Rocket propulsion by ramamurthy pdf free download

Rocket engine works on the principle of. Rocket propulsion syllabus.

Want more? Advanced embedding details, examples, and help! You're Reading a Free Preview Pages 7 to 12 are not shown in this preview. You're Reading a Free Preview Pages 17 to 24 are not shown in this preview. This book deals with the fundamental aspects of rockets and the current trends in rocket propulsion. The book starts with a
description of motion in space, the requirements of rockets for placing spacecrafts in different orbits about the Earth and escaping from the gravitational pull of celestial bodies. The rocket equation is subsequently formulated, following examples of the motion of a sled from change of momentum and movement of giant squid in deep seas. The
operating principles, performance prediction procedures, design aspects and problem areas of the different types of rockets are discussed in detail. Practical examples and exercises are provided in each chapter to aid in understanding the concepts. Some of the salient features of the book are:"Terms employed in practice for defining the
characteristic features of rocket are derived from basics and are illustrated with examples."Selection of propellants for rockets is debated and a simplified analytical method is given for evaluating propellants used in solid, liquid and hybrid propellant rockets."An exhaustive description and analysis of the cycles of operation of liquid propellant and
cryogenic propellant rockets is provided."An entire chapter is devoted to the problem of combustion instability, often encountered in the development of solid and liquid propellant rockets. The factors causing the instability are deducted.

Detuning and gain stabilization methods of overcoming combustion instability are discussed."The principles governing the operation of electrical rockets and the limitations arising from power and associated mass are deducted."A brief on advanced rockets such as nuclear rockets, tri-propellant rockets, pulse detonation rockets is also provided.

Rocket Propulsion. Instructor: Prof. K. the america's test kitchen healthy family cookbook pdf Ramamurthi, Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Madras. This course covers topics in rocket propulsion: motion in space, rocket principle, nozzles, chemical propellants, solid propellant rockets, liquid propellant rockets, monopropellant rockets,
hybrid rockets, combustion instability, electrical rockets, and advances in rocket propulsion. (from nptel.ac.in) Introduction References Rocket Propulsion Instructor: Prof. K. emergency numbers in uae pdf Ramamurthi, Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Madras. Motion in space. Rocket principle. popona.pdf Nozzles.
Chemical propellants. Solid propellant rockets. noguluzotawazabujavawalo.pdf Liquid propellant rockets. Monopropellant rockets. Hybrid rockets. kexatubijivafokomujigugi.pdf Combustion instability. Electrical rockets. You're Reading a Free Preview Pages 12 to 15 are not shown in this preview. You're Reading a Free Preview Pages 19 to 29 are not
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shown in this preview. 1 Rocket Propulsion Prof. K. Ramamurthi Department of Mechanical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology, Madras Lecture 27 Review of Solid Propellant Rockets We will finish our discussions on the solid propellant rockets today. Let us start with something amusing. (Refer Slide Time: 00:22) Solid propellants rocket,
abbreviated as SPR are known as solid propellant rocket motors. 10 3 practice problems chemistry worksheet answers
Whereas, when we talk of liquid propellant rockets, liquid propellant rockets are known as liquid propellant rocket engines. What do you think is the reason calling one as motor and the other as engine? You know in many textbooks you find this solid propellant rocket referred to as a motor whereas, liquid propellant rocket referred to as an engine.
What do you think would be the reason?2 Let us go back and look at the construction of a solid propellant rocket. We have a case in which we put some insulation. We will revise it again towards the end of the class. Then I have a nozzle. The propellant grain, which could be a radial burning grain could be a star or something else is contained within
the case. And what else we did. An igniter is placed in the port volume of the grain. It generates a hot plume and ignites the propellant grain. If we talk in terms of a liquid propellant rocket engine, I should have tanks, which carry the liquid, I have the propellant lines to the chamber. And to be able to pump the liquid propellants, let us say the liquid
fuel I need a pump here, I should need a pump here for the oxidizer. Therefore, I have moving parts something pump which moves whereas to drive the pump I need again a turbine. I have moving parts in a liquid propellant rocket. Whereas, a solid propellant rocket has no moving parts; it is just simple case enclosing the propellant and igniter.
Therefore, for some reason or the other a solid propellant rocket, because it has no moving part is referred to as a motor. In fact, the case is referred to as a motor case. 59101211951.pdf A liquid propellant rocket considering that it has moving parts is referred to as engine. (Refer Slide Time: 02:54) Now with this introduction let us see where we
were in the last class. We discussed the igniters. And let me just briefly go through what we covered in igniters again. See before3 discussing igniters we were very clear how to design the burning surface area, how to be able to define the burning surface area, the configuration of the grain according to the amount of thrust which is required. We
could design the grain. The igniter jet, impinges on the propellant surface, pressurizes the cavity and then ignition takes place. We had different types of igniters: one was a pyrotechnic igniter in which we have a charge which is easily ignitable whereas we also talked in terms of a pyrogen igniter wherein we put a small rocket motor itself as the
igniter in a larger rocket. What is the principle? 54668842553.pdf Let us just say whenever I make a fire - like for instance I want to light a candle let us say. I use a matchstick and light this candle. monorifojitunivugilofupel.pdf I cannot use this matchstick if I were to light a sparkler. I do not generally use a matchstick, because it requires more
sustain flame to ignite it. And therefore, I use a candle for lighting this sparkler. Now again I say I have something like a Bengal pot, it is something like a mud pot in which I put some pyrotechnic composition. 12131042431.pdf I cover it over here it is something like this, I light it over here and we produce a plume of sparkles.
This is known as a Bengal pot, because this type of fire cracker originated in India in Bengal and therefore, to light it, I use a sparkler. valves selection handbook pdf I show the sparkler here and light this. rc hibbeler fluid mechanics solutions What is it we see? A small fire is required to make a little bigger fire. And a bigger fire is required to initiate
an yet bigger fire? And with this bigger fire we can make a still bigger fire. That means, in practice to be able to ignite anything a small fire is required to make a bigger fire and so on. A bigger fire is required to ignite a still bigger fire; and that is how things are if we have a furnace we do not put an electrostatic spark to ignite the fuel air mixture in
it. We create a pilot flame with the pilot flame we ignite it and so on. And so also in solid propellant rockets what we do is we use a small rocket motor over here. And that small rocket motor has a nozzle; let us say this is the case over here, we put a small rocket over here. That means, we have something like a nozzle over here, we have another
igniter for it, and this will contain a squib for its igniter. It is similar to a small fire makes a bigger fire, maybe makes a still bigger fire and so on. The pyrogen igniter and makes a bigger fire which ignites the rocket.4 (Refer Slide Time: 06:10) Therefore a pyrogen is a small rocket, which ignites the main rocket. And what did we note? If we have a
large rocket and if we look at the pressure time trace, we have something like it initially ignites over a small surface locally. What the igniter does is it pressurizes the chamber to some small value. And also transfers heat over here and therefore, we have local ignition from let us say 0 to 1. wijebukepirab.pdf And then the flame spreads over the
surface to 2 and after the flame has spread it reaches the equilibrium pressure which we say is p equilibrium. We derived expressions and we found that the transients could be easily be predicted.

How did we predict the pressures?

And we took the simple case where in dm by dt corresponds to the condition when the surface entire surface of the propellant has just got ignited that is local ignition of a small surface followed by the entire surface getting ignited and we were able to get the equation to this curve and what was the equation?5 (Refer Slide Time: 07:47) We wrote an
expression for dm by dt. And you see how simple it is; m is equal to PV by RT that is d p by d t into volume is constant V by RT is equal to what is happening now the entire surface is burning Sb, into r into to a into p to the power n, into rho p that is the rate at which mass is getting generated minus 1 over C star into p into At. Therefore when we solve
this equation, we had this within the bracket, Sb, a, p to the power n density of the propellant minus 1 over Cstar, into p into At. And what else did we do? We said C star was equal to under root RT by capital gamma which was a function of the under root small gamma into 2 over gamma plus 1. Therefore, we replaced RT in terms of capital gamma
squared into C star squared and this particular equation we were able to get it in a non-dimensional form. How did we get p bar?
We said p bar is equal to pressure at any point in time let us say the pressure here is p. The equilibrium pressure is the final steady state value p by equilibrium p equilibrium. And we defined a characteristic length which came from V by A t we brought it out as L star here, L star by C star we said has a unit of time we called it as characteristic time.
And we said we will take a look at it when we study combustion instability. We also said t bar is equal to t by t characteristic. And therefore, we were able to get say t characteristic here by d t bar is equal to p to the power n minus p. Here on the side p should be p bar that means, it must be the non-dimensional pressure.6 (Refer Slide Time: 10:02)
We integrated this expression and got it in the ln form; that means pressure at any point or the time after event 2 between let us say between 2 to 3 was derived as logarithm of 1 minus p at 2 non dimensionlized to the power 1 minus n, to the power 1 minus p at anytime to the power 1 minus n is the expression for the time.

Or rather we found it droops after some particular time. We followed the same logic to be able to find out what will be the variation of pressure after the propellant burns out in a rocket. Let us say p over here, t over here on the X axis; and we said the motor ignites, keeps on burning till all the propellant gets burnt. What will be the signature for the
pressure transient after the propellant gets burnt? What will be the equation to describe this event? Does the pressure go like this or does it go exponentially like this; we were interested in the shape. And the equation we got for this was quite similar for the ignition events. All the propellant is getting consumed over here.
Therefore, the equation for that particular case of depletion that we derived in the last class was dp by dt was again equal to RT by V into the rate of mass depletion by nozzle which is minus p into At by C star that is m dot n.7 (Refer Slide Time: 11:28) And we followed the same non-dimensional procedure. RT is equal to capital gamma squared into C
star squared. And therefore we got gamma squared into C star squared divided by V, we took At outside, and the value of c star and p and this negative sign. And therefore now V by At becomes L star that is volume by throat area, which is the characteristic length at burn out of the propellant grain. And now we have star over here this is unit of
velocity this becomes L star over here. And therefore, I could also write this particular equation in the form maybe 1 over L star divided by c star which is equal to the characteristic time; which is 1 over characteristic time, because length over velocity has a unit of time.
And therefore for dp by dt we got this as equal to p divided by the characteristic time.8 (Refer Slide Time: 12:49) We can write this equation as d p bar by dividing both the sides by equilibrium pressure. By bringing the characteristic time tch to the left side, we get dt bar that is non dimensional time. This is equal to p bar. Or rather this equation
expresses the differential of non-dimensional pressure with respect to non-dimensional time. trauma abdominal cerrado pdf 2020 Mind you there is a minus sign. (Refer Slide Time: 13:11)9 And this tells me that d t is equal to d p by p minus. Rather the time taken after the burning of the propellant is completed tb is when burning gets completed; we
have t minus tb. Therefore, we get t minus tb is equal to logarithm of the pressure by pressure at burn out.
The decay is of pressure would be exponential and to reach zero value, it is going to take a very longtime. And we did it dimensionally the other day. We would have got gamma squared C star by L star. teacher's guide composite mathematics 8 pdf We must be able to do this in different ways. We could have got dp by dt is equal to gamma squared C
star by L star into p with a negative sign over here, gamma squared C star V by A t is L star. And if we were to integrate, we get ln p is equal to minus gamma squared C star by L star into t minus tb. That means, the pressure continuously decays with time. (Refer Slide Time: 16:05) Why are we repeating this?
See there must be some reason. The reason is whenever a rocket motor ignites, the pressure changes with time, starts slowly building up as flame spread progresses, then reaches after chamber filling interval the neutral, progressive, or regressive equilibrium value.
This particular zone is equilibrium pressure; that means a steady state pressure. At the end of this what happens is well all the propellant gets consumed and the chamber pressure and thrust decays out. We have the transient for ignition; the ignition transient followed by a period of steady or equilibrium burning which will be much longer, and then
the time when it burns out or you have we called it10 as tail off. How do we use this signature of the transients and equilibrium burning to define the effective burning times? It becomes a little complicated or subjective and there are standard procedures to do it. Let us consider the case of neutral burning. We plot a tangent to this particular pressure
time trace in the zone of neutral equilibrium burning. So also we plot a tangent to the curve in the ignition transient zone. We get a particular point of intersection of the lines here. Similarly, we plot a tangent here in the tail off curve and the point of intersection of the tangent of the tail off curve and the equilibrium burning curve is obtained. We call
these points as a and b respectively. And we now see, burning is taking place during the end of the ignition transient and the initial phase of the tail off and the precise points of the start and stop could not be found. After the intersection of the tangents, we get the points a and b as the start of burning and end of burning and the time from a to b is
called the burn time. And it is denoted by the symbol tb. scrollview not scrolling when keyboard open android And this is how we characterize a solid propellant rocket motor for the burn time of the propellant. This means that the burn time of this motor is so many seconds or so many minutes or so. But we also realize during the period before start of
the burn time, the rocket motor is still giving us impulse or some momentum. It is contributing to impulse even earlier and after the burn time. Therefore, when we want to define a mission and for a mission a certain impulse is required. hindustan_times_newspaper_today.pdf We therefore take the maximum pressure value at the point of the
intersection of the tangent line to the ignition transient and the equilibrium pressure curves. This pressure is denoted by pa. We divide it by 1 by 10 that is 10 percent of the value. Similarly, I get the value of maximum pressure at burnout pb. We take 1 by 10th of this value. That means, the pressure corresponding to this decaying pressure point is
equal to pressure corresponding to the b divided by 10. And now here also we get the certain impulse here. The impulse may be small. The particular time between 10% of the maximum pressure at the start and at the end is called as the time of action of the motor or action time. We denote it by ta. In other words, when we have to plan a mission, we
get thrust over the action time. However, to characterize the motor in a test or otherwise, we are interested in the burn time. And we see that the action time is greater than the burn time.11 (Refer Slide Time: 20:27) Now let us examine one or two small problems we can have in solid propellant rockets. Why we are considering this is whenever we
make a rocket; let us say we have a rocket as sketched here. Let us say it has a radial burning grain. We add an igniter to it. And we told ourselves the other day most of the igniters are pyrogen igniters, because normally the rocket motors are quite large. We were quite clear how to go about making an igniter. The igniter must pressurize this cavity
to some value, not very high value, such that a flame can be near the surface. The igniter must also give some energy to the propellant surface and we said propellant requires some minimum energy for ignition. We have plumes from the igniter and it ignites a particular surface. These were all the requirements and thereafter the flame spread and
pressurization take over. We had this particular transient curve for local ignition flame spread and the pressurization of the cavity; But sometimes when we do a test or an experiment we had the pressure going up instead of following the ignition transient curve shown earlier.12 (Refer Slide Time: 21:53) Very often the pressure goes like this in the
form of a spike and comes down after spiking to the equilibrium pressure. In other words we get a peak of pressure much greater than the equilibrium value. That means, we get something like an ignition peak in the process of ignition transient. The pressure peak can burst the case or provide an unplanned thrust and acceleration and this is
detrimental. Why should such an event take place?13 (Refer Slide Time: 22:25) Let's take a look and address the parameters. How do we make a propellant grain? We take a case motor case. Inside it we put a mandrel; if we want to make a cylindrical grain we put a cylindrical rod, pour the propellant slurry between it and the case.
If we want to make a star grain well the shape of this mandrel would be star shaped. The slurry is then cure and we remove this mandrel. We have this particular shape of the grain. And some times to remove the grain is difficult and therefore we use some agents which a like silicon oil or something which are essentially insulators to be able to easily
remove the mandrel from the grain. Now if the surface of the grain so formed is such that it is not easily ignitable. What happens is that we are transferring energy the grain; it gets heated and as it continues to get heated its temperature increases.
When it begins to burn it starts burning at a higher temperature, and since it starts burning at a higher temperature the value of the burn rate is now influenced by the temperature sensitivity factor.
And therefore the burn rate is higher since burning takes place at a high temperature. It produces much higher rate of mass or it burns with a higher speed. And therefore, you have a higher amount of mass and energy, which is getting released and therefore, the pressure could go up. This is one of the reasons for the spike in pressure.
The second reason could be, we have higher velocities especially towards the nozzle end of the grain surface which if high enough14 could lead to higher burning rates. (Refer Slide Time: 24:19) But, to be able to prevent the pressure spike what this normally done is we take something like an emery paper and remove the surface defects and ensure
that the surface of the propellant is easily ignitable. Let us put down the points to prevent ignition spike ignition in a solid propellant rocket.
What we do is we emery a surface. Take an emery paper may be make the surface make sure oxidizer and fuel are readily available, and it catches fire easily. You have to make sure, that the surface is such that some other reason like burning due to increased velocities, which we call as erosive burning are not possible. We will consider shortly about
erosive burning. We can always tolerate a small value of the spike; but must guard against it.
Something that we missed out was that we often require to ignite a motor under low ambient pressures or in vacuum of space.15 (Refer Slide Time: 25:26) Since we need to build pressure in the port volume, we put something like a closure at the nozzle. When pressure builds up and the motor is ignited, the closure is thrown out. We make sure that
after adequate pressure is generated around 5 bar to 6 bar, the closure is dislodged. This closure is known as a nozzle closure. This is all about solid propellant rockets. We have considered the propellant burn rates, we have considered how to go about making grains of different configurations to get thrust. And then we looked at igniter; we looked at
the action time and the burn time. And therefore, maybe we should put things together at this point in time before we close our discussions on the solid propellant rockets. Let us start with propellant burn rate r. How did we define the burn rate or how did we determine the burn rate. We said that we make a propellant strand may be something like a
cm in diameter. We could put it in a chamber and pressurize the chamber to whatever pressure we are interested in. Then we ignite the surface and measure the burn rate when the burn propagates through a particular distance. We control the pressure in this chamber. This particular chamber in which such strands are burnt is known as Crawford
bomb. It is something like a bomb type of a calorimeter in which we burn the propellant, but all what we do is we put a series of fuse wires at known distance apart along the line16 of burning. An electronic timer is used to find the time taken to burn between the individual segments of the strand. The distance L divided by the time is the burn rate r at
the particular chamber pressure. (Refer Slide Time: 26:21) Now I use this burn rate in a rocket motor. Let us say the same end burning configuration of propellant grain is used in the rocket motor. What we have may be the diameter of the grain is D and the throat diameter is dt. We want to find out the burn rate of the grain the rocket chamber. We
measure over here it gives me let us say 4 millimeters per second at a pressure of let us say 5 or let us say standard pressure 7 MPa. The question is will we get the same value of r as in the Crawford bomb or should we get a different value. What is your take on this? Should it be the same as measured in a strand at the same pressure? How would you
look at this problem? We again go back and write the simple equation, that we derived for burn rate.17 (Refer Slide Time: 28:42) We got the equation r is equal to a p n. How did we get this equation? we said. We have the surface the flame standing of at a distance X star from the surface. And how did we get this r. It is equal to the heat which is given
over here, thermal conductivity of the gas above the surface, into the temperature of the flame minus temperature at the surface, divided by X star is the heat which is conducted divided by rho p into specific heat into surface temperature minus the initial temperature plus the exothermic heat release at the surface; we derived this based on the
simple model. Now can we look at this, for the experiment in the rocket and the experiment in the strand burner? And would it be different in the two cases or should it be the same? This is a perennial problem we have with solid propellant rockets. Now what is happening in the Crawford bomb is that the ambient is all cold gas even though it is at the
same pressure. Here the ambient is hot gas therefore, we will have heat radiation coming on the surface. In other words when we test a motor we will have something like q radiation coming on the propellant surface. We could also have in a radial burning grain q due to convection coming on the surface in addition to the radiation. And therefore, the
burn rate in a motor should be higher than in when it is tested in a strand burner.
And therefore, to determine the burn rate what is done is you have to test it in a small solid propellant rocket and these propellant grains are known as control blocks or control18 round, because I cannot really use this standard apparatus to determine the burn rate. I have to use a rocket configuration, because it is more representative of the actual.
May be when I am developing different propellant formulations, we can screen them in a strand burner. But the final burn rate is always derived with a small solid propellant rocket itself. Which is known as a control round; in India we call control round as a Agni round, but let us not confuse it with Agni missile. The small rockets used for burn rate
measurements may be of diameter around 200 mm and length around 400 mm with cylindrical burning. Burn rate is equal to web thickness divided by the web burn time. And that is how we determine the burn rates in practice. The problem now gets more confusing for the following reasons. Let us consider two cases of solid rocket motors having the
same composition of the propellant grain. The solid propellant rocket used in space shuttle is a very large with diameter is around 3.8 meters diameter the length is around 40 meters. (Refer Slide Time: 31:41) It has a star shape grain, but we assume a simple radial burning. Let us say that I have another motor of smaller dimensions using the same
PBAN propellant as the solid rocket booster. Let us say that this small rocket has a length of 10 meters long and diameter of 1 meter. If the pressures in both are the same, will the burn rate determined at the same19 pressure be the same or different. Again we look at the radiation; it depends on the mean beam length of radiation. Therefore, I expect
the burn rate in a larger motor to be different, but it is not necessarily true; there are other factors like mechanical properties of the propellant. Why I say mechanical properties mechanical properties could be hardness could be tensile strength, could be the ductility of the propellant. And during burning I could have some deformation taking place all
those things are going to influence the web thickness. And therefore, scaling of burning rate with size of the motor or size of the rocket is always of interest and a problem of interest. We observe as we go from a medium size motor to larger size, the increase in burn rate increases by something like 4 to 6 percent generally. And after particular size, it
is not significantly influenced by the size. But we have to verify it through models. And what are the models we use; we go back to our basics, write the equation find out what is the role of convection and radiation and solve the problem. (Refer Slide Time: 33:52) This brings me to the last point, namely if we were to have something like a long
propellant grain.
Like let us say we have a internal burning grain, let us say radial and the initial cavity or port diameter which is also defined as port of a rocket grain is of small20 diameter. And as it burns at the surface let us say this is the propellant grain, gas is coming out let us plot the value of velocity of the gases which is moving as a function of length starting
from the head end towards the nozzle end. (Refer Slide Time: 36:00) At the head end there is hardly any velocity, but as more and more gas is generated, the velocity is increasing towards the nozzle end. Velocity is a maximum at the nozzle end.
Now what does velocity does to a surface which is burning. Well it can erode the surface like in a river. Let us say a river is flowing and what does current of velocity do? It drags the sand from the river. So, also I could have something like erosion. Let us write it down. The velocity could erode the propellant surface; in other words I could have
something like an erosive burning. Mind you propellant was heterogeneous; composite, it is sort of eroding the surface or erosive burning, but more than erosive burning we find velocity here is higher therefore, the Nusselt number or the Reynolds number will be greater. We have Reynolds number as a function of length and it increases with
velocity. If Reynolds number increases, well the Nusselt number or heat transfer coefficient is bound to go up. Therefore we are also going to get increased convective heat transfer. In other words we can talk in terms of erosive burning arising from convective heat transfer, and when we21 do such a modeling and calculate the new value of heat
transfer coefficient by convection, it is equal to function of Reynolds number into Prandtl number. And this we write in terms of Nusselt number as hd by k. And therefore, we can always find out the Nusselt number and once we know heat transfer coefficient, we can find out what is that q convection and find out the increase in heat transfer rate.
When we do that we find that the burning rate can be expressed in terms of a constant into something like a Mach number into the pressure to the power c. (Refer Slide Time: 36:40) The value of the exponent c is typically between 0.7 and 0.8, which is something like in the standard correlation for Nusselt number. It is equal to into Reynolds number
to the power 0.8 into Prandtl number to the power 1 by 3 for turbulent flow.
This suggests that convective heat transfer does play a role.
In addition to pressure we have Mach number effects and this is what gives us the erosion effect.22 (Refer Slide Time: 37:11) And this erosion effect, because it increases the burn rate can also lead to the ignition spike since at this time the port volume is small and velocities would be large. The larger mass burning rates could provide the spike.
(Refer Slide Time: 37:52) Supposing let us say we are launching a particular solid propellant rocket. And to be able23 to stabilize it sometimes is spun i.e., it rotates on its axis. We have let us say an end burning grain, something like this it is burning over here, it is being launched like this. We also have a spinning a radial burning grain.
And why do you spin to make it stable like just like we have a top which when it spins is stable. Now what is happening is the burning surface area. In the frame of reference of the burning surface, we have aluminum, which is burning over here; it gets pushed towards the surface.
Therefore, I get the effect of local acceleration and the effect of acceleration is to be able to push it towards the surface. And therefore, we can say that acceleration will affect the X star viz., the flame standoff and therefore, it will also affect the burn rate. We can thus find the effect of acceleration due to the spinning. All we have to find out is how
the acceleration influences the stand of distance of the flame. If we can find it out through a simple model, we can find out the influence on burn rate. We know the centrifugal force from the acceleration. We know the mass of aluminum particles, which are burning and therefore we can do this problem. Let us quickly revise through and then address
one or two of the very major issues which was faced in solid propellant rockets namely the control of thrust. Let us quickly revise in two or three slides what we have been talking of.24 (Refer Slide Time: 39:58) This is an igniter may be a pyrotechnic igniter. It produces these plumes which impinges on the propellant surface, ignites the surface also
pressurizes the cavity. These are the individual plumes, which are igniting the surface. The flame spreads and then the gases move out through the nozzle and this is how ignition takes place.
(Refer Slide Time: 40:26)25 Let us go to the next one. This is a pyrogen igniter, a small solid propellant rocket. This has a pyrotechnic igniter here, squib over here burns here, ignites this surface and flame moves forward. That means a pyrogen igniter is a small solid propellant rocket. (Refer Slide Time: 40:54) See this is how pyrogen propellant grain
looks. It is like a solid propellant rocket only you do not need to generate thrust. We provide a multi point star shown in red. When the propellant here is ignited, it generates hot gases that ignite the main motor.26 (Refer Slide Time: 41:13) We also said that the hot gases must be contained within this port volume or cavity to ensure ignition. We use a
nozzle closure and the moment pressure builds up well this is ejected out. And therefore, flow through the nozzle gets started after we make sure that the ignition takes place in a chamber. The port volume is sort of enclosed with this nozzle closure.
It is made of some ablative material and is bonded over here by glue. The moment pressure is developed in the port volume, it is pushed out. We use such nozzle closures in liquid propellant rocket engines also.27 (Refer Slide Time: 41:56) We talked in terms of burn time. Two tangents intersecting; this is shown for progressive case: A to B is the burn
time. The time of one- tenth of the pressure at ignition to onetenth of this pressure at burn out over here, is what is the action time. Well these are all about the solid propellant rockets. (Refer Slide Time: 42:15)28 Now having done all this let us put all components of a solid propellant rocket together in a single figure. What are the components of a
solid propellant rocket? Well propellant is basic and it is contained within an insulation or a liner. After this insulation we have another liner, make sure that it is compatible with this insulation such that heat does not get conducted and weaken the motor case or cause the case to burn off. Therefore, we have a propellant, we have a case, we have
insulation and liner is also a form of insulation. And then we have a nozzle; the nozzle could be sunk into the propellant and it could be made to flex. We have seen when we talked of nozzles. We have a nozzle closure. We have an igniter, which could be a pyrogen igniter or a pyrotechnic igniter. Well this is all what a solid propellant rocket consists of.
And we said it called a motor because there are no moving parts in a solid propellant rocket. Having done all this I thought let us review two practical problems, which have been encountered, during the history of development of different rockets. And I just choose two of them, because all of us have heard of these problems and let us clarify what
really happened. (Refer Slide Time: 43:37) One is we talk in terms of solid rocket booster for space shuttle.
Our interest in this was because it is the world s largest solid propellant rocket.
It uses PBAN, polybutadiene acrylic acid acrylonitrile as a propellant. This is the fuel binder. Of course, it contains AP and large amount of aluminum as in all solid propellants. And what was the problem? In29 one of the shuttle launches in 1986 in the flight Challenger the motor misbehaved. And the entire crew of 7 died. It was the first time that they
took a civilian into space, they took a school teacher along. What was the problem? (Refer Slide Time: 44:54) Let us try to understand what really went wrong. Well this figure shows the space shuttle. What does the space shuttle consists of? It consists of a central engine which is a hydrogen oxygen cryogenic engine, there are 3 of them here clustered
together and they burn simultaneously. And behind the space plane we have a huge liquid hydrogen tank and at the bottom of it you have the liquid oxygen tank, this is the huge liquid hydrogen tank you need a huge tank, because liquid hydrogen is not very dense.
You have two solid rocket boosters. First what is done is these 3 liquid engines fire, ii is made sure that adequate thrust is developed, because you can always switch on and switch off a liquid propellant rocket. And once it has developed a particular thrust, the two solid rocket boosters are fired. Mind you this what we said is around 3.8 diameters and
around 40 meters in height. They begin to fire and in this particular launch it happened on a cold day.30 (Refer Slide Time: 45:57) The temperature at the ambient was around minus 1 degree; it was around in the morning around 8 clock or so that the launch was to take place. The previous night the temperatures went down as low as minus 15
degree Celsius. And this shows you know it was a perfect launch. It takes off beautifully, but then after sometime around 0.6 seconds after ignition of the solid rocket booster in this region in the on the right side engine little bit of gas was found to escape.31 (Refer Slide Time: 46:45) Whenever we have such huge boosters, the construction of the
propellant block as a single grain is very difficult. The propellant is cast into different blocks and then assembled together.
Each block is known as a segment. And now therefore you make small segments of the same diameter and the solid propellant segments in the case of space shuttle consists of something like 6 segments. And what is done at the factory where in these segments are made? Few of the segments are assembled in the factory such that it is still
transportable. The final segments are assembled together at the launch site. How do you assemble the segments? We have the case over here, you need to make sure that these two are put together or joined together such that the no leakage of high pressure high temperature gas is possible once the huge motor ignites.32 (Refer Slide Time: 48:03)
Between one segment and the other may be have to put something some insulation, then we have to put the other segment over here, this has to be joined together maybe I should be able join it in some form at the interface. And how is it joined? We use O rings. Let us try to make a sketch of how the O rings function. See how do you assemble an O
ring in a groove? We insert the O ring in the grove. When we assemble the cylindrical face of the other segment the O ring being flexible, it flows and makes this junction to be air tight or leak tight. And therefore, 2 O rings are used and these O rings are of rubber. The rubber O rings which were meant for this have not been tested for temperatures
less than 15 degree Celsius.
The previous night was cold this particular launch was on hold for some time. And therefore, what happened was that the O ring which is resilient at ambient temperature becomes rigid and hard and when it becomes hard it does not seal the joint properly and allows the gas to flow by.33 (Refer Slide Time: 48:55) And therefore, at the segment joint
some little bit of the high temperature gas from the chamber begins to leak. And this was observed within 0.6 seconds after ignition.
This was observed and some minute amount of gas was beginning to escape. But you know that the propellant used is highly aluminized. Therefore, what does aluminum oxide do, it goes and blocks the leak path and prevents any further leak. The motor is still safe it keeps on firing further and further.34 (Refer Slide Time: 49:23) From seconds at
which the o rings have failed up to something like 60 seconds or 62 seconds, the flight or operation of the solid rocket booster was perfect.
The aluminum oxide has blocked the leak path and the chamber remains normal. (Refer Slide Time: 49:46) It goes through the atmosphere at around may be something like 13 kilo meters height35 Whenever where in we fire a missile or a rocket and it goes up through the atmosphere, we have wind in a particular direction. But in some locations we
have bottom layer of wind in the opposite direction to the next upper layer. We called is as a wind shear. Some wind moves in this direction some wind moves in this direction.
When the space shuttle is moving up let us again put the events together. Now the vehicle is moving up, and what is happening? It sees wind shear, it get s shaken and therefore, at that point in time the accumulated aluminium oxide which hold the leak gets breached. (Refer Slide Time: 50:20) At the bottom on the hand side the leakage path opens
out some flame comes out. And when this flame comes out it hits against one of the attachments, which secures the solid rocket booster to the main core rocket. And that gives way and the solid rocket booster comes out and it gives a thrust in some other direction. In addition, the flame hits against what we said is the hydrogen tank, ruptures it and
spills the hydrogen. This happened at a height of around 14 kilometers. And well the hydrogen mixed with air and there is a huge fire ball and the entire mission is a failure. Therefore, we see the corrective action of aluminum oxide in sealing the hole or the leak path which is disrupted by the wind shear. In fact one of the recommendation is
whenever you use a pyrogen igniter we should not use considerable aluminium for the36 propellant as the nozzle will get clogged. (Refer Slide Time: 51:11) But in the case of solid rocket boosters it helped. But the failure was because of the O rings which were not doing the job and the wind shear which dislodged the sealing by aluminium oxide..
(Refer Slide Time: 51:17)37 We will now consider one last example, which is interesting. We will cover the details of when we look at instability in rockets.
(Refer Slide Time: 51:35) You know this example relates to the second largest solid rocket motor. We just picked on these two; while the solid rocket boosters of space shuttle have something like 500 tones of propellant, this second biggest rocket has about 280 tones of propellant. This is used in the launch vehicle Arianne. Arianne is a French rocket.
And the solid propellant rocket uses a HTPB based propellant, hydroxyl terminated polybutadiene. And in this particular case, what happened is again being a large rocket with a number of segments. And how do you assemble the segments? Well in between the segments, we put glue or some inhibitor, join it together so that it is perfectly leak
tight.38 (Refer Slide Time: 52:17) And let us now consider a segment joint. We have one segment over here; this is the inner diameter; we have the next segment coming over her. We have the inhibitor or joining glue over here in between. Now when the propellant burns the propellant burns fast where as this fellow does not burn as fast. Therefore,
after sometime we have the inhibitors standing like this over the propellant surface. The flow of the gas in the port is obstructed and eddies are found. These eddies in the flow have a characteristic frequency and these disturbances get amplified and the thrust instead of being steady starts oscillating. And the oscillation is because of eddies that are
formed, because of the projection of the inert being slower than the propellant. Well we have this protrusion here, which causes the pressure to oscillate. We will study the mechanism of oscillations in the chapter on combustion instability. Well, this is all about solid propellant rockets; maybe we all should try different problems and may be one
problem, which I think.39 (Refer Slide Time: 53:47) To sum up, if we are given the thrust of a solid propellant rocket which is to be made and given the specific impulse of the rocket, we can find out what is a mass flow rate required. We can use the C star of the propellant to find out what is the value of the nozzle throat area At. We choose the
pressure of operation of the solid propellant rocket p. And the burn rate of the propellant is known; r is equal to ap n. We can find out the burn rate and then solve for the burn surface area. And in the assignments I have given you something like 10 problems, which you should do. In the next class we will start with liquid propellant rockets. Download
Rocket Propulsion PDF A modern pedagogical treatment of the latest industry trends in rocket propulsion, developed from the authors' extensive experience in both industry and academia. Students are guided along a step-by-step journey through modern rocket propulsion, beginning with the historical context and an introduction to top-level
performance measures, and progressing on to in-depth discussions of the chemical aspects of fluid flow combustion thermochemistry and chemical equilibrium, solid, liquid, and hybrid rocket propellants, mission requirements, and an overview of electric propulsion. With a wealth of homework problems (and a solutions manual for instructors online),
real-life case studies and examples throughout, and an appendix detailing key numerical methods and links to additional online resources, this is a must-have guide for senior and first year graduate students looking to gain a thorough understanding of the topic along with practical tools that can be applied in industry.... Cover Half-title page Title
page Copyright page Contents Preface Acknowledgments Chapter 1 Classification of Rocket Propulsion Systems and Historical Perspective 1.1 Introduction 1.2 A Brief History of Rocketry 1.3 Classification of Rocket Propulsion Systems Further Reading Chapter 2 Mission Analysis Fundamentals 2.1 Classification of Rocket-Propelled Vehicles 2.2
Mission Requirements for Launch Vehicles 2.3 Mission Requirements for Upper-Stage or Orbital Transfer Vehicles 2.4 Mission Requirements for Ballistic Missiles 2.5 Mission Requirements for Interceptors 2.6 Summary Further Reading Homework Problems Chapter 3 Trajectory Analysis and Rocket Design 3.1 Vertical Trajectories – The Rocket
Equation 3.2 Burning Time and Acceleration Effects 3.3 Multistage Rockets 3.4 Generalized Trajectories Homework Problems Chapter 4 Rocket Nozzle Performance 4.1 Review of Compressible Flow of a Perfect Gas 4.2 Rocket Performance Fundamentals 4.3 Designing Nozzle Aerodynamic Contours 4.4 Non-Conventional Nozzles 4.5 Two-Dimensional
Flow Effects 4.6 Nozzle Shocks and Separation 4.7 Two-Phase Flow Losses 4.8 Boundary Layer Losses 4.9 Method of Characteristics for Axisymmetric Flows Further Reading Homework Problems Chapter 5 Combustion and Thermochemistry 5.1 Review of Perfect Gases 5.2 Thermodynamics Review 5.3 Chemical Equilibrium 5.4 Calculating the
Adiabatic Flame Temperature 5.5 Rocket Nozzle Thermochemistry 5.6 Computer Codes for Chemical Equilibrium Computations Further Reading Homework Problems Chapter 6 Heat Transfer in Chemical Rockets 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Cooling Techniques used in Rockets 6.3 Heat Transfer Fundamentals 6.4 Scaling of Convective Heat Transfer
Processes 6.5 Regenerative Cooling System Analysis Further Reading Homework Problems Chapter 7 Solid Rocket Motors 7.1 Introduction 7.2 SRM Internal Ballistics 7.3 Specific Impulse, Mass flow, and Thrust Predictions 7.4 Solid Rocket Motor Components 7.5 Solid Rocket Propellants 7.6 Thrust Vector Control and Throttleable Systems Further
Reading Homework Problems Chapter 8 Liquid Rocket Engines 8.1 Introduction: Basic Elements of an LRE 8.2 Monopropellant Systems 8.3 Bipropellant Systems and Engine Cycles 8.4 LRE Propellant Tanks 8.5 LRE Thrust Chambers 8.6 LRE Injectors 8.7 LRE Combustor/Injector Design and Analysis 8.8 LRE Unsteady Systems Analysis Using
Lumped Parameter Methods 8.9 A Note on Additive Manufacturing Further Reading Homework Problems Chapter 9 Liquid Rocket Propellants 9.1 Introduction: Classification of Liquid Propellants and Historical Perspective 9.2 What is a Fuel? And What is an Oxidizer? 9.3 Desirable Properties in Liquid Propellants 9.4 Monopropellants 9.5 Storable
and Hypergolic Propellants 9.6 Gelled Propellants 9.7 Cryogenic Propellants 9.8 Final Considerations Further Reading Chapter 10 Rocket Turbomachinery Fundamentals 10.1 Introduction: Elements of Rocket Turbopumps and Historical Perspective 10.2 Pump Design Fundamentals 10.3 Inducer Design 10.4 Impeller Design 10.5 Thrust Balance 10.6
Pump Operating Envelope and CFD Analysis 10.7 Turbine Fundamentals 10.8 Shafts, Bearings, and Seals 10.9 Rotordynamics 10.10 A Note on Additive Manufacturing Further Reading Chapter 11 Hybrid Rocket Engines 11.1 Introduction: General Arrangement and History 11.2 HRE Combustion Fundamentals 11.3 HRE Lumped Parameter Ballistics
11.4 HRE Ballistic Element Analysis 11.5 HRE Combustion Theory 11.6 HRE Propellants 11.7 HRE Design Further Reading Homework Problems Chapter 12 Combustion Instability 12.1 Introduction: Overview and History 12.2 Background 12.3 Analysis 12.4 Test Methods Further Reading Chapter 13 Electric Propulsion Fundamentals 13.1
Introduction 13.2 Background: Historical Developments 13.3 Fundamentals of Operation for EP Devices 13.4 Types of Electric Propulsion Devices 13.5 Electric Propulsion Applications 13.6 System Design and Spacecraft Interactions Further Reading Homework Problems Appendix A.1 Numerical Methods A.2 Fluid Properties and Other Resources
Index