab Fig. 15. UGA stove [40]
(EECL) at Colorado State University offers

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5. BCSIR 1 POT PORTABLE AND FIXED like the availability of fuel, how people typically
COOKSTOVE cook, and cultural preferences [41]. Fig. 10
shows an ordinary Jiko stove.
It is the upgraded Cookstove model that the
Bangladeshi government (GOB) is promoting. It
has two air inlets at the base, a metal grate to
improve fuel burning, and a fuel inlet. The stove
can burn wood, branches, cakes made from cow
dung, and briquettes. It has been discovered to
utilize 50% less fuel. [34]. Fig. 11 and Fig. 12
shows the portable and fixed BCSIR stoves
respectively.

Fig. 18. Kenya Ceramic Jiko [41]

6.1 Evaluation and Testing of Cook

Stoves

6.1.1 Controlled Cooking Test (CCT)

The controlled cooking test (CCT) is intended to

evaluate how well the improved stove performs
in comparison to the standard or conventional
stoves that it is intended to replace [42]. The
preparation of a standardized meal, such as oil
or starch, etc., is required for this test, which is
Fig. 16. Pot portable stove [34] also carried out in a laboratory. More information
is provided on the cooking process, including the
amount of time and fuel needed. Using the data
gathered, the cook stove's energy output and
fuel consumption would be estimated. In order to
calculate energy consumption, factors like the
specific heat capacity (Cp) of the utilized matrix
and temperature fluctuations (T) in degrees
Celsius (ºC) will be taken into account [5]. The
CCT, which was designed concurrently with the
Water boiling test (WBT), it offers insight into
how test stoves operate when real end users, as
opposed to lab technicians, prepare food on
them. The CCT serves as a link between real lab
testing and field testing [43].
Fig. 17. Fixed cookstove [34]
6.1.2 Emission test
6. KENYA CERAMIC JIKO (KCJ)
The characteristics that are observed during this
The first charcoal-using stove to be created in test include Carbon Monoxide (CO), Carbon
Kenya was the Kenya Ceramic Jiko (KCJ), which Dioxide (CO2), and Particulate Matter (PM),
was derived from the Thai Bucket Stove. The among others, as also suggested by DeFoort et
design has evolved over time, and currently it is al. [43]. The Portable Emission Monitoring
a popular stove offered on the Kenyan market. System (PEMS), an Indoor Air Pollution (IAP)
Through early stove diffusion operations, the KS meter, and other instruments are utilized to
200 Mandeleo stove and the KS 200 Jiko Kisasa measure the test's parameters [43]. To prevent
stove were also launched. The availability of losing any of the generated gases, adequate
these various ICS differs across SSA, and the sampling of the exhaust gas from a cooking
best kind of stove to use will depend on factors burner must be collected. To prevent bigger

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errors in their identification, all emissions must be people how to use them effectively,
captured effectively, keeping in mind that this awareness-raising campaigns and
must be done without impairing the cook stove's educational initiatives are required.
functionality. Based on the outcomes of tests
conducted on it, the enhanced cook stove may Moreover, the presence of severe market failures
be a potential social intervention to create a and behavioural obstacles require targeted
clean and healthy atmosphere for the culinary policies to both increase the understanding and
processes’ users engage in. internalize benefits and externalities from the
adoption of clean cooking. For many households
6.2 Challenges that cook with open fires, traditional three-stone
cookstoves serve end-uses related to both
By lowering indoor air pollution, increasing fuel cooking and non-cooking, including water- and
efficiency, and saving money on fuel costs, space-heating. ICSs are often not designed to
improved cooker stoves have the potential to accommodate the heating of large volumes of
significantly better the lives of people in sub- water, nor do they always adequately meet
Saharan Africa [10]. For these stoves to be space-heating requirements (Ruiz-Mercado &
widely used and utilized effectively in the area, Masera, 2015). Three-stone stoves also serve a
there are a number of issues that must be variety of social functions and are often
resolved. Among the challenges are: embedded in cultural customs and rituals. Most
ICSs do not adequately serve these functions
(Ruiz-Mercado & Masera, 2015). According to
1. The affordability of improved cooker stoves
Shankar et al. (2014), very few studies have
can be a deterrent for low-income
been conducted to determine which stoves are
households because they are frequently
used in tandem for particular cooking tasks. This
more expensive than conventional stoves.
type of information would enable cookstove
There needs to be an effort made to
designs to be fit for purpose and better aligned
reduce the cost of these stoves through
with end-user cooking requirements. Decisions
financing options, subsidies, or other
about cooking fuel and technology purchases are
strategies.
influenced by a complex array of technical,
2. Fuel availability: Improved stoves
economic and socio-cultural factors such as
frequently need a particular kind of fuel,
stove performance, affordability, regional
like pellets or briquettes, which may not be
diversity and cooking preferences (Crew 1997;
easily accessible in all regions of sub-
Ruiz-Mercado & Masera, 2015).
Saharan Africa. There needs to be action
taken to guarantee a steady supply of In general, overcoming these obstacles by
affordable fuel. Cultural preferences: including different stakeholders is essential to
Traditional stoves are frequently preferred encouraging the use of improved cooker stoves
because of their cultural significance. Due in sub-Saharan Africa and ensuring that they
to cultural or traditional considerations, have a positive impact on the lives of locals.
some households may be reluctant to
switch to improved stoves. 6.3 Adoption of Improved Cooker Stoves
3. Maintenance: For households without
access to repair services or spare parts, Despite several clean cooking initiatives, the shift
improved stoves may require more to improved cooker stoves has been gradual in
maintenance than conventional stoves, most low-income countries, and as population
which can be a barrier to adoption. growth has countered positive achievements, the
4. Distribution and logistics: It can be difficult number of people using solid fuels has
to get improved stoves to remote areas increased. During the original wave of cookstove
and distribution networks are frequently acceptance, a major misunderstanding was that
underdeveloped. To increase the adoption large-scale dissemination would automatically
of improved stoves, distribution networks lead to universal adoption; nevertheless,
and logistics must be improved. technological efficiency alone proved to be an
5. Lack of knowledge: It's possible that many insufficient driver of adoption (Barnes et al.,
people in sub-Saharan Africa are unaware 1994; Sesan, 2014; Tafadzwa & Bradnum,
of the advantages of improved stoves or 2017). According to Shankar et al. (2014: 268),
are unsure of how to use them efficiently. acquisition should not be considered
In order to spread the word about the synonymous with adoption, but rather a first
advantages of upgraded stoves and show critical step toward adoption. They defined

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adoption as the "acquisition and substantive use households about the advantages of ICS
of a technology by a user," emphasizing that for their health and the environment, as
correctly and consistently using modern and well as to train them in their usage and
efficient technologies is a key aspect of the maintenance.
adoption of new modern fuels and technologies, 2. Governments can provide subsidies and
as well as an essential part of the displacement financing options to lower the cost of ICS
of traditional fuels and technologies. for homes and to promote the growth of
Transitioning to clean, modern energy is critical ICS supply chains.
for reducing energy poverty. According to the 3. Governments and commercial businesses
'traditional' energy ladder theory, as household can collaborate to enhance ICS production
incomes rise, they will shift away from traditional and distribution while utilizing the private
fuels like solid biomass and agricultural leftovers sector's knowledge of supply chains and
and toward contemporary fuels like electricity marketing.
and LPG (Smith, 1989; Barnes & Floor, 1996; 4. Research and innovation: New ICS models
Masera, Saatkamp & Kammen, 2000). that are more cost-effective, effective, and
Transitional fuels include charcoal and biomass culturally acceptable for households in
briquettes, which have a higher energy density SSA can be created by researchers and
than firewood and paraffin, but still pose health innovators.
and safety risks in terms of toxic fumes, fire
hazards, and burn-related injuries, despite being Overall, expanding the use of ICS in SSA will
considered an upgrade from the traditional use of necessitate a multifaceted strategy that takes
solid biomass (Jahan, 2003; Kimenia et al., 2014; into account the numerous obstacles to their
Mills, 2016; GACC, 2017; Kimenia & Van adoption and makes use of the strengths of
Niekerk, 2017). The energy ladder theory diverse stakeholders, such as governments,
implicitly assumes that once families accept NGOs, for-profit businesses, and research
contemporary fuels and technologies, traditional institutions.
fuels and technologies will be automatically
replaced. Yet, empirical evidence reveals that 6.4 Benefits
home energy transitions are frequently more
subtle, and that stacking is more common than According to a new analysis of the most socially
direct switching in many cases (Masera, optimal cooking technology in Africa, replacing
Saatkamp & Kammen, 2000; Hiemstra-van der traditional biomass-burning cookstoves across
Horst & Hovorka, 2008, Van Der Kroon et al., Sub-Saharan Africa could save more than
2015). The usage of traditional fuels and 463,000 lives and US $66 billion in health costs
technologies following the adoption of more per year. (Penn, 2023). ICS have been shown to
modern fuels and technologies is referred to as minimize time and fuelwood usage during beans
fuel or technology stacking (Gordon & Hyman, cooking by 14% and 17%, respectively. (Matavel
2012). According to Ruiz-Mercado and Masera and colleagues, 2022). Further, for families and
(2015), while the frequency of fuel and stove communities in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA),
stacking is known, the rationale for stacking has improved cookstoves (ICS) offer a number of
not been properly investigated. It is also claimed advantages, including:
that homeowners stack fuel and stoves to
improve energy security (Pachauri & Spreng, 1. Health advantages: The biomass fuels
2012; Ruiz-Mercado & Masera, 2015). They also used in traditional cookstoves in SSA
claimed that fuel stacking allows for greater fuel include wood, charcoal, and crop residues.
flexibility, allowing households to be more These fuels produce smoke and indoor air
resilient and less sensitive to variables such as pollution, which can cause respiratory
shifting fuel prices, fluctuations in fuel availability, conditions like pneumonia, lung cancer,
and inconsistent energy services. Further, other and chronic obstructive pulmonary
measures that can be used to overcome many disease. Because ICS consume less fuel
challenges and broaden ICS implementation in and have better ventilation, they expose
SSA. Some measures that can be put in place people to less indoor air pollution, which is
are: better for respiratory health.
2. Environmental advantages: Because ICS
1. Education and awareness-raising require less fuel and burn it more
campaigns: Both governmental and non- effectively, they emit fewer greenhouse
governmental groups can strive to inform gas emissions than conventional

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cookstoves do. By using less wood for fuel, energy, remove smoke from indoor spaces, or
they help lessen deforestation and the risk lessen the tediousness of cooking tasks.
of forest fires brought on by open flames. Throughout the past century, female education
3. Economic advantages: By lowering the levels have significantly increased. In SSA, girls'
quantity of fuel used for cooking, ICS can primary enrolment rates have doubled since the
help save money for homes. Women and middle of the 20th century, increasing more
girls, who are often in charge of gathering quickly than boys' enrolment rates and
fuelwood, can devote more time to other significantly narrowing the achievement
pursuits including school, employment, and discrepancies between the sexes. 2018
family care by putting less effort into this (Engypedia). A better cookstove can also be
chore. This in return saves time and made to use less energy, remove smoke from
money. the living area inside, or make cooking less
4. Social benefits: As women and girls are laborious. As a whole, it is expected that
frequently in charge of cooking and improved cooking stoves have the same effect
gathering firewood, ICS can also help to as access to electricity and clean water, which
promote social benefits like gender both have evidence-based effects on children's
equality. ICS can support women's pursuit attendance at school. Research contend that the
of income-generating activities and time saved by using ICS affects children's
encourage girls to continue in school by attendance at school [44,45].
lowering the time and effort necessary for
these chores. 7. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDA-
5. Benefits for combating climate change: TION
ICS can help cut greenhouse gas
emissions and support international efforts 7.1 Conclusion
to slow down global warming. In many ICS
initiatives, there are additional systems for In conclusion, it is critical to encourage the use of
producing carbon credits, which can then improved cooking stoves and clean fuels in Sub-
be sold on carbon markets to make money Saharan Africa in order to lessen household air
and fund the expansion of ICS. pollution, stop deforestation, and advance the
region's sustainable development goals.
Any key intervention for sustainable development Adoption of these practices can be aided by the
in SSA, improved cookstoves can enhance implementation of policies like subsidies, loans,
health, lessen environmental impact, provide and tax incentives, the creation of suitable supply
economic possibilities, support gender equality, chains and effective distribution channels, the
and help to international efforts to combat climate design of a suitable monitoring and evaluation
change. system, the involvement of community and
traditional leaders, the targeting of both male and
6.5 Impact female users, and the awareness of carbon
In Sub-Saharan Africa, the use of improved cook credits. Overall, the use of ICS in SSA is a
stoves (ICS) and clean fuels can significantly crucial area for investment and action since it is a
affect the economy, the environment, and health. significant intervention for enhancing household
ICSs decrease the need for firewood while also health and well-being, lowering environmental
enhancing indoor air quality. By doing this, less impact, and supporting global efforts to mitigate
time is needed to acquire firewood and less climate change.
deforestation occurs. 2018 (Engypedia)
According to the EnDev report on effect 2016, 7.2 Recommendations
gathering firewood might result in a lack of time
for other activities like attending class and In an effort to encourage healthy cooking
studying. (EnDev, 2016). The use of traditional practices throughout Sub-Saharan Africa,
fuel such as charcoal on a traditional consider the following:
stove contributes to increased deforestation,
which causes soil degradation and biodiversity 1. Governments can develop and enforce
loss. Utilizing ICS lessens the quantity of fuel comprehensive rules and regulations that
used for cooking, which lessens deforestation encourage the use of clean cookstoves
and its negative effects on the environment. and fuels and assure their accessibility and
Improved cookstoves can be made to use less affordability. Incentives for producers and

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users of clean cookstoves by subsidizing environmental, economic, and social benefits by

the production cost. putting these suggestions into practice.
2. Governments, NGOs, and other interested
parties can initiate education and COMPETING INTERESTS
awareness campaigns to spread the word
about the advantages of clean cooking and Authors have declared that no competing
alternative fuels on various media interests exist.
platforms and how it is beneficial not only
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