STUDY PACK : 3

The Core Principles of Chemistry

Bonding & Structure

First Edition Jan 2006
Second Edition Jun 2009
Third Edition Jun 2011
Fourth Edition Jun 2021 (Revised New Syllabus)

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Unauthorized duplication contravenes applicable laws.

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Published by:

Copyright owner:

Imran Razeek I.Chem.C (P1), M.Ed, Ph.D (Reading)

Lecturer in Chemistry cum Chairman

Chembase - School of Chemistry,

34, 1/2, Galle Road, Dehiwela, Sri Lanka.

(+94) 776 534 233 / (+94) 776 136 047

[email protected]

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01. What is a Chemical bond?
A chemical bond is an electrostatic attractive force between positively and
negatively charged species, which holds atoms or ions together.

02. Why do atoms form bonds?

To acquire a stable electronic configuration by losing, gaining or by sharing

electrons.

Ionic Bonding

03. Describe how ions are formed by the gain or loss of electrons?

Metals tend to lose electrons; hence form cations, non-metals will gain electrons to
form anions.

e.g : Na - e Na+
Cl + e Cl-

04. A. What is an ionic or electrovalent bond?

An ionic bond is an electrostatic attraction between positively charged and

negatively charged ions.

B. Explain the term “electro static attraction”

Forces attracting oppositely charged ions.

05. Explain how an ionic bond is formed?

Ionic bond is formed by the complete transfer of electrons from one atom to
another resulting the formation of charged particles (cation & anion)

06. What groups of compounds are involved in the formation of an ionic bond?

Metals of group I & II reacting with non metals of group VI & VII & will result in
ionic compounds. Exceptional: BeF2, BeCl2, AlCl3 – covalent

07. Give some common examples for ionic compounds

All salts are ionic, metal oxides and hydroxides are ionic.

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08. Draw dot & cross diagrams for the ionic compounds below.

NaCl MgO

CaCl2 KF

Na2O CaO

10. What are the conditions that favor the formation of an ionic compound?

• Both cation & anions should be present in ionic compound

• The net charge of the compound should be zero.

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11. Describe how a crystal lattice is formed?

In a crystal lattice, each cation surrounds many anions around it. Likewise, each
anion will be surrounded by many cations in order to preserve the electrical
neutrality. This type of arrangement of ions produces a giant assembly of ions held
in a rigid crystal lattice.

12. Draw the lattice structure of NaCl

13. What are the main characteristics of the NaCl lattice?

• Each Na+ ion accommodates 6 Cl- ion around it
• Similarly, each Cl- ion is surrounded by 6 Na+ ions to preserve electrical neutrality.
• The ions are packed closely, held by many electrostatic attractive forces.

14. State 3 physical properties of ionic compounds

• High melting and boiling points

• Most ionic compounds are soluble in water
• They conduct electricity in aqueous or in molten state due to the presence of
mobile ions.
• They are brittle, when force is applied ions of same charge repel thus crystals
break apart.

15. Explain why ionic compounds does not conduct electricity when solid but conducts in molten
and aqueous state?

The ions in an ionic compound in solid state are in fixed positions held together by
strong electrostatic forces of attractions therefore unable to move thus does not
conduct electricity. Whereas ions in aqueous or molten state are mobile and able to
conduct.

16. Explain why ionic compounds possess high melting points?

There are many electrostatic attractions around each ion in an ionic lattice,
therefore lot of energy is required to separate them.

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 17. Explain the effect of ionic radius and ionic charge on the strength of ionic bonding.

Cations and anions with smaller ionic radii will possess greater attraction between them.
As the sum of the ionic radii is smaller the cations and anions will be strongly attracted to
each other resulting in stronger ionic bond.
Cations and anions with greater charges will attract each other strongly resulting
stronger ionic bond.

18. Explain why MgO has a much higher melting point & boiling point than NaCl thus list Li2O,
CaO, Al2O3 & KF in the increasing order of boiling and melting points.

NaCl contains attraction between Na+ & Cl- ions, whereas in MgO the attraction is
between Mg+2 and O-2 ions, the attraction between ions in MgO is greater than NaCl.
Therefore, MgO will exhibit a higher melting temperature.

Evidence for existence of ions

i. Explain what electron density maps are & how it provides evidence for the existence of ions in an
ionic compound

Electron density maps exhibits how electrons are concentrated around a nucleus of an
atom or in an ion. Electron density maps of ionic compound is produced by passing x-rays
through a solid ionic crystal, when x-rays strike a crystal, they are deflected by the
electrons in the ions. When there are more electrons in a given volume, the stronger will
be the diffraction hence results in a brighter spot in the diffraction Patten. By analyzing
both positions & the intensities of the spots of a diffraction pattern, it is possible to
determine the charge density of electrons in the crystals.

X-rays are strongly affected by regions of high electron density. In the electron density
map if the lines are closely packed together the electron density is high & vice versa.

E.g.: electron density in NaCl

The above electron density between two ions of the solid ionic compound shows there are
little electron density between the nuclei of Na & Cl. [unlike in covalent compounds where
electrons will be concentrated between the nuclei] therefore we can conclude that NaCl
exist as Na+ & Cl- ions. Also, the electrons are distributed unevenly which is a result of
the existence of cation & anion.

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ii. Explain how conductivity of ionic compounds in molten or aqueous solutions provides evidence
for the existence of ions.

Electricity is movement of charged particles such as electrons or ions. When an ionic

compound is dissolved in water or in molten state the ions in it will be free to move, as
they break free from the crystal. When the voltage difference is applied to this solution
it will conduct electricity due to the mobile ions.

iii. Describe an experiment to show the visual conformation of migration of ions towards the
electrodes during electrolysis of an ionic compounds

Electrolysis of the solution of aqueous copper (II) chromate solution provide evidence of
migration of the ions. Green solution of CuCrO4 is soaked in a filter paper & placed on a
microscope side. The two ends of the filter paper are joined to a circuit as shown below.

After a while the paper turns blue @ the cathode due to the migration of Cu2+ ions &
yellow at the anode due to CrO42-

Similar experiment can be done by solution of CuCrO4 in a U tube and carrying out
electrolysis. Solution turns blue at the cathode & yellow at the anode.

1. Explain qualitatively the variation in the ionic radii across a period.

The size of the atoms changes when it is positively or negatively charged. This can be
explained in terns of shielding effect. The ionic radii of positive ions are smaller than the
radii of the neutral atoms & the ionic radii of the negative ions are greater than the radii
of the neutral atoms.

When an atom loses electrons, the amount of shielding is reduced as a result the
effective nuclear attraction increases. These electrons will be pulled towards the nucleus
resulting decrease in radius.

E.g.: Na+ > Mg+2 > Si+4

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Similarly, when an atom gains electrons the shielding effect increases as a result the
electron will feel less effective nuclear attraction. Thus, the electron will be far away
from the nucleus resulting increase in radius. As more electrons are attached the size will
increase more.

P3- > S2- > Cl-

2. Plot a graph to show the variation in ionic radii across the period 3 from ‘Na’ to ‘Ar’

3. Similarly explain the trend in ionic radii down a group

Down any group the size of the ionic radii increases as a result of increasing no. of shells.
As the no. of shells increases the shielding effect is increased as a result the effective
nuclear attraction decreases. Thus, resulting increased in radius. The radius of the non-
metals will increase more than the metals as the metals loose electron to form cations,
electron repulsion & less effective nuclear attraction will result in increased ionic radii in
anions than in cations.

4. State what are isoelctronic ions & give some examples

Ions with the same no. of electrons are called as isoelectronic ions. They possess the
same electronic configuration.

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E.g.: N3- contains 7+3 = 10 electrons.
13 3+
Al contains 13-3 = 10 electrons

N3- & Al3+ ions are said to be isoelctronic ions.

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5. Explain qualitatively the variation in the ionic radii for a set of isoelctronic ions

Isoelectronic anion will have larger ionic radii compared to the corresponding iso
electronic cation due to less effective nuclear attraction & repulsion between the extra
electrons. The iso electronic cation will have much less ionic radii due to the higher
effective nuclear attraction which binds electrons more closely to the nucleus.
E.g.: N3- > Al 3+ , O2- > Mg2+ , F- > Na+

Likewise, the when iso electronic cations are compared the ion with higher positive charge
will have the smallest ionic radii, due to higher effective nuclear attraction.
Similarly, when isoelectronic anions compared, the anion with higher negative charge will
have the largest ionic radial due to lesser effective nuclear attraction.
E.g.: N3- > O2- > F- P3- > S2- > Cl-

Covalent Molecules

01. Why do atoms tend to form covalent rather than ionic bonds?
To remove the outermost electrons of group III or group IV elements requires a
very high energy and this process is extremely unlikely. Instead, these atoms
attain the noble gas configuration by sharing electrons as this requires much less
energy.

02. What is a covalent bond?

A covalent bond is an electrostatic attraction between the bonding electrons and
the nuclei of the atoms involved in the bonding.

03. Draw the structure of the covalent discrete (simple) molecules below, showing all outermost
electrons in dots and crosses.

H2 O2 Cl2 N2

CH4 H2O CO2 CCl4

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 C2H4 NH3 HCl C2H2

04. Write 3 physical properties of covalent compounds.

• Low melting and boiling points due to weak intermolecular attraction between the
molecules.
• They are insoluble in water (except for acids) but soluble in organic solvents (e.g.:
ethanol, CCl4)
• They do not conduct electricity in aqueous or molten state.

06. Explain why covalent compounds show low boiling & melting points

Covalent compounds possess weak intermolecular attractions between the

molecules. Therefore; less energy is required to separate them.

07. Draw all the different possible atomic overlapping, which takes place during the formation of
covalent bonds

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08. Explain how sigma & pi bonds are formed as a result of orbital overlap.

Sigma Bond (σ) :

Sigma bond is formed as a result of linear overlapping (head to head overlap) of 2

S/P sub orbitals. This type of bond is the strongest as the bonding pair of
electrons lie closer to the nucleus, thus strongly attracted.

Pi Bond (π) :

Pi bond is formed as a result of lateral overlapping (side by side overlapping) of two

‘p’ orbitals. This type of bond is weaker compared to sigma bond as the shared
electron pair is much away from the nuclei hence attracted weakly.

(Mark the pi & sigma bonds in the above atomic overlapping diagram)

09. Draw the valence shell orbitals to show the formation of the covalent bonds of the below
molecules.

Cl2 O2

N2 H2O

GIANT COVALENT MOLECULES

01. What are “Allotropes”?

Allotropes are different structural forms of the same element existing in the same
physical state.

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02. State the natural and synthetic allotropes of Carbon.
Natural Allotropes: Diamond and graphite.
Synthetic Allotropes: Graphene

03. Draw the structure of Diamond (you should be able to draw at least 5 carbon atoms arranged
tetrahedrally. The carbon atoms on the outside should indicate the tetra valency of ‘C’ by
unattached bonds)

04. State the structural characteristics of Diamond.

• Each C atom tetrahedral linked to 4 other C atoms by single co-valent bonds
• It is a continuous giant structure.

05. State 3 physical properties of Diamond.

• High melting and boiling points. When heated does not melt but sublimes at very
high temperature.
• Does not conduct electricity, as there are no ions or free electrons to carry
charge.
• Extremely strong and rigid. Therefore, diamond is used as a cutting tool.

06. Why do allotropes of Carbon possess high sublimation points?

Atoms in diamond and graphite are held stronger by strong co-valent bonds in a
giant molecular crystal.

07. Why does diamond not conduct electricity?

Because all electrons of ‘C’ in diamond are co valent bonded. Therefore, there are
no free electrons to carry charge.

08. Draw the structure of Graphite. (Showing at least 2 layers & 3 hexagons in each layer)

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09. State the structural characteristics of Graphite.
• Each ‘C’ atom is covalently bonded to 3 other ‘C’ atoms
• Made up of hexagonal ‘C’ plates or sheets of ‘C’ atoms.
• The layers in graphite are held together weak vanderwaal forces.

10. State the physical properties of Graphite

• Good conductor of electricity due to the presence of delocalized electrons
between the layers.
• The layers in graphite can slide over each other. Therefore, graphite is slippery
and soft.
• They possess high melting and boiling points.

Structure of Graphene:

Graphene is a single atomic layer of carbon bound together in a

hexagonal honeycomb arrangement. It can be described as a one-
atom thick layer of graphite. It is the basic structural element of
other allotropes, including graphite, carbon nanotubes and
fullerenes. Not only does it have high stability within the layer, the
thinness of the individual layers also means it exhibits an
extremely high surface area to volume ratio.

Graphene the thinnest material known to mankind; it is also 200 times stronger than steel & one
million times thinner than human hair. It is pure carbon in the form of a very thin, nearly
transparent sheet, absorbs light, one atom thick. It is remarkably strong for its very low weight
and it conducts heat and electricity with great efficiency. While scientists had theorized about
graphene for decades, it was first produced in the lab in 2004.

Technically, graphene is a crystalline allotrope of carbon with 2-dimensional properties. Racecars,

airplanes, space shuttles, windmill blades, phone cases, and other strong lightweight technology
will all be enhanced by graphene’s high strength to weight ratio. Scientists are also anticipating
graphene to replace silicon in the next generation of high-speed electronics. Because of its
amazing conductivity and flexibility, graphene may be folded, squeezed, or otherwise made more
compact for even thinner, lighter, yet faster electronics. In the future, these perks also may
generate a foldable type of touchscreen, and perhaps an entire generation of ‘foldable’
electronics, including phones, watches, tablets, and more.

Graphene, unlike carbon–nanotubes, has edges that can react chemically. These exposed
carbon molecules have special reactivity, as do any imperfections in the graphene sheets.
Not surprisingly, because of its 2-dimensional structure and the lateral availability of the
carbon, graphene is now known to be the most reactive form of carbon.

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 Dative covalent bonds (Co-ordinate bonds)

1. Define a dative covalent bond.

A dative covalent bond is formed between 2 atoms by sharing of 2 electrons

between them both electrons are donated entirely by 1 atom.

2. Describe how a dative or coordinate bond is formed.

One atom donates (the donor atom) an electron pair while the other atom accepts
the electron pair (the acceptor atom). The acceptor atom should possess an empty
orbital to accept the electron pair. A co-ordinate bond is represented as A B,
where A is the donor atom and B is the acceptor atom.

3. Explain why dative bonds are called as semi polar bonds.

In the formation of the co-ordinate bind, the partial positive charge is developed
on the donor atom and an equal negative charge is developed on the acceptor atom.

+δ
A: B-δ

Due to this co-ordinate bonds become slightly polar, hence called as semi polar
bonds.

4. Show the dative bonds between BF3 & NH3, name the donor & acceptor atom, hence comment why
this bond is called dative covalent bond?

Once the dative bond is formed it becomes identical to a co-valent bond. Hence it
is called as dative co-valent bond.

5. Draw the structures of below molecules showing the coordinate bonds.

BF4- NH4+ H3O+

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6. Describe the co-ordinate bonding formation in Al2Cl6 & draw a dot & cross diagram to represent
the bonding

7. Draw a dot & cross diagram to show the bonding when methyl amine CH3NH2 is reacted with a
hydrogen ion.

6. Explain the nature of bonding in below hydrated metal ions by drawing their structures,
showing all the dative & covalent bonds. Comment on the hydration number (no. of water
molecules) based on their electronic configuration.

[Mg(H2O)6]2+

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 [Na(H2O)6] +

Only 6 H2O molecules can be accommodated because after that overcrowding occurs.

Metallic Bonds

1. Explain what a metal is.

A metal is a giant structure where electrons are free to move throughout the
whole structure.

2. Describe a “metallic bond”

A metallic bond is the electrostatic attraction between the metal cations and the
delocalized sea of electrons.

3. Describe how a metallic bond is formed

The metal atoms lose their valence electrons and form cations. The electrons which
have been lost, will act as the sea of delocalized electrons between the cations.

4. What does the strength of a metallic bond depend on?

1. The number of delocalized electrons greater the number, stronger the bond.
2. Size of the cation, smaller the size greater the strength

5. Explain why across the period the strength and melting point of metals increase?

Across the period from left to right the strength of the metallic bond increases
due to the decrease in the size of the metal cations and increase number of

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 delocalized electrons. As the size of the metal cation decrease the attraction
towards the electrons increase resulting in stronger metal.

6. The physical properties of metals are not only related to the strength of the metallic bond, but also
the structure of the metallic lattice. State the properties of metals.

• Solids at room temperature (except for mercury Hg, Cs, Fr & Ga which are liquids)
• High melting and boiling points.
• Conducts electricity and heat
• Has a shiny, reflecting surface.
• Metals are malleable (can be stretched into sheets)
• Metals are ductile (can be stretched into wires)

7. A. Explain why metals conduct electricity?

Due to the presence of mobile sea of free delocalized electrons, metals carry
electricity in the presence of a potential difference.

B. Name the non-metal, which conducts electricity?

Graphite.

8. Why are metals good conductors of heat?

The mobile sea of electrons takes in heat and they convert it into kinetic energy.
As a result, the electrons vibrate and move faster and transfer the heat energy.
Heat energy is also transferred via closely packed cations.

9. Describe why metals are malleable and ductile?

When force is applied the metal cations slide over one another without breaking
the metallic bond as a result metals are malleable and ductile.

10. Explain why across the period the strength and melting point of metals increase?

Across the period from left to right the strength of the metallic bond increases
due to the decrease in the size of the metal cations and increase number of
delocalized electrons. As the size of the metal cation decrease the attraction
towards the electrons increase resulting in stronger metal. Metals in d-block
typically have high melting temperatures because they possess greater number of
delocalized electrons.

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 Polarization.

1. Define the term ‘Electronegativity’

Electronegativity is the power of an atom in a covalent molecule to attract

electrons to itself.

2. State the factors affecting the magnitude of electronegativity

▪ Size of the atom – Smaller atoms have higher electronegativity than larger atoms.
▪ Effective nuclear attraction – Higher the nuclear attraction, greater the
electronegativity.

3. Explain the variation of electronegativity values across a period & down a group

▪ Down the group the electronegativity values of elements decreases due to increase
in atomic radius.

▪ Electronegativity values increase across the period from left to right with increase
in atomic number due to the decrease in atomic radius.

4. Account why increase electronegativity difference between atoms in a molecule favours ionic
character.

In an ionic compound, the nonmetal takes the electron/electrons from the metal to
achieve the octet. Therefore, in the formation of the ionic bond, the electron is
taken in full control by one atom. This is possible only when the difference of
electronegativity is very large. Therefore, the greater the electronegativity
difference, the stronger the ionic bond.

5. Explain in terms of electronegativity difference the ionic & covalent bond

When the difference in electronegativity is large (more than 1.6 as to the Pauling
scale) it results in an ionic bond. When the difference of electronegativity is less,
the electrons will be more concentrated between the atoms, resulting in a covalent
bond. (Refer the last page for detailed clarification)

The relationship between the difference in electronegativity and the percentage

ionic character is shown below.

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6. Define the terms below:-

➢ Polarization : The overall distortion of charges in molecules which results in

unequal sharing of electrons. (due to the difference in
electronegativity)

➢ Polar : The molecules where the polarization takes place.

➢ Dipole : The separation of charge in a molecule as a result of difference

in electronegativity. Direction of the dipole is shown by the sign
the arrow points to the partially negatively charged end of the
dipole.

➢ Dipole moment: The measure of the degree of polarity of a molecule.

➢ Polar covalent bond: Covalent bond where bonding electrons are unequally
distributed as a result of the difference in electronegativity.

7. Explain how a polar bond results in terms of electronegativity.

When covalently bonded atoms have different electronegativity, a small positive

charge (+δ) will be developed on the lower electronegative atom, and a small
negative charge (-δ) will be developed on the higher electronegative atom. When
both + δ and –δ charges are present, the bond is said to be polar. The bonding
electrons are more drawn towards the higher electronegative element, resulting in
the other atom to be +δ.

+δ
Eg:- H - Cl -δ
+δ
H –O -δ
+δ
C - Cl-δ

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8. Explain how electronegativity difference leads to polarity of bonds in a covalent molecule

When a covalent bond is formed between 2 atoms of the same electronegativity,

the pair of electrons in the molecular orbital is equally attracted to both the
nuclei, resulting in no charge separation. Such molecules are said to be non-polar. If
the atoms in the covalent bond are different elements, then the difference in
electronegativity will result in charge separation. The higher electronegative atom
will attract the electron more than the other, resulting in a polarized covalent
bond.

Eg: H–H non polar

+δ
H –Cl-δ polar

9. State and explain the factors affecting the magnitude of polarizing power of a cation.

The polarizing power is the ability of a cation to polarize (cause charge separation /
attract electrons from the anion towards itself.) an anion. It depends on the charge & the
size. Polarizing power is directly proportional to the charge and it is inversely proportional
to the size. The charge/size ratio is referred to as charge density (also called as
polarizing power). When the cation has a greater charge & smaller size, it will exhibit a
greater charge density hence greater polarizing power.

10. Explain how charge and the radius affect the polarizability of an anion.

The polarizability is the ability of an anion to get polarized by a cation. The polarisability
of an anion depends on the charge and the size. Anions with greater charge and greater
size will exhibit greater polarizability.

11. Account how covalent character results as a result of large polarization.

When a cation has a greater polarizing power and anion has a greater polarizability, it will
result in covalent character. Similarly, when the cation has less polarizing power and the
anion has less polarizability it results in ionic character.

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12. Account for the variation in melting points of below compounds based on their polarization.

NaCl, MgCl2, AlCl3

13. Account for the below observations based on their polarization

i. Al2O3 is more ionic in contras to AlCl3

ii. LiCl is insoluble in water whereas NaCl is soluble

iii. Sulphides are less soluble in water than the oxides of the same metal

14. Account for below decomposition temperatures?

BeCO3 100 0C SrCO3 1280 0C

MgCO3 400 0C BaCO3 1360 0C
CaCO3 900 0C

15. Explain how symmetry & asymmetry of molecules give rise to non-polar & polar molecules

In symmetrical molecules, the center of positive charge exactly coincides with its
center of negative charge, resulting in a no net dipole. Such molecules where equal
dipoles cancel each other are said to be non-polar. Therefore, molecules with
center of symmetry will not show permanent dipoles.

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 Eg:-

In asymmetrical molecules, the center of positive charge does not exactly coincide
with its center of negative charge, resulting in a dipole. Such molecules are said to
be polar.

Eg:-

16. State which of the below molecules are polar & non-polar

H Cl
O2, CCl4, CH3Cl, H-F, C=C CO2, BF3, C2H4, C2H3Cl
Cl H

17. Describe an experiment to determine the effect of electrostatic force on jets of liquid (water,
ethanol & cyclohexane) hence use the results to determine the polarity of the molecules.

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 Shapes of molecules

(01) A. What is a Lewis Structure?

A Lewis structure is a representation of covalent bonding in a covalent molecule,

using Lewis dot symbols, in which shared electron pairs are shown either as lines or
pairs of dots, or dots and crosses.

B. Why only valence electrons are shown in a Lewis dot symbol?

Because only the valence electrons take part in a chemical bonding.

C. When drawing a Lewis structure for a complex polyatomic molecules & ions how to choose
the central atom?

The central atom is the least electronegative atom.

(02) A. Write the strategy for drawing the Lewis structure (6 main points)

a. Draw the skeleton structure of the molecule by joining the atoms

by a single covalent bond. The least electronegative atom is the
central atom and H always occupies the terminal position.

b. Establish the total number of valence electrons in the structure.

For polyatomic ions, add an extra electron for each negative charge
and subtract an electron for each positive charge.

c. For each bond subtract 2 electrons from the total number of

valence electrons. Thus convert this number to electron pairs by
dividing the total number of electrons by 2.

d. Distribute the electron pairs first around the terminal atoms in

such that they acquire the noble gas configuration and then the
rest to the central atom.

e. If the central atom lacks its valence electrons, then convert single
bonds to double bonds by shifting lone pairs from the terminal
atoms.

f. Assign the formal charges on the ion. The most possible Lewis
structure is the one with the least amount of formal charges.

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C. Draw the Lewis dot symbols for below molecules & ions.

BeCl2, BCl3, CH4, NH3, H2O, CO2, C2H4, HNO2, H2SO4 , PCl5, SF6 , BrF5 ,

NH4+, NO2-, SO32-, PCl4+, ClO4- , ClO2-, CO32-

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(03) A. State the Rues for applying the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR)
to predict molecular shapes.

a. Draw the possible Lewis structure for the species.

b. Determine the total number of lone pairs and sigma bonds around
the central atom. These lone pairs and sigma bonds are called
VSEPR electron pairs which determines the shape of the molecule.

c. Establish the geometrical orientation of the VSEPR electron pairs

around the central atom. If the central atom contains:

2 VSEPR electron pairs – linear

3 VSEPR electron pairs – trigonal planer
4 VSEPR electron pairs – tetrahedral
5 VSEPR electron pairs - trigonal bi pyramidal
6 VSEPR electron pairs - octahedral

B. Draw the main 5 molecular shapes based on the VSEPR theory indicating their bond
angles?

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 C. Explain why lone pairs always occupy equatorial plane & not axial position in Trigonal
bi pyramidal structure?

Axial position is unstable for the lone pair due to much lone pair – bond pair
repulsion. But the equatorial position is stable as there is only 2 lone pair –
bond pair repulsion.

(04) A. What is molecular distortion?

The presence of lone pair/s on the central atom causes repulsion between
the lone pairs / bond pairs giving rise to a distorted shape from the basic
shape.
i.e : angular, pyramidal

When determining the bond angle of a distorted shape deduct 2.5 0 per lone
pair from the bond angle of the basic shape.
i.e pyramidal (109.50-2.50 = 1070), Angular (109.50-50 = 104.50)

B. State the repulsion of electron pairs in ascending order in terms of lone pairs & bond
pairs?

C. Considering the molecular distortion determine the shapes of the following

molecules.

BeCl2, BCl3, CH4, NH3, H2O, CO2, C2H4, PCl5, SF6, SO2, PF6, NO2, C2H4

SO42-, SO32-, CO32-, NO2-, NH4+, ClF3, BrF5, ClO3- ,

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 DETAILED CLARIFICATION ON CLASSIFYING THE BOND TYPE USING
ELECTRONEGATIVITY VALUES.

Electronegativity values using Pauling scale are useful in determining if a bond is to be classified as nonpolar
covalent, polar covalent or ionic.

1. If the electronegativity difference (ΔEN) is less than 0.5, then the bond is nonpolar covalent.
2. If the ΔEN is between 0.5 and 1.6, the bond is considered polar covalent
3. If the ΔEN is greater than 2.0, then the bond is ionic.

4. If the ΔEN is between 1.6 and 2.0 and if a metal is involved, then the bond is considered ionic. If only
nonmetals are involved, the bond is considered polar covalent.

Eg: Sodium bromide (ENNa = 0.9, ENBr = 2.8) has a ΔEN = 1.9. Hydrogen fluoride (EN H = 2.1, ENF = 4.0) has the
same ΔEN. Use rule #4 to decide that NaBr has ionic bonds and that HF has a polar covalent bond in each HF
molecule.

N:B: Rule #4 may not exist in your textbook / Syllabus. Often, the 1.6-2.0 range is lumped into the ionic
category.

Pauling Scale Electronegativity Values

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