FEMINIST THEOLOGY

Role Idealization of Genders/Socialization of Gender

We live in a society which places certain expectations on you according to your gender. It almost seems
like it has a gendered role cut out for us before we are born. If you comply with it, you are perfect, if not
you are a social misfit. Different brandings take place with or without our knowledge.

How many of you are perfectly happy with the way society rates you? Do you fit in to the social mold of
being a woman or man? Are you the ideal female or male according to social expectations? The society is
generally merciless when it comes to performing gendered roles. Does that have negative repercussions?
How do gendered roles or socialization of genders affect both women and men?

1. It dehumanizes both
How many times have you heard of a man being told, “He’s not a man!” just because he did not fight
back a person who hit him? Likewise of a woman, “She’s just like a man!” when she fights back (even
verbally) an abuser. When society links one’s sexual identity with what they should but didn’t or did but
shouldn’t, it is simply saying “you’re not a human” if you do not do what you are supposed to do as
expected. Is our human-ness so shallow that it can be either affirmed or negated by the things we do or
social roles we play? Are women and men simply actors or performers?

2. It curtails the freedom of both

The Swiss political philosopher, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, was right in saying, “Man (Humanity) is born
free but everywhere he is in chains.” Repression of freedom to take on any roles or adopt behaviors that
contravenes the “norm” causes both genders to submit either to society-centric contract or live miserably.
How many men have wanted a pink shirt but had to opt for a grey one because of being mocked. Or how
many women have wanted to climb a tree but restrained yourselves because of concerns that society may
judge you. How many boys would want to play with dolls and girls with cars but have been rigidly told
not to transgress the “norm”? Has their freedom of choosing their own play things not been snipped in the
bud before they could decide more for themselves? Gendered roles are not destructive in themselves but
when it becomes rigid and perpetual, it becomes unhealthy for both.

3. It creates unhealthy behaviors in both

How often have you been told that it is natural for men to be aggressive, to indulge in intoxicants, to
come home late or not come home at all? Conversely, how often have women been told that they have to
be gentle, stay home, not talk back, be caring and submissive (read obedient)? Such behavioral norms are
not natural but learned through socialization. For those who wish to live beyond the norm may face
emotional challenges and find destructive outlets. It is found that men who lose job loses a sense of power
and exercise that loss by being violent at home. Hence proven that after all ‘normal’ behavioral pattern
may not always be normal. Likewise, suppression of emotion for men (not crying or ask for help) and free
expression of women (crying and sharing thoughts) is seen as ideal but with tragic consequences; it has
resulted in women outliving women by at least six years on average! Were men created with no emotion?
Were women created with extra tear ducts? The only thing for both gender is that they were both created
with same substance (Gen 1:26-27) and with same responsibility (1: 28).

Bottom line: The entire male group and the entire female population need not be asked to behave a
certain way or to conform to a given role. That is not normal! It is oppressive.

“You are born with a sex, then you learn how to do gender” (Christopher Liang)
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Theories of Gender
There are several models of gender theories representing the field of studies. I will provide only two
model-sets – general and Christian – which are necessary for the course.
What is a gender theory? It is concerned with the study of masculine or feminine or queer behavior, roles
and identities.

General theories of Gender

1. Essentialist: The argument is that “essence” as fundamental or indispensable property persons defines
one’s core identity. - Cognate terms: biological approach, nature theory, determinism - Representative
Proponents: Mary Daly (Beyond God the Father) and Elaine Storkey (What’s Right with Feminism) -
Core idea: Human hormones and chromosomes determine their behavior. Gender is “given” and wo/men
possess essential traits which are necessarily present in all persons of the same kind. - Implications:
Every wo/men must emulate those inborn or innate characteristics if a wo/man is to be considered ideal
wo/man. - Problem: Results in gender binaries (dualism) – separation of gender on every level;
acceptance of all behavioral traits as beyond change. - Positive: Each gender can exploit their good
elements.

2. Constructionist: The argument is that gender/sex is neither natural or essential features of personhood
but are effects of culture and traditions - Cognate terms: Behavioural approach, nurture theory,
constructed - Representative Proponents: Simeone de Beauvoir (Second Sex) and Judith Butler (Gender
Trouble) - Core idea: Women and men are “formed” and enact culturally inscribed roles and positions. -
Implications: Children learn gendered meanings, symbols and behaviours. They learn to behave as “boys”
and “girls” following gender codes, which shapes them into wo/men. Hence, culture is capable of change.
- Problem: The lack of emphasis on the importance of collective/uniform experiences of each gender -
Positive: Takes a person’s life seriously; the possibility of change negative behavioural change

3. Functionalist: The argument is that a particular segment of society is responsible for one function and
another segment for another with powers inherent in that function. - Cognate terms: Utilitarian approach,
practical theory, Needed - Representative proponent: Heidi Levitt (“Making Intelligible the Controversies
over Femme Identities: A Functionalist Approach to Conceptualizing the subversive meanings of femme
genders”)
- Core Idea: Gender roles ensure social stability. It stresses on the utility or purpose; being male or female
or doing masculine or feminine roles are effective and necessary although may not important. -
Implications: Gender or sex is non-essential; what is important is the function each plays in order to meet
an end or achieve a purpose. - Problem: Refuses to address issues inherent in the gendered function
although most of it may not be a social need, thus sustaining gender inequality. - Positive: Values the

Origin and Development of Patriarchy

What is patriarchy? Etymology it means rule (arche) of father (pater). In general sense, it is the system in
which the male acts as the authority. Gerda Lener defines it as “institutionalized male dominance over
women and children in the family and the extension of it over women in society in general.” I define it as
“the overarching life system that is centered on the male.” Patriarchy is recognized as the most obvious
form of gender discrimination. It is indispensably linked with caste, class, ethnicity, race, tribe, religion
and ecology.
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How and when did it originate? Lerner, the author of the classic book The Creation of Patriarchy explains
that Patriarchy is a historical creation formed by men and women in a process that too nearly 2500 years
to its present state. It started from family to the state through the different stages of the formation of
modern human civilization.
i) *Neolithic Age: It is agreed that during the *Paleolithic period, as people adopted nomadic lifestyle
there was no gender disparity or control of one another. When people began to live in villages and
organized themselves in permanent settlements, women were exchanged to cement relationship, and
contribute to birthing and increasing population. Then women stayed began to stay more at home as men
engaged in outdoor activities. It was then that villages began to raid each other as a means of extending
power and territory. In the process, women were enslaved through conquest; making them into war time
booties by the conquerors
ii) *Bronze Age: By this period, people and societies were comparatively developed. There was progress
in law, architecture, and engineering and economies were expanding. As men dominated these fields,
women were sold into marriages and female prostitution for economic reasons became common. At this
stage commodification of women became apparent.
iii) Modern Age: With political and industrial development, women were kept out of politics and civil
rights were denied to them. Classism developed and caused the *subordination of women whereby
women were owed by the rich. Private ownership let to the oppression of women as properties passed on
to sons only. Capitalism confined women to unpaid domestic work and motherhood. They began to be
economically dependent on men and male domination solidified.
Patriarchy is sustained to this generation by both women and men who have internalized the system and
normalized its pattern in the family, church and society. A serious look at its historical development
shows that patriarchy is a human creation; it is not ordained by God. Patriarchy is also rightly known as
the “system of gender inequality.” The only way to overcome its dehumanizing characteristics is to resist
it consciously so that everyone is viewed with equal rights and dignity.

Feminist Theology: History and Development

Very simply put, feminist theology (FT) is a study about God from women’s perspective (See
elaborate definitions from introductory notes).
Nature of FT: Critique of androcentric church history, theological anthropology, church liturgy,
language, ecclesial structures and doctrinal constructions
Purpose of FT: i. Transformation of male symbols into gender inclusive representations. ii. Re-reading
the Bible to make it a tool of women’s empowerment. iii. To re-tell ‘her’story with the affirmation that
men’s story is not ‘universal truth’. iv. To ensure an equal place in church leadership. v. To reclaim the
imago Dei. vi. To actualize the meaning of incarnation in the lives of women in particular and all people
in general.
Objective of FT: The “critical principle” of feminist theology is “the promotion of the full humanity of
women” - Rosemary Radford Ruether

History & Development Early Beginnings: 17-18th centuries were marked by feminist theological
beginnings. *Mystics were thenon-acclaimed feminist. In Medieval era, Catherine of Sienna (1340-1380)
called herself as “Bride of Christ” and wielded political and religious authority even over the Pope; and
Julian of Norwich (1342-circa1420) wrote on the motherhood of God and calls, “Christ, our mother.”
Quakers and *Shakers were radicals of their times. Without having to call themselves feminists, they
believed in the equality of both genders and took up leadership roles (eg., Ann Lee and Jane Wardly).
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Many suffered for their faith as a woman; being called witches for possessing charismatic endowments –
but they continued to defy restrictions and practiced them till many were burned to the stakes. *Margaret
Fell, mother of Quakerism is another pioneering feminist theologian, and was founding member of
Quakerism aka Society of Friends. She was imprisoned for continuing to worship God and allowing it in
her home. From prison she wrote one of the most influential pamphlets on women: “Women’s speaking
justified, proved, allowed by Scripture” (1666). Therein she argued that God created everyone equal and
women have the ability to be a prophet. *In the 19th century, the Bible was reinterpreted by advocates of
women’s rights to defend their rightful place in Christian theology. Lucretia Mott wrote “Discourse on
Women” (1849) and learnt Greek and Hebrew to right male-dominant hermeneutics and affirm her rights
to church leadership and responsibility. To those who claim bible-based superiority of male, she replied,
“It is not Christianity, but priestcraft that has subjected women as we find her.” *One of the directional
changes in feminist theology was the publication of the “Women’s Bible” – authored by Elizabeth Cady
Stanton and Matilda Gage in 1895 & 1898.
Contextual and Liberative Feminist theologies: 1960’s forward *Womanists: Black feminist
theologians identified themselves as “womanists” in order to distinguish their cause from their white
counterparts because race/colour, womanhood, and class continued to play a major role in the
discrimination of the black women. They challenged white Christianity (aka Whitianity ) and black
misogynism. *Majurista: It’s a Latin American feminist theology-that addresses oppression of women
by bourgeoisie ideologies that ignores the interconnection between classism-racism-sexism. *Asia:
EACC (now called CCA-Christian Conference of Asia) started a women’s desk in 1981. Asian
women began to articulate women’s situation in Asia and interpret the Bible with their own eyes of
experience and construct theologies with women-centric female traditions. *India: In India, the particular
concerns of women within the context of caste, tribe, class, ethnicity etc began to be challenged within
Christianity and outside. Social systems and patriarchal culture Association of Theologically Trained
Women of India (ATTWI) was formed in 1979 to address women’s concerns in theological discourses
and education. Women’s studies and centers in seminaries were started.
General feminist theological developments: What has changed for Christian women? Some
significant outcome: * 1915 – Clarissa Danforth became the first woman to be ordained to priesthood. *
1987 – Elizabeth Paul of CSI became the first woman in India to be ordained to priesthood. * 1992 –
Noksangchila became the first women in the Northeast India to be ordained. * Since 2002 – In the RCC
150 women have been ordained as deacons but not to priesthood (70% of Catholics in the US say women
should become priests). *The World Council of Churches (WCC) is a modern Christian catalyst for
positive consciousness and change for women in churches. - In 1953 the programme for “Women in
Church and Society” proclaimed the renewal of a dignified life, post-WW II, only with women actively
involved in every aspects of church and society. - 1988-1998 was declared as WCC Ecumenical Decade
of Churches in Solidarity with Women . - 2000-2010 was announced a WCC Decade of Overcoming
Violence (against Women).
Inclusive Language in Theology and Liturgy
Language is a medium by which thoughts, meanings, ideas, beliefs are expressed and understood.
Words that accompany language are a powerful tool in invoking emotions and symbols that are
hurtful, joyful, discriminating or empowering. Also words have the ability to “shape attitudes,
influence action, and change or reinforce others’ perception.” (Mabry, Inclusive Language , 1994).
Hence, the use of languages or words that is inclusive of gender is important in both theology and
liturgy.
The influence of a patriarchal culture on the common use of exclusive language cannot be
underestimated. Theology born out of misogynistic and women-exclusive traditions have led to the
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explicit use of metaphors, images and analogies in exclusively male terms. Also, the marginalized
groups can further discriminated by the unconscious use of words that prejudices against them.
Some of the alternatives to exclusive languages are pointed below:
1. Gender Related in general
Exclusive/Inclusive
Man Human/Humanity, Men Everyone/People, Brotherhood Kinship/Bond of humanity, Man to man
Person to person ,Common man Ordinary person/citizen/lay
2. Theology
Exclusive/Inclusive
God our Father/Mother God our Parent
Father, Son , Holy Spirit Creator, Redeemer, Sustainer
Fatherhood/Motherhood of God -Parenthood of God
Jesus our brother /Jesus our friend
His (‘H’ in capital) his (‘h’ in small letter)
3. Age
Exclusive/ Inclusive Old man/woman Elderly person Pensioner/Retired Senior Kids Children Juvenile
Younger person Inexperienced boy/girl Youth Old Aging
4. Color (with racial implications)
Exclusive/Inclusive Blackmail Cheat Black magic sorcery White wash Hypocrite Black market Illegal
business Black day Tragedy Negro (banned word now) Black/colored
5. Disability
Exclusive/Inclusive Retarded Disabled/differently abled/special needs Deaf Hearing impaired Crippled
Mobility challenged Blind Visually impaired
Conclusion : Language we use with either edify the people of God or oppress sections of the group. It
will also either glorify God or limit God’s glory to human prejudices and biases. The use of inclusive
language reflects our sensitivity towards the marginalized and our fuller understanding of the God who is
compassionate and just in all his ways.
Methods And Tools of Feminist Reading And Interpretation of History
History is understood generally as “his” story and not “her”story. Historical narratives have been
concerned with male conquests, male as norms, and male glory. Feminist Argument: i. Women are
excluded from historical traditions and writings. Fiorenza calls it “androcentric selection of
historical traditions”. ii. Negative characterization of women or the feminine. iii. Domination of male
viewpoint. Feminists argue that there is a need for re-reading and re-writing from female perspective.
Purpose: i. To identify role of women in historical events. ii. Rediscover female writers, artists,
philosophers etc. iii. Identify gender prejudices and biases in historical narratives.
Objective: Re-interpret history in a non-gendered or women-inclusive, where necessary, manner. Tools
& Methods: 1. Auto/female-biographical narratives i. Women writing own story ii. Retelling women’s
lives in the past. 2. Feminist Literary Criticism i. Develop and uncover female writings ii. Interpret
women’s writings so that it is not lost or ignored by male point of view iii. Analyze women writers and
their writings from feminist perspective. iv. Challenge sexism in literature. v. Create awareness of
gendered language and style in writing. 3. Feminine critique: Analyze plots and characters of the stories
and identify the perceived implicit misogyny of the structure of the story (Think about Esther-Vashti
narrative in the BIble). 4. Gynocentrism: Identifies female scholarship in literature and shows how the
patriarchal system influences her writings. 5. Liberative Literary Feminism: Response to masculine
narratives of the empowerment of the marginals – blacks, Latin-American, Asian women, womanists,
majuristas. 6. Feminist critical method: Rereading historical texts that silence women’s experience and
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theological contribution by breaking the silence of the text and deriving meaning from androcentric
historiography.
Waves of Feminism

“Waves” are resurgence of feminism at different stages in history, characterized by specific areas of
focus. There are four waves:
First Wave (19th century to early 20th Century)
It is attributed to have begun with the Seneca Falls Women’s Rights Convention (1848) and ended with
the nineteenth amendment (1920) that guaranteed women’s right to vote. Women sought for their rights
through legislation and challenged the “cult of domesticity”.
Focus: Political and civil rights based.
Key Persons: Sojourner Truth, Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Carri Chapman Catt, and Susan B
Anthony
Second Wave (1960’s – 80’s)
Along with the focus of the first wave, it also sought for equal access to education and employment
opportunities and challenged systemic sexism aimed at women’s liberation. It was a time of
*“consciousness raising” (See definitions list) so that women are made aware of their sexuality and
reproductive rights and gaining social status, apart from child bearing, husbands, bras, high heels and
make-up. The main slogan was, “The personal is political”.
Focus: To create greater awareness of women’s issues and to create woman-centric vision.
Key Persons: Betty Friedan, Mary Daly, Rosie the Riveter, Gloria Steinem, Bella Abzug, Alice Walker,
Germaine Greer
Third Wave (90’s-early 2000’s)
During this wave, women sought equal pay and freedom of women in every sphere of life, resulting in
deconstructing the idea of “universal womanhood” (essentialism). They were career driven, and embraced
fashion and make-up and girliness, earlier abandoned by their foremothers. It also emphasized on
reconstructing gender identity by being more inclusive as in speaking to the experiences of diverse
women and celebrating diversity. *Intersectionality became a popular concept to explain women’s
experience of oppression on many levels – gender, race, class.
Focus: Equality of the genders and the empowerment of women according to their term.
Key Persons: Bell Hooks, Rebecca Walker, Judith Butler
Fourth Wave (late 2000’s - present)
This is a generation wherein women’s issues gained public attention due to the proliferation media.
Miglena Sternadori write that the fourth wave feminism “ushered in an internet enabled ‘callout’ culture
in which ‘rebel’ women yelled back at misogyny, sexual violence, body shaming and *intersectional
discrimination.” Fourth wavers challenge and call out social in justices as they are. They resist rape
culture and sexual violence and are open to speak about their experiences of abuse and name their
perpetrators, even if that means overthrowing guilty men from their positions of power. As a generation
of selfies, trolls, hashtags (#MeToo), campaigns (*Time’s Up/*SlutWalk, *Women’s March), and
creating neologisms with a message such as *“mansplaining’, *”Manspreading” and *“privilege
Checking”, they are persistent to create a safer, dignified, and equal world for everyone.
Focus: *Intersectionality was reemphasized and resisting all stereotypes (including the image of a
‘feminist’)

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FEMINIST EPISTEMOLOGY

Epistemology is simply a “way/method of knowing”. It is awareness or information gained through

education or experience (Experience is knowledge gained through personal encounter).

Feminist Epistemology (FE) is feminine ways of knowing or feminine perspective on how things are
seen and known. Elizabeth Anderson defines FE as, “A branch of naturalized, social epistemology that
studies the various influences of norms and conceptions of gender and gendered interests and experiences
on the production of knowledge .It is concerned with the way in which gender influences our concept of
knowledge, practices of inquiry, and justification.”
Feminist claim: Knowledge discriminates women by preventing them from inquiring and presenting
them as inferior and not satisfying male interests.
FE enables feminists to dig deeper into mainstream research.
Three paths of knowledge in feminism

1. Feminist Standpoint: Feminism takes a stand that women’s perspective is valuable. It improves
conditions of women by addressing realities of power and role privileges.
2. Feminist Analysis: Feminist analysis lead to male bias being challenged by denying absolute
objectivity. It also identifies social evils, like sexual harassment in the workplace.
3. Feminist Empiricism: Evidences are established to prove injustices informed by prejudices –
women are not believed in meeting or deemed less competent and their credibility is negatively
judged.
Women’s experience is the primary epistemological source. What kind of experience? Basically, the
experience of oppression. Serene Jones defines oppression as “dynamic forces, both personal and social,
that diminish or deny the flourishing of women.”

Iris young identifies five faces of oppression:

1. Exploitation - “Process of producing inequality whereby some are enabled to accumulate and
others are constrained or restricted.
*Women do 2/3rd of the world’s work but receive 1/10th of the world’s wages and won only 1% of
the world’s property (1/100th)
*Labour X benefit not commensurate/disproportionate. Women engage in most unpaid domestic
work – cooking, cleaning, childcare, shopping, laundry, elderly and sick care. They have little
time for leisure, are overworked, exhausted and yet expected to happily perform their gendered
roles (main reason why they age faster).
*In workplace - women athletes, athletes, labourers are paid lesser than men.
2. Marginalization: Marginals are the people the systems cannot and will not use.”
*The idea of “suitable work” in our culture marginalizes persons are “naturally” not inclined to
“productive work”. Eg., pastoral work is seen as more suitable to men, not because of any merit,
but because of their natural/biological identity of malehood.
*According to market valuation, women are less valued because they are seen as “dependent” and
not “productive”. This must be seen in the light of the systems that marginalize and offer little
opportunity for women (And women do make contributions to society; only that it is not
converted to monetary value – can domestic labor be converted to cash or should domestic labor
be paid for?).

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 3. Powerlessness – “is the inhibition in the development of one’s capabilities, lack of decision-
making power in one’s (working) life, and exposure to disrespectful treatment because of the
status one occupies”.
*Decision making and distribution of power determines the way our society functions. How much
power do women have in church, society and workplace? Men chair meetings, sit on board,
council members, and legislative assemblies/parliament are dominated by men.
*Even when women occupy seats of privilege, they are usually not as trusted or treated with the
equal respect as men.

4. Cultural Imperialism – “experience whereby society makes the perspective of one group
invisible and stereotype one group and mark it out as the ‘other’”. Nancy Fraser defines it as “the
way groups develop and apply cultural standards for defining, interpreting, and regulating belief,
actions and attitude”.
*A powerful group standardizes and imposes its norms on the less powerful person.
*It includes gendered behavior for women (by men or male dominated society) and creates the
idea of “ideal women” – which is a problem because of the ideals/norms are looked as inferior to
that of men’s. Eg., nurturing as inferior to bread-earning, gentleness as inferior to roughness.
*Those who don’t conform to the norms are labelled evil, bad, immoral, unwomanly, not
motherly, unattractive.
*Women are not to question unjust systems; if they do, they are met with resistance and negative
judgments: We want to be Hoho member – X; we should be ordained – X; we want seats in
decision making platforms –X
*Cultural imperialism devalues and silences the voices of women, their worldviews, and freedom
of choices and behaviors.

5. Violence – “incidents of harassment, intimidation, or ridicule simply for the purpose of degrading,
humiliating, or stigmatizing a group or society members.”
*Globally 3 out of 5 women are victims of violence – sexual, physical, verbal, emotional,
psychological at home, school, offices, colleges, workplaces, public places and facilities (buses,
trains, toilets) by parents, teachers, religious mentors, friends, strangers and family members.
*It’s embedded in systems and structures and continues because of the impunity that perpetrators
enjoy. Society and households encourage violence in men and against women by men/women.
Critique of Dominant Theologies and Feminist Reconstruction of Theology

Dominant theologies are those theological ideas, symbols, metaphors, and languages that have great
influence and serve as the overarching norm for ways of thinking and speaking about, and in relation
to, God (Eyingbeni Humtsoe-Nienu).

Characteristics of Dominant Theologies:

1. Misogynistic: Dominant theologies have more often than not been misogynistic with malehood as the
symbol of perfection; making women the vile creature and men as the blessed one while defending the
malehood of God. The following quotes will justify this argument.

“[For women] the very consciousness of their own nature must evoke feelings of shame”–Saint Clement
of Alexandria, Christian theologian (c150-215) Pedagogues II, 33, 2

”And do you not know that you are (each) an Eve? The sentence of God on this sex of yours lives in this
age the guilt must of necessity live too. You are the devil’s gateway. On account of your desert—that is,
death—even the Son of God had to die” - Tertullian (155-245), De Cultu Feminarium (On the Apparel of
Women )
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“Woman does not possess the image of God in herself but only when taken together with the male who is
her head, so that the whole substance is one image…” –Saint Augustine, (354-430) “

“As regards the individual nature, woman is defective and misbegotten, for the active force in the male
seed tends to the production of a perfect likeness in the masculine sex” –Thomas Aquinas, Doctor of the
Church, 13th century

“ Woman is a misbegotten man and has a faulty and defective nature in comparison to his. Thus in evil
and perverse doings woman is cleverer, that is, slyer, than man. Her feelings drive woman toward every
evil, just as reason impels man toward all good” –Saint Albertus Magnus, 13th century

“Men have broad and large chests, and small narrow hips, and more understanding than women, who
have but small and narrow breasts, and broad hips, to the end they should remain at home, sit still, keep
house, and bear and bring up children” –Martin Luther, Reformer (1483-1546)

“A wife is to submit graciously to the servant leadership of her husband, even as the church willingly
submits to the headship of Christ”–Official statement of Southern Baptist Convention, Summer 1998,
(15.7 million members)

2. Androcentric: Man is the centre of theological discourses. Nature and its relative entities like
women and other minority classes are mostly neglected. Male as “crown” of creation, or most
superior creation, hurts the dignity of women and integrity of nature equally.

3. Elitist: The perspectives of the privileged inform theologies – whites, rich, powerful, intellectuals,
western. The poor (in every sense) are systematically decimated in the name of God by insisting on the
normativity of a meta-narrative and the nonexistence of contextual or experiential narratives. The
exclusive nature of dominant theologies has pushed feminist theological discourses to include experiential
perspectives of the marginalized groups in every place and communities.

RECONSTRUCTIONS: 1. God as mother – this is to reclaim not only the exclusive language and
image of God but to insist that the feminine is also a divine character. Daly’s statement, “If God is male,
than the male is God” is a representative framework of feminist theological reconstruction of the idea of
the Trinity –the heartbeat of Christian faith. 2. Creation as Interconnected – this is to defend the
indispensability of all of God’s creation, whether they are human or otherwise. The commonality that
connects each creature is the state of creatureliness before the Creator. 3. Humanity as both sinful and
redeemed – this is to admit the sinfulness of all human and its institutions but at the same time to claim
the redemptive accomplishment of Christ’s work on the cross that enables evil systems to be transformed
for betterment. 4. Contexts and Experience as Diverse - this reality is an emphasis on the importance of
tolerance of imperfection and differences in feminist theology. The idea of mono/meta-narrative is
replaced by acknowledging the stories of the disabled, the weak, the diseased – across genders. 5.
Women and men as equal– this is to affirm that women and men share mutuality in more ways than
previously advocated. Our equality is the driving principle for advancing feminist ideals of women’s
leadership in the churches, the authenticity of their voices and their active presence in all aspects of
Christian faith.

Feminist Hermeneutics

Hermeneutics come from the Greek word “hermenuein” which means “interpret”. Technically it
refers to the theory and practice of interpretation of a text – Bible (our text of interest). Mary Ann
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Tolbert defines feminist hermeneutics as “A reading of the text in the light of the oppressive
structures and patriarchal society.” In general,Feminist hermeneutics involves the method by which the
Bible is interpreted. It involves reading the Bible with new eyes – the eyes of the experience of women. It
is rooted in the earlier work of Elizabeth Cady Stanton – The Women’s Bible . Stanton showed that Bible
is not a neutral book but a political weapon against women’s struggle for liberation. The need for new
interpretive framework, that grounds its analyses in the experience of women’s oppression and generates
variety of readings and responses, is deemed essential. Hence, feminist hermeneutical approaches were
developed.

Feminist hermeneutical approaches

1. Prophetic Liberating Traditions: Rosemary Radford Ruether – From Exodus to Jesus, the norm to
judge all biblical texts in the prophetic liberating traditions of the entire Bible. 2. Critical Liberating
Tradition: Letty Russell – liberating traditions are embodied in the message of God’s promise. Bible
ought to be interpreted from that standpoint. 3. Hermeneutics of Retrieval: Phyllis Trible – Attempts to
reclaim positive texts of or women bringing women as role models by using the de-patricalizing principle
by which the patriarchal culture in the text is substituted for retrieving the role of women. 4. Feminist
Critical Method: Proposed by Fiorenza; it follows the following strategies:
i) Hermeneutics of Remembrance: Reclaim struggles of women in the biblical past and attempt to
reconstruct their stories and experience for human dignity and theirs. It is a “means of retelling stories in
memorian, affirming sympathetic readings of abused women” and to “look behind the stories about men’s
experience of God to unveil women’s experience in the unrecorded silence.”
ii) Hermeneutics of Proclamation: Bible must be proclaimed as a text and the God inherent as God of
justice. Texts that perpetuate, promote and legitimize oppression of women should not be proclaimed as
the Word of God. By doing so churches and Christians proclaim an oppressive God.
iii) Hermeneutics of Suspicion: Built on the suspicion that Bible texts and interpretation are
“androcentric and serve patriarchal function”. Hence, ought to be approached suspiciously because it
reflects the impact of patriarchal culture on the texts and readers have to mindful that traditions and
writers of it were men. 5. Hermeneutics of Transformation: W. S. Annie – emphasizes on changing
oppressive elements, principles, ideologies into transformative one – ensuring a Gospel message of
justice, equality and dignity of all.

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