Crush Analysis with Under-rides and the Coefficient

of Restitution

Jeremy Daily
Russell Strickland
John Daily

27 April 2006

Special Problems 2006 – 1 / 77

 Abstract
Review of Crash
Tests • Discussion of the damage momentum technique
Damage Momentum
Analysis ◦ Damage profiles
Determining Crush
Energy
◦ Stiffness coefficients
The Physics of ◦ Derivation of ∆v
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
• Dissipated deformation energy
Computing
Restitution based on ◦ Residual crush measurements
Damage Energy
◦ Crash tests from Special Problems 2005
Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions • Coefficient of restitution
Summary and
Conclusions
◦ Relationship with crush energy
◦ Discussion of the misapplication of damage
energy techniques is outlined for trailer
under-ride collisions

Special Problems 2006 – 2 / 77

 Copyright Information
Review of Crash
Tests The following material contains excerpts from
Damage Momentum Fundamentals of Traffic Crash Reconstruction, an IPTM
Analysis

Determining Crush
publication. It is copyrighted and has been reprinted
Energy
with permission of the authors for use in IPTM
The Physics of
Impacts training programs.
Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 3 / 77

Review of Crash
Tests
• Voyager
• Jeep
• Nissan
• Honda
• Results
• COLM Review
Damage Momentum
Analysis

Determining Crush Review of Crash Tests

Energy

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 4 / 77

 1989 Plymouth Voyager
Review of Crash
Tests
• Voyager
• Jeep
• Nissan
• Honda
• Results
• COLM Review
Damage Momentum
Analysis

Determining Crush
Energy

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 5 / 77

 1994 Jeep Cherokee
Review of Crash
Tests
• Voyager
• Jeep
• Nissan
• Honda
• Results
• COLM Review
Damage Momentum
Analysis

Determining Crush
Energy

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 6 / 77

 1992 Nissan Sentra
Review of Crash
Tests
• Voyager
• Jeep
• Nissan
• Honda
• Results
• COLM Review
Damage Momentum
Analysis

Determining Crush
Energy

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 7 / 77

 1993 Honda Accord
Review of Crash
Tests
• Voyager
• Jeep
• Nissan
• Honda
• Results
• COLM Review
Damage Momentum
Analysis

Determining Crush
Energy

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 8 / 77

 SP2005 Results
Review of Crash
Tests
• Voyager
• Jeep Table 1: Comparison of speed estimates using recon-
• Nissan
• Honda
struction techniques to measured speeds in miles per
• Results hour. The impact analysis using rotational mechanics
• COLM Review
Damage Momentum
concepts proved to be accurate.
Analysis

Determining Crush
Energy
Vehicle Lower Upper Actual Speed
The Physics of Jeep 38 49 37
Impacts

Coefficient of
Voyager 30 52 39
Restitution Nissan 34 41 39
Computing
Restitution based on Honda 27 32 31
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 9 / 77

 Conservation of Linear Momentum
Review of Crash
Tests • A collision is considered to be a closed system.
• Voyager
• Jeep
• Collisions are inelastic.
• Nissan • Linear momentum is conserved in the collision
• Honda
• Results system.
• COLM Review
• Collisions may be collinear or angled.
Damage Momentum
Analysis • Collisions are either central or non-central.
Determining Crush
Energy
• Approach and departure angles are based upon
The Physics of
the impact circle.
Impacts
• Departure speeds are based upon calculations
Coefficient of
Restitution using the Work–Energy Theorem.
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy
We see this analysis is not dependent on the amount
Analysis of of vehicle damage and the energy causing the
Under-ride
Collisions damage. Neither is it dependent on pre- or
Summary and
Conclusions
post-impact vehicle rotations, except in choosing
correct trajectory type.
Special Problems 2006 – 10 / 77
Review of Crash
Tests
Damage Momentum
Analysis
• Energy and EBS
• 2D Impact
• Newton’s 2nd Law
• Rel. of Accel.
• Eff. Mass Ratio
• Relationship to ∆v
• Offset Collisions
Damage Momentum
• Honda Example
• Accuracy Analysis
• Nissan Crash
Determining Crush
Energy

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and Special Problems 2006 – 11 / 77
Conclusions
 Crush Energy and Equivalent Barrier Speed
(EBS)
Review of Crash
Tests • Equivalent Barrier Speed (EBS)
Damage Momentum • Barrier Equivalent Velocity (BEV)
Analysis
• Energy and EBS • Calculate the amount of energy that the vehicle
• 2D Impact
• Newton’s 2nd Law
dissipates during a crash:
• Rel. of Accel.
• Eff. Mass Ratio
r r
• Relationship to ∆v 2KE 30KE
• Offset Collisions v= or S= (1)
• Honda Example m w
• Accuracy
• Nissan Crash
• may not be an actual speed.
Determining Crush
Energy

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and Special Problems 2006 – 12 / 77
Conclusions
 Difference Between EBS and Actual Speed
Review of Crash
Tests There are some instances in which the EBS will be
Damage Momentum different than the ∆v.
Analysis
• Energy and EBS
• 2D Impact 1. The EBS will be higher than the ∆v of a vehicle if
• Newton’s 2nd Law
• Rel. of Accel.
the vehicle strikes an object that is rigid and
• Eff. Mass Ratio movable.
• Relationship to ∆v
• Offset Collisions 2. The EBS will be lower than the ∆v of a vehicle if
• Honda Example
• Accuracy
the vehicle strikes an object that is soft and
• Nissan Crash massive. An example of this would be a vehicle
Determining Crush
Energy running into a snow bank.
The Physics of 3. The EBS and ∆v will be the same whenever a
Impacts

Coefficient of
vehicle strikes an object whose stiffness is
Restitution proportional to the weight ratio of the object to
Computing
Restitution based on the vehicle.
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
The coefficient of restitution will be assumed to be
Collisions zero (for now).
Summary and Special Problems 2006 – 13 / 77
Conclusions
A Planar (Two Dimensional) Impact Model
F
τ
α

h
a
• F is the collision force in lbs (N).
• a is the translational acceleration of the center of mass,
in-line with the direction of force.
• h is the lever arm upon which the force acts (ft or m).
• τ is the torque about the center of mass. Torque is the cross
product of F and h. Units are lb-ft or N-m.
• α is the angular acceleration caused by τ about the center
of mass. Basic units are rad/sec2 for both systems of
measure.
Special Problems 2006 – 14 / 77
Nomenclature
a1 ac a2

h2
h1 F M2
M1 τ2 , α2
τ1 , α1

M1 and M2 are the respective vehicle masses.

F is the total collision force.
a1 and a2 are the respective accelerations of the COMs.
ac is the common acceleration of the crush zone.
h1 and h2 are the lever arms upon which force F acts.
τ1 and τ2 are the respective torques acting about the mass
centers.
α1 and α2 are the respective angular accelerations.
Special Problems 2006 – 15 / 77
 Newton’s Second Law
Review of Crash
Tests Let us look at the governing equations for vehicle #1.
Damage Momentum Vehicle #2 may be analyzed in a similar way.
Analysis
• Energy and EBS
• 2D Impact
• Newton’s 2nd Law
F1 = M1 a1 (2)
• Rel. of Accel.
• Eff. Mass Ratio τ1 = I1 α1 (3)
• Relationship to ∆v
• Offset Collisions
• Honda Example Recall I = moment of inertia = mk2 , where k = radius
• Accuracy
• Nissan Crash of gyration. So,
Determining Crush τ1 = m1 k21 α1 (4)
Energy

The Physics of
Impacts
Torque is also defined as the product of a force and a
Coefficient of
lever arm:
Restitution
τ1 = F1 h1 (5)
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and Special Problems 2006 – 16 / 77
Conclusions
 Relations of Accelerations
Review of Crash
Tests Now consider the following relationship that equates
Damage Momentum the accelerations:
Analysis
• Energy and EBS
• 2D Impact
• Newton’s 2nd Law
a c = a1 + h 1 α1 (6)
• Rel. of Accel.
• Eff. Mass Ratio
• Relationship to ∆v
From rotational mechanics a = rα and r = h, so:
• Offset Collisions
• Honda Example
• Accuracy
a c − a1 = h 1 α1 (7)
• Nissan Crash
Determining Crush
Energy
Solving for α1 :
a c − a1
The Physics of α1 = (8)
Impacts
h1
Coefficient of
Restitution Now, the torques in Eqs. (4) and (5) are the same, so:
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy
F1 h1 = m1 k21 α1 (9)
Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and Special Problems 2006 – 17 / 77
Conclusions
 Effective Mass Ratio
Review of Crash
Tests The effective (dynamic) mass ratio is:
Damage Momentum

k2
Analysis
• Energy and EBS
γ= 2 (10)
• 2D Impact
• Newton’s 2nd Law
k + h2
• Rel. of Accel.
• Eff. Mass Ratio This gives the simple proportion:
• Relationship to ∆v
• Offset Collisions
• Honda Example a1 = γ1 ac (11)
• Accuracy
• Nissan Crash
Determining Crush γ will always be less than or equal to 1.
Energy

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and Special Problems 2006 – 18 / 77
Conclusions
 Relationship to ∆v
Review of Crash
Tests Consider the following general relationship:
Damage Momentum
Analysis
∆v
• Energy and EBS
a= (12)
• 2D Impact
• Newton’s 2nd Law
∆t
• Rel. of Accel.
• Eff. Mass Ratio which yields:
• Relationship to ∆v
∆v1 ∆vc
• Offset Collisions = γ1 (13)
• Honda Example ∆t ∆t
• Accuracy
• Nissan Crash The ∆t terms are common in the denominators on
Determining Crush
Energy both sides and will cancel:
The Physics of
Impacts
∆v1 = γ1 ∆vc (14)
Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and Special Problems 2006 – 19 / 77
Conclusions
 Offset Collisions
Review of Crash
Tests The acceleration ac and velocity change ∆vc of the
Damage Momentum damage centroid will always be larger than the
Analysis
• Energy and EBS velocity change and acceleration of the center of mass.
• 2D Impact
• Newton’s 2nd Law v
• Rel. of Accel.
u 2gγ E
∆v1 = t  1 crush 
u
• Eff. Mass Ratio (15)
w1
• Relationship to ∆v
• Offset Collisions
w1 1 + γγ21 w 2
• Honda Example
• Accuracy
m1
• Nissan Crash ∆v2 = − ∆v1 (16)
Determining Crush m2
Energy

The Physics of Newton’s Third Law is satisfied because the impulse

Impacts
vectors, and thus the ∆v vectors, are opposite in
Coefficient of
Restitution direction.
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and Special Problems 2006 – 20 / 77
Conclusions
 Honda Example
Review of Crash
Tests Example 1 Recall from 2005 that the 1993 Honda Accord
Damage Momentum crashed into the rear dual axles of a stationary semi-trailer.
Analysis
• Energy and EBS There was no permanent damage done to the trailer and the
• 2D Impact
• Newton’s 2nd Law
Honda absorbed 81,200 ft-lb (110,100 J) of crush energy.
• Rel. of Accel. The trailer rotated around its kingpin and had a moment of
• Eff. Mass Ratio
• Relationship to ∆v inertia of 421,470 lb-ft-sec2 (571,513 kg-m2 ). The distance
• Offset Collisions
• Honda Example from the kingpin to the point of impact is 36.4 ft (11.09 m).
• Accuracy
• Nissan Crash
The Honda weighs 2900 lb (1315 kg) and the trailer weighs
Determining Crush 13,425 lb (6090 kg). Determine the impact speed of the
Energy
Honda.
The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and Special Problems 2006 – 21 / 77
Conclusions
 ∆v Solution
Review of Crash
Tests
Ecrush = EHonda + Etrailer = EHonda + 0
Damage Momentum
Analysis
• Energy and EBS The Honda has an effective mass ratio of 1 giving:
• 2D Impact
• Newton’s 2nd Law
v
• Rel. of Accel.
u 2gγ E
∆v1 = t  1 crush  = 34.68 ft/s
u
• Eff. Mass Ratio
• Relationship to ∆v
• Offset Collisions
w1 1 + γγ12 w
w2
1

• Honda Example
• Accuracy
• Nissan Crash
The trailer’s effective mass ratio is 0.433 giving:
Determining Crush v
Energy u 2gγ E
u 2 crush
The Physics of ∆v2 = t   = 7.49 ft/s
w2 1 + γγ21 w
Impacts
2
Coefficient of w1
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and Special Problems 2006 – 22 / 77
Conclusions
 Geometric Constraints
Review of Crash
Tests • If the vehicles remain in contact after the collision,
Damage Momentum the coefficient of restitution is zero.
Analysis
• Energy and EBS • The impact speed must be equal to ∆v1 of the
• 2D Impact
• Newton’s 2nd Law
Honda plus the post-impact velocity.
• Rel. of Accel. • The post-impact velocity is the ∆v of the damage
• Eff. Mass Ratio
• Relationship to ∆v centroid of the trailer, ∆vc .
• Offset Collisions
• Honda Example • Use the concept of similar triangles.
• Accuracy
• Nissan Crash ◦ Assume the trailer is a rigid body rotating
Determining Crush
Energy about its kingpin.
The Physics of ◦ The relative velocity is proportional the
Impacts

Coefficient of
distance from the kingpin.
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and Special Problems 2006 – 23 / 77
Conclusions
 Velocity Profile
Review of Crash
Tests ∆vc
Damage Momentum
Analysis ∆v2
• Energy and EBS
• 2D Impact
• Newton’s 2nd Law
• Rel. of Accel.
27.3 ft (8.32 m)
• Eff. Mass Ratio
• Relationship to ∆v
36.4 ft (11.09 m)
• Offset Collisions
• Honda Example
• Accuracy
• Nissan Crash
Determining Crush
Energy

The Physics of
The ∆v of the damage centroid is different than the
Impacts
∆v of the center of mass of the trailer.
Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and Special Problems 2006 – 24 / 77
Conclusions
 Kinematic Analysis
Review of Crash
Tests ∆vc 36.4
= = 1.333
Damage Momentum
Analysis
∆v2 27.3
• Energy and EBS
• 2D Impact ∆vc = 1.333∆v2 = 1.333(7.49) = 9.98 ft/s
• Newton’s 2nd Law
• Rel. of Accel.
• Eff. Mass Ratio
• Relationship to ∆v v1 = ∆v1 + ∆vc = 34.68 + 9.98 = 44.66 ft/s
• Offset Collisions
• Honda Example S = 30.46 mph
• Accuracy
• Nissan Crash
Determining Crush
The actual speed measured of the Honda at impact
Energy for this staged crash was close to 31 mph (50 kph).
The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and Special Problems 2006 – 25 / 77
Conclusions
 A Note on Accuracy
Review of Crash
Tests • The accuracy of a damage momentum analysis is
Damage Momentum not always guaranteed.
Analysis
• Energy and EBS • The energy absorbed in the crash by crushing the
• 2D Impact
• Newton’s 2nd Law
vehicle is empirically based.
• Rel. of Accel. • The empirical curve-fitting technique is the only
• Eff. Mass Ratio
• Relationship to ∆v tractable way to obtain energy values.
• Offset Collisions
• Honda Example • Details will be discussed in the next section.
• Accuracy
• Nissan Crash
Determining Crush
Energy

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and Special Problems 2006 – 26 / 77
Conclusions
 WinCRASH Results for the Nissan Crash
(Appendix)
Review of Crash
Tests • The results for the ∆v of the Nissan and the total
Damage Momentum damage energy are valid.
Analysis
• Energy and EBS • The closing speed results are not valid.
• 2D Impact
• Newton’s 2nd Law
• Cannot impose constraints on the motion.
• Rel. of Accel. • Instead, we used a movable barrier with a weight
• Eff. Mass Ratio
• Relationship to ∆v of of γ2 w2 = 0.433(13, 425) = 5812 lbs.
• Offset Collisions
• Honda Example
• Accuracy
• Nissan Crash
Determining Crush
Energy

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and Special Problems 2006 – 27 / 77
Conclusions
Review of Crash
Tests
Damage Momentum
Analysis

Determining Crush
Energy
• Energy Model
• Energy Equations
• Deformation
Model
• Determining
Determining Crush
Stiffness Coefficients
• Crush Profiles
• Determining
Energy
Damage Area
• Honda Example
• Damage Centroid
• Crush Energy
Equations
• Honda Example

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of Special Problems 2006 – 28 / 77

Under-ride
Collisions
 The General Energy Model
Review of Crash
Tests L
Damage Momentum
Analysis

Determining Crush Narrow width

Energy
• Energy Model
rectangles
• Energy Equations x A D = Area of Damage
• Deformation
Model
• Determining
Stiffness Coefficients
• Crush Profiles
• Determining
Damage Area The units of A are lb/inch (N/m),
• Honda Example
• Damage Centroid The units of B are lb/in2 (N/m2 ),
• Crush Energy
Equations
The units of G are lb (N).
• Honda Example

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of Special Problems 2006 – 29 / 77

Under-ride
Collisions
 Energy Equations
Review of Crash
Tests Energy per unit width for a rectangular damage
Damage Momentum profile:
Analysis
Bx2 A2
Determining Crush
Energy E = Ax + + (17)
• Energy Model
2 2B
• Energy Equations
• Deformation
If we want to calculate the total damage energy, ET ,
Model
• Determining
we will have to multiply E by L.
Stiffness Coefficients
• Crush Profiles
• Determining A2 L
Damage Area ET = ( A + B x̄ ) A D + (18)
• Honda Example 2B
• Damage Centroid
• Crush Energy
Equations
• Honda Example

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of Special Problems 2006 – 30 / 77

Under-ride
Collisions
 CRASH III Deformation Model
Review of Crash
Tests To calculate the total energy it took to damage (crush)
Damage Momentum a vehicle, three things are needed:
Analysis

Determining Crush
Energy
1. Stiffness coefficients. These are the A, B, and G
• Energy Model values and come from crash test data.
• Energy Equations
• Deformation 2. Area of damage. This is the A D value.
Model
• Determining 3. Depth of the centroid of the damage area. This is
Stiffness Coefficients
• Crush Profiles the x̄ value.
• Determining
Damage Area
• Honda Example The following discussions and the equations
• Damage Centroid
• Crush Energy
developed are for a collision in which the PDOF angle
Equations
• Honda Example
is 90◦ to the damage face. The situation in which the
The Physics of
PDOF is not 90◦ is beyond the scope of this paper.
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of Special Problems 2006 – 31 / 77

Under-ride
Collisions
Determining Stiffness Coefficients

• The A stiffness coefficient represents the amount of force

that the vehicle can sustain before it begins to permanently
deform.
• The B stiffness coefficient represents the amount of force
needed to permanently deform the vehicle structure.
• The G value is the area of the force-deflection triangle to
the left of the abscissa (y-axis) and is related to A and B by
the relationship
F
B x
A A+
F= B
A2
G=
2B

O x = residual crush
Special Problems 2006 – 32 / 77
 Crash Test Data
Review of Crash
Tests • New Car Assessment Program (NCAP), which
Damage Momentum requires a
Analysis

Determining Crush
Energy
◦ 35-mph (56 kph) full-frontal barrier crash test.
• Energy Model
• Energy Equations • We will get the average crush of the vehicle,Cavg .
• Deformation
Model • Test reports available at
• Determining
Stiffness Coefficients http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/ will reveal:
• Crush Profiles
• Determining
Damage Area ◦ The approach speed of the vehicle in kph: ∆vtest
• Honda Example
• Damage Centroid ◦ The test mass of the vehicle in kg: mtest
• Crush Energy
Equations
◦ Six vehicle crush depths in mm: C1 , C2 , C3 , C4 ,
• Honda Example C5 , and C6
The Physics of
Impacts ◦ Width of the damage profile in mm: Ltest
Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing Unit conversions will be required to work in US units.
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of Special Problems 2006 – 33 / 77

Under-ride
Collisions
 Determining ∆vtest
Review of Crash
Tests • Use the approach speed for frontal barrier tests.
Damage Momentum • Assume no restitution (less than 5% error)
Analysis

Determining Crush
Energy
The model for relating frontal barrier impact speed to
• Energy Model crush damage takes a linear form:
• Energy Equations
• Deformation
Model
• Determining v = b0 + b1 C (19)
Stiffness Coefficients
• Crush Profiles
• Determining
Damage Area
where v is the impact speed,
• Honda Example C is the residual crush,
• Damage Centroid
• Crush Energy b0 is the zero crush speed (intercept) in units of speed,
Equations
• Honda Example
and
The Physics of b1 is the slope in units of speed per length (i.e.
Impacts
mph/in).
Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of Special Problems 2006 – 34 / 77

Under-ride
Collisions
 Determine Campbell Model Coefficients
Review of Crash 60 b
Tests

Impact Speed, miles per hour

Damage Momentum
bb
Analysis
50
Determining Crush
Energy b
• Energy Model
40 b b1
• Energy Equations
• Deformation b
Model bbbbbb
bbbbb 1
• Determining 30
Stiffness Coefficients b
• Crush Profiles
• Determining b
Damage Area 20 b
• Honda Example b
• Damage Centroid
• Crush Energy
Equations
10
• Honda Example

The Physics of 0 b0
Impacts

Coefficient of
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Restitution
Residual Crush, inches
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of Special Problems 2006 – 35 / 77

Under-ride
Collisions
 Graph of Impact Speed
Review of Crash
Tests Let us now determine the slope of the line that would
Damage Momentum intersect the y-axis (speed) at bo and the crash data
Analysis

Determining Crush
point (Cavg , ∆vtest ). This slope is b1 :
Energy
• Energy Model
• Energy Equations ∆vtest − bo
• Deformation
b1 = (20)
Model Cavg
• Determining
Stiffness Coefficients
• Crush Profiles
• Determining
This equation assumes uniform crush depth. Vehicles
Damage Area with significant taper on the front or some otherwise
• Honda Example
• Damage Centroid irregular crush profile need different crush averaging.
• Crush Energy
Equations
• Honda Example

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of Special Problems 2006 – 36 / 77

Under-ride
Collisions
 Determining A, B, and G Values
Review of Crash
Tests The A stiffness coefficient can be determined with the
Damage Momentum following equation:
Analysis

Determining Crush
Energy m T bo b1
• Energy Model A= (21)
• Energy Equations Ltest
• Deformation
Model
• Determining where m T is the mass of the test vehicle with
Stiffness Coefficients
• Crush Profiles instrumentation. This is usually given in kilograms
• Determining
Damage Area and needs to be in slugs for the US system (1
• Honda Example
• Damage Centroid
kg = 0.0685 slugs).
• Crush Energy
Equations
The B stiffness coefficient can be determined with the
• Honda Example following equation:
The Physics of
Impacts
m T b12
Coefficient of
Restitution
B= (22)
Ltest
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of Special Problems 2006 – 37 / 77

Under-ride
Collisions
 Crush Profiles
Review of Crash
Tests An irregular damage profile of width L pictured here
Damage Momentum is broken up into five trapezoidal zones by taking six
Analysis

Determining Crush
equally spaced crush measurements.
Energy
• Energy Model
• Energy Equations
• Deformation
Model L
• Determining
Stiffness Coefficients
• Crush Profiles
zone 1 zone 2 zone 3 zone 4 zone 5 C6
• Determining
C4 C5
Damage Area
• Honda Example
• Damage Centroid C1 C3
• Crush Energy
Equations
C2
• Honda Example

The Physics of x
Impacts

Coefficient of deformed
Restitution
vehicle
Computing
Restitution based on
− +
Damage Energy

Analysis of Special Problems 2006 – 38 / 77

Under-ride
Collisions
 Determining Damage Area
Review of Crash
Tests • Equally spaced trapezoids.
Damage Momentum • Two, four, or six crush measurements,Cn .
Analysis

Determining Crush
• Sum the areas of all the zones (6 measurements):
Energy
• Energy Model
• Energy Equations A D = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 + A5
• Deformation
Model
• Determining
Stiffness Coefficients
After some geometry and algebra, we get the
• Crush Profiles damage area for six equally spaced crush
• Determining
Damage Area measurements:
• Honda Example
• Damage Centroid
L
• Crush Energy
Equations A D = (C1 + 2C2 + 2C3 + 2C4 + 2C5 + C6 ) (23)
• Honda Example 10
The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of Special Problems 2006 – 39 / 77

Under-ride
Collisions
 Honda Example
Review of Crash
Tests Example 2 Determine the stiffness coefficients for a 1993
Damage Momentum Honda Accord in SI units based on the NHTSA crash test
Analysis

Determining Crush
1875 performed by Calspan Corp.
Energy
• Energy Model This crash test was at 56.3 kph (assume no rebound
• Energy Equations
• Deformation velocity) and the test weight was 1579 kg. The overall
Model
• Determining length of the damage region is Ltest = 1460mm. The
Stiffness Coefficients
• Crush Profiles crush depth dimensions reported are:
• Determining
Damage Area
• Honda Example
• Damage Centroid
Location C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
• Crush Energy
Equations
Depth (mm) 423 481 522 523 483 376
• Honda Example

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of Special Problems 2006 – 40 / 77

Under-ride
Collisions
 Campbell Model
Review of Crash
Tests • Mean Crush Depth
Damage Momentum
Analysis AD
Cavg = = 482 mm = 0.482 m
Determining Crush
Energy
L
• Energy Model
• Energy Equations
• Deformation
• Campbell Coefficients
Model
• Determining
Stiffness Coefficients
◦ Assuming a “no-damage” speed of 5 mph
• Crush Profiles
• Determining
gives:
Damage Area
• Honda Example
b0 = 2.22 m/s
• Damage Centroid
• Crush Energy ◦ From test data, the value for b1 is:
Equations
• Honda Example
∆vtest − bo
The Physics of b1 = = 27.84 per second
Impacts Cavg
Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of Special Problems 2006 – 41 / 77

Under-ride
Collisions
 Stiffness Coefficients
Review of Crash
Tests Determine the A coefficient:
Damage Momentum
Analysis m T bo b1 kg
Determining Crush
A= = 66, 842 2
Energy Ltest s
• Energy Model
• Energy Equations
• Deformation
The value for the B coefficient is:
Model
• Determining
Stiffness Coefficients m T b12 N
• Crush Profiles B= = 838, 239 2
• Determining Ltest m
Damage Area
• Honda Example
• Damage Centroid The value for the G coefficient is:
• Crush Energy
Equations
• Honda Example A2
G= = 2665 N
The Physics of
Impacts
2B
Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of Special Problems 2006 – 42 / 77

Under-ride
Collisions
 Damage Centroid
Review of Crash
Tests • The point within the damage profile at which the
Damage Momentum collision force acts.
Analysis

Determining Crush
• The damage centroids must reach a common
Energy
• Energy Model
velocity.
• Energy Equations • Sideswipe collisions cannot be modeled with
• Deformation
Model CRASH III.
• Determining
Stiffness Coefficients • This constraint is not placed on a COLM solution.
• Crush Profiles
• Determining
Damage Area
• Honda Example
• Damage Centroid
• Crush Energy
Equations
• Honda Example

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of Special Problems 2006 – 43 / 77

Under-ride
Collisions
 Crush Energy Equations
Review of Crash
Tests In the previous sections, we have developed
Damage Momentum equations for damage area and for damage centroid
Analysis

Determining Crush
depth. Now we substitute these values into Eq. (18):
Energy
• Energy Model
• Energy Equations A2 L
• Deformation ET = ( A + B x̄ ) A D +
Model 2B
• Determining
Stiffness Coefficients
• Crush Profiles
• Determining
Damage Area
• Honda Example
• Damage Centroid
• Crush Energy
Equations
• Honda Example

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of Special Problems 2006 – 44 / 77

Under-ride
Collisions
 Honda Example
Review of Crash
Tests
Damage Momentum Example 3
Analysis
Determine the crush energy of a 1993 Honda Accord given
Determining Crush
Energy the following equally spaced crush measurements across a
• Energy Model
• Energy Equations
front width of L = 63.75 in:
• Deformation
Model
• Determining
Stiffness Coefficients Location C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
• Crush Profiles
• Determining
Damage Area
Depth (in) 3.3 11.0 14.78 15.0 14.0 7.0
• Honda Example
• Damage Centroid
• Crush Energy The A stiffness coefficient was determined from the
Equations
• Honda Example data in Example 2 to be 396 lb/in and the B coefficient
The Physics of is 129 lb/in2 .
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of Special Problems 2006 – 45 / 77

Under-ride
Collisions
 Technique for Six Crush Measurements
Review of Crash
Tests This is a six-crush measurement that can be
Damage Momentum cumbersome by hand. Therefore, let us introduce the
Analysis

Determining Crush
temporary variables:
Energy
• Energy Model
• Energy Equations x1 = C1 + 2C2 + 2C3 + 2C4 + 2C5 + C6
• Deformation
Model
• Determining x2 = C12 + 2C22 + 2C32 + 2C42 + 2C52 + C62
Stiffness Coefficients
• Crush Profiles
• Determining x3 = C1 C2 + C2 C3 + C3 C4 + C4 C5 + C5 C6
Damage Area
• Honda Example
• Damage Centroid So we get:
• Crush Energy
Equations  
• Honda Example L Ax1 B ( x2 + x3 ) 5A 2
The Physics of ET = + + (24)
Impacts 5 2 6 2B
Coefficient of
Restitution
This give the total crush energy as ET = 81, 200 ft-lb
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of Special Problems 2006 – 46 / 77

Under-ride
Collisions
 Let’s All Take a Break!
Review of Crash
Tests
Damage Momentum
Analysis

Determining Crush
Energy
• Energy Model
• Energy Equations
• Deformation
Model
• Determining
Stiffness Coefficients
• Crush Profiles
• Determining
Damage Area
• Honda Example
• Damage Centroid
• Crush Energy
Equations
• Honda Example

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of Special Problems 2006 – 47 / 77

Under-ride
Collisions
Review of Crash
Tests
Damage Momentum
Analysis

Determining Crush
Energy

The Physics of
Impacts
• Physics of an
Impact
• Nature of
Elasticity
The Physics of Impacts
• Relative Velocities
• Orientation
Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 48 / 77

 Physics of an Impact
Review of Crash
Tests • Large forces over a short period of time →
Damage Momentum collision.
Analysis

Determining Crush
• Large impulsive forces typically deform objects.
Energy
• The moment two objects come together →
The Physics of
Impacts incidence.
• Physics of an
Impact
• Immediately after incidence the compression phase
• Nature of
Elasticity
begins.
• Relative Velocities • This compression phase has a finite duration and
• Orientation
Coefficient of
is terminated when the dynamic deformation
Restitution
reaches a maximum.
Computing
Restitution based on • Following the maximum deformation, a period of
Damage Energy

Analysis of
restitution occurs where the object may rebound.
Under-ride
Collisions
• During the rebound phase some (not all) of the
Summary and stored energy is returned
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 49 / 77

Incidence
v = vin

Barrier

Special Problems 2006 – 50 / 77

Maximum dynamic deformation

v=0

Barrier

Special Problems 2006 – 51 / 77

Collision Termination
v = vout

Barrier

Special Problems 2006 – 52 / 77

 Nature of Elasticity
Review of Crash
Tests • Based upon classical mechanics, which have a
Damage Momentum foundation in Newton’s Laws.
Analysis

Determining Crush
• The core of classic impact analysis is the
Energy
impulse-momentum model.
The Physics of
Impacts • Two general categories:
• Physics of an
Impact
• Nature of
1. An elastic collision is one in which kinetic
Elasticity
• Relative Velocities
energy is conserved.
• Orientation 2. An inelastic collision is one in which kinetic
Coefficient of
Restitution energy is not conserved.
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy
• Real world collisions usually fall somewhere
Analysis of
between being elastic and inelastic.
Under-ride
Collisions • A measure of the elasticity of a collision is the
Summary and coefficient of restitution
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 53 / 77

 Relative Velocities
Review of Crash
Tests • Lead, Steel, and Clay at:
Damage Momentum
Analysis ◦ 30 fps
Determining Crush
Energy
◦ 300 fps
The Physics of ◦ 3000 fps.
Impacts
• Physics of an
Impact • The coefficient of restitution depends on the
• Nature of
Elasticity relative velocity at impact.
• Relative Velocities
• Orientation
Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 54 / 77

 Orientation
Review of Crash
Tests There are generally two different types of impacts:
Damage Momentum
Analysis 1. A collinear impact occurs when the direction of
Determining Crush
Energy
travel coincides with the direction of force.
The Physics of 2. An oblique impact occurs when the line of force is
Impacts
• Physics of an not coincident with the direction of travel.
Impact
• Nature of
Elasticity Collisions are central or non-central:
• Relative Velocities
• Orientation 1. A central collision is one in which the impulse
Coefficient of
Restitution force (PDOF) passes through the center of mass of
Computing
Restitution based on
the vehicle (object).
Damage Energy 2. A non-central collision means the impulse force
Analysis of
Under-ride does not go through the center of mass.
Collisions
Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 55 / 77

Review of Crash
Tests
Damage Momentum
Analysis

Determining Crush
Energy

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Understanding the
• Kinematic
• Kinetic
• Energetic
Coefficient of Restitution
• Graphs
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 56 / 77

 Kinematic Definition of Restitution
Review of Crash
Tests
Newton:
v2,out − v1,out
Damage Momentum e= (25)
Analysis
v1,in − v2,in
Determining Crush
Energy
where v refers to the magnitude of the velocity
The Physics of
Impacts normal to the impact plane.
Coefficient of Application of Eq. 25 for eccentric impacts may lead
Restitution
• Kinematic to an apparent increase in energy.
• Kinetic
• Energetic
• Graphs
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 57 / 77

 Kinetic Definition of Restitution
Review of Crash
Tests
Poisson:
( F∆t)rebound
Damage Momentum
Analysis e= (26)
( F∆t)de f orm
Determining Crush
Energy

The Physics of
We can show that this definition is consistent
Impacts Newton’s definition.
Coefficient of
Restitution
• Kinematic
• Kinetic
• Energetic
• Graphs
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 58 / 77

 Energetic Definition of Restitution
Review of Crash
Tests
Stronge:
Damage Momentum 2 Wrebound
Analysis e =− (27)
Determining Crush
Wde f orm
Energy

The Physics of where Wrebound = W1,rebound + W2,rebound is the sum of

Impacts
the work done by both normal impulsive forces
Coefficient of
Restitution during the rebound phase. Similarly,
• Kinematic
• Kinetic
Wde f orm = W1,de f orm + W2,de f orm is the sum of the work
• Energetic done by both normal impulsive forces during the
• Graphs
Computing
deformation (or compression) phase.
Restitution based on
Damage Energy
The work done can be related to the impulse using a
Analysis of relationship developed by Poisson:
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and W = v avg F∆t
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 59 / 77

 Force and Impulse as a Function of Time

The area under the Force vs. Time curve represents the
Impulse.

Force Impulse

( F∆t)de f ( F∆t)reb time time

0 tmax tsep 0 tmax tsep

Special Problems 2006 – 60 / 77

 Displacement as a Function of Time
Review of Crash
Tests
Damage Momentum
Analysis

Determining Crush
Energy displacement
The Physics of
Impacts
xmax
Coefficient of
Restitution
• Kinematic
• Kinetic
• Energetic xres
• Graphs
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
time
Collisions
Summary and
0 tmax tsep
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 61 / 77

 Work as a Function of Displacement
Review of Crash
Tests The area under the force vs. deflection curve
Damage Momentum represents the work done by the collision force.
Analysis

Determining Crush
Energy

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of Force
Restitution
• Kinematic
• Kinetic
• Energetic
• Graphs
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and Ecrush −Wreb displacement
Conclusions

0 xres xmax

Special Problems 2006 – 62 / 77

Review of Crash
Tests
Damage Momentum
Analysis

Determining Crush
Energy

The Physics of
Impacts Computing Restitution
Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
based on Damage
Restitution based on
Damage Energy
• Systems Approach
Energy
• Work and Kinetic
Energy
• Restitution based
on Crush Energy
• Remarks
Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 63 / 77

Systems Approach

Performing an energy balance:

1 1 1 1
m1 v1 + m2 v2 = m1 v3 + m2 v24 + Ecrush
2 2 2
(28)
|2 {z 2 } |2 {z 2 }
KEin KEout

The point of contact may have some unknown common

velocity, vc , which gives:

1 1
m1 ( v1 − v c ) + m2 ( v2 − v c )2 =
2
|2 {z 2 }
KEin

1 1
m1 (v3 − vc ) + m2 (v4 − vc )2 + Ecrush
2
|2 {z 2 }
KEout
Special Problems 2006 – 64 / 77
 Work and Kinetic Energy
Review of Crash
Tests Mathematically, the work done by the rebounding
Damage Momentum force is related the the kinetic energy as:
Analysis

Determining Crush
Energy Wrebound = −(KEin − Ecrush ) (29)
The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Using the energetic coefficient of restitution gives:
Restitution
Computing
2 KEin − Ecrush
Restitution based on e =
Damage Energy
• Systems Approach
KEin
• Work and Kinetic
Energy Ecrush
• Restitution based = 1− 1 2 + 1 m ( v − v )2
(30)
on Crush Energy
2 m 1 ( v 1 − v c ) 2 2 2 c
• Remarks
Analysis of
Under-ride Also,  
Collisions
1 m1 m2
Summary and KEin = ( v1 − v2 )2 (31)
Conclusions
2 m1 + m2

Special Problems 2006 – 65 / 77

 Restitution based on Crush Energy
Review of Crash
Tests 2 Ecrush
e = 1− (32)
Damage Momentum
Analysis
KEin
Determining Crush
Energy
• For real values of e, the right hand side of Eq. (32)
The Physics of
Impacts must be positive.
Coefficient of • The RHS of Eq. (32) must be less than 1.
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on Take the square root:
Damage Energy
• Systems Approach s
• Work and Kinetic
Energy 2Ecrush (m1 + m2 )
• Restitution based e= 1− (33)
on Crush Energy m1 m2 ( v1 − v2 )2
• Remarks
Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 66 / 77

 Concluding Remarks on Restitution
Review of Crash
Tests • Three definitions of the coefficient of restitution.
Damage Momentum
Analysis ◦ All three definitions give the same results for
Determining Crush
Energy
in-line collisions.
The Physics of ◦ The energetic definition reflects reality the best
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
• The coefficient of restitution only applies to the
Computing direction normal (perpendicular) to the contact
Restitution based on
Damage Energy plane.
• Systems Approach
• Work and Kinetic
• Analyzing a collision with a significant impulse in
Energy
• Restitution based
the tangent (sliding) direction requires the
on Crush Energy introduction of additional coefficients.
• Remarks
Analysis of
• The empirical problem of high data scatter
Under-ride
Collisions plagues the use of coefficient of restitution as well
Summary and as stiffness values.
Conclusions
• The coefficient of restitution provides a check on a
completed reconstruction.
Special Problems 2006 – 67 / 77
Review of Crash
Tests
Damage Momentum
Analysis

Determining Crush
Energy

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Analysis of Under-ride
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy
Collisions
Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
• Voyager
• Explanations
• Coefficient of
Restitution
• Jeep

Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 68 / 77

 1989 Plymouth Voyager Van into the rear of
the tractor-trailer
Review of Crash
Tests The van had a speed of 39 mph. Crush Measurements
Damage Momentum are:
Analysis

Determining Crush
Energy Location C1 C2 C3 C4
The Physics of
Impacts
Bumper 0 10 15 20
Coefficient of Roof 2 8 11 30
Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy
The A stiffness coefficient was determined to be 284.2
Analysis of
lb/in and the B stiffness coefficient is 72 lb/in2 .
Under-ride
Collisions
• Voyager
• Explanations
• Coefficient of
Restitution
• Jeep

Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 69 / 77

 Bumper Only Analysis
Review of Crash
Tests If we use only the bumper crush measurements as
Damage Momentum our damage profile we get the following WinCRASH
Analysis

Determining Crush
results:
Energy
Ecrush = 47, 500 ft-lb
The Physics of
Impacts
∆v = 19.6 mph
Coefficient of
Restitution
Computing
which is far below the actual impact speed of 39 mph.
Restitution based on
Damage Energy
This underestimation is expected because we are
Analysis of ignoring all the damage above the bumper.
Under-ride
Collisions
• Voyager
• Explanations
• Coefficient of
Restitution
• Jeep

Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 70 / 77

 Average Crush Analysis
Review of Crash
Tests Tumbas and Smith use the average in calculations
Damage Momentum which gives:
Analysis

Determining Crush
Ecrush = 55, 308 ft-lb
Energy

The Physics of ∆v = 21.2 mph

Impacts

Coefficient of which still under estimates the speed.

Restitution
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
• Voyager
• Explanations
• Coefficient of
Restitution
• Jeep

Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 71 / 77

Explanation for Erroneous Results

1. Frictional forces from the tractor-trailer are impulsive in

the case of an under-ride collision.
2. The collision impulse acts to rotate the rear of the bullet
vehicle down and to the outside. The 2-D limitation of our
analysis completely ignores this downward impulse.
3. The stiffness values are empirically derived from crash
tests in a particular configuration (e.g., frontal barrier), not
the stiffness of the softer upper portion of the vehicle.
4. The measurement protocol is not well understood and
differences in measuring render different results.
5. The energy absorbed by the ICC bumper of the truck was
completely ignored.

Special Problems 2006 – 72 / 77

 Coefficient of Restitution
Review of Crash
Tests If we use the known actual impact speed of 39 mph,
Damage Momentum then the coefficient of restitution is determined as:
Analysis

Determining Crush
s
Energy 2Ecrush (m1 + m2 )
The Physics of e = 1−
Impacts m1 m2 ( v1 − v2 )2
Coefficient of s
Restitution
Computing 2(55, 308)(90.06 + 864.9)
Restitution based on = 1−
Damage Energy 90.06(864.9)[39(1.466) − 0]2
Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
= 0.768
• Voyager
• Explanations
• Coefficient of
which is obviously way to high. Therefore, the
Restitution
• Jeep
estimated crush energy was too low.
Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 73 / 77

 1994 Jeep Cherokee into the rear of the tractor-
trailer
Review of Crash
Tests The equally spaced crush measurements across a
Damage Momentum width L = 50.5 inches are:
Analysis

Determining Crush
Energy Location C1 C2 C3 C4
The Physics of
Impacts
Bumper 6 7 7 0
Coefficient of Hood 56 48 45 34
Restitution
Computing
Roof 8 7 12 1
Restitution based on
Damage Energy

Analysis of
The A stiffness coefficient is 358.8 lb/in and the B
Under-ride
Collisions
stiffness coefficient is 114.2 lb/in2 . Bumper height
• Voyager measurements give:
• Explanations
• Coefficient of
Restitution
• Jeep
Ecrush = 19, 569 ft-lb
Summary and
Conclusions ∆v = 12 mph
with a speed of 14 mph.
Special Problems 2006 – 74 / 77
Review of Crash
Tests
Damage Momentum
Analysis

Determining Crush
Energy

The Physics of
Impacts

Coefficient of
Restitution
Summary and
Computing
Restitution based on
Damage Energy
Conclusions
Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and
Conclusions
• Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 75 / 77

 Summary and Conclusions
Review of Crash
Tests • Crash III impact and energy models
Damage Momentum • Campbell model coefficients, and stiffness values:
Analysis

Determining Crush
A, B, & G,
Energy
• Classical impact models
The Physics of
Impacts • Three forms of the Coefficient of restitution:
Coefficient of
Restitution 1. Kinematic model
Computing
Restitution based on 2. Kinetic model
Damage Energy
3. Energetic model
Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions • The coefficient of restitution is defined normal to
Summary and
Conclusions the impact plane
• Summary and
Conclusions • The coefficient of restitution can be estimated
based on Ecrush and the relative approach
velocities.

Special Problems 2006 – 76 / 77

 Summary and Conclusions
Review of Crash
Tests • Re-examined the crash tests from SP 2005
Damage Momentum
Analysis ◦ Crash III model gives good results for the
Determining Crush
Energy
impacts that occurred at right angles into the
The Physics of trailer tandems
Impacts
◦ As of this writing, there are no tested and
Coefficient of
Restitution consistent methods for dealing with
Computing
Restitution based on tractor-trailer under-ride collisions
Damage Energy

Analysis of
Under-ride
Collisions
Summary and
Conclusions
• Summary and
Conclusions

Special Problems 2006 – 77 / 77