General Ship Knowledge

Construction

Module MEN305
 Teaching Schedule

Week Topic Cadet Activity

1 Introduction to the industry
Construction
10 Ship Terminology Quiz
11 Ship Types Group Presentation
12 Ship Types Group Presentation
13 Loadline Regulations Quiz
14 Ship Motions and Type of Ship loads Quiz
15 Ship Structure - Components Quiz
16 Ship Structure - Typical midship Quiz
17 Ship Structure - Bulkheads Quiz
18 Self-Directed Study
19 AE2 Summative Assessment On-line quiz

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Contents Table
Teaching Schedule ...................................................................................................................................ii
Symbols and Nomenclature.................................................................................................................... vi
Ship Geometry .................................................................................................................................... vi
Introduction to Ship Construction .......................................................................................................... 1
Terminology ........................................................................................................................................ 1
Ship Dimensions.................................................................................................................................. 3
Draft (Draught) Marks .................................................................................................................... 4
Trim ..................................................................................................................................................... 5
Ship Feature ........................................................................................................................................ 6
Ship Types ............................................................................................................................................... 7
Dry Cargo Vessels................................................................................................................................ 7
Bulk Carrier ..................................................................................................................................... 7
Container Ship ................................................................................................................................ 8
Liquid Carrying Vessels ..................................................................................................................... 10
Oil Tankers .................................................................................................................................... 10
Passenger Vessels ............................................................................................................................. 11
Ro-Ro Ferry ................................................................................................................................... 11
Cruise Ships and Liners ................................................................................................................. 12
Working Platforms ............................................................................................................................ 13
Cable Layer.................................................................................................................................... 13
Dredgers........................................................................................................................................ 14
Offshore Industry .............................................................................................................................. 15
Supply Vessel ................................................................................................................................ 15
Measurement of Cargo ..................................................................................................................... 16
LOADLINE Regulations .......................................................................................................................... 17
Intentions .......................................................................................................................................... 17
Regulations ....................................................................................................................................... 17
Definitions ......................................................................................................................................... 17
Reserve buoyancy ............................................................................................................................. 17
Commercial vessels........................................................................................................................... 17
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 Fresh Water Allowance (FWA).......................................................................................................... 18
Damage control ................................................................................................................................ 19
Type ‘A’ and Type ‘B’ ships ............................................................................................................... 19
Certification ...................................................................................................................................... 19
Surveys .............................................................................................................................................. 19
Ship Motions ......................................................................................................................................... 21
Structural Loads .................................................................................................................................... 22
Static load acting on local structure ................................................................................................. 23
Dynamic load acting on local structure. ........................................................................................... 24
Panting .......................................................................................................................................... 24
Pounding (Slamming).................................................................................................................... 24
Static loads acting on the ship’s girder. ............................................................................................ 25
Hydrostatic Pressure ..................................................................................................................... 25
Still Water Bending Moment ........................................................................................................ 25
Dynamic load acting on the hull girder............................................................................................. 26
Racking .......................................................................................................................................... 26
Wave Bending Moment ................................................................................................................ 26
Structural Members .............................................................................................................................. 28
Bottom Structure .............................................................................................................................. 28
Keels .............................................................................................................................................. 28
Floors ............................................................................................................................................ 30
Bulkhead ........................................................................................................................................... 32
Midship Sections ................................................................................................................................... 34
General Cargo Ship ........................................................................................................................... 34
Bulk Carrier ....................................................................................................................................... 35

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List of Figures

Figure 1: Ship Length .............................................................................................................................. 2

Figure 2: Measurement of Draft ............................................................................................................. 5
Figure 3: Trim .......................................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 4: Centre Line Profile of an Oil Tanker ......................................................................................... 6
Figure 5: Bulk Carrier .............................................................................................................................. 7
Figure 6: Container Ship ......................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 7: General Cargo Ship .................................................................................................................. 9
Figure 8: Oil Tanker ............................................................................................................................... 10
Figure 9: Ro-Ro Ferry ............................................................................................................................ 11
Figure 10: Cruise Ship ........................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 11: Cable Layer........................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 12: Suction Dredger ................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 13: Off Shore Supply Vessel. ...................................................................................................... 15
Figure 14: Freeboard Load Line ............................................................................................................ 18
Figure 15: Ship motions ........................................................................................................................ 21
Figure 16: Integrated Engine Seat ........................................................................................................ 23
Figure 17: Panting ................................................................................................................................. 24
Figure 18: Slamming ............................................................................................................................. 24
Figure 19: Hydrostatic Pressure Acting on the Hull Girder .................................................................. 25
Figure 20: Racking ................................................................................................................................. 26
Figure 21: Hogging and Sagging ........................................................................................................... 27
Figure 22: Bar Keel ................................................................................................................................ 28
Figure 23: Plate Keel ............................................................................................................................. 29
Figure 24: Duct Keel .............................................................................................................................. 29
Figure 25: Vertical Floors ...................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 26: Steel Bulkhead ..................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 27: Midship Section of a General Cargo Vessel ......................................................................... 34
Figure 28: Midship Section of a Bulk Carrier ........................................................................................ 35
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Symbols and Nomenclature

Ship Geometry Units (SI)

d (T) Draft (Draft) of ship. m
B Beam of ship m
D Depth of ship m
LOA Length Overall m
L, LBP, LPP Length of vessel between Perpendiculars m
LWL Length of vessel at the Waterline m

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Introduction to Ship Construction
Throughout this course you will be introduced to a range of definitions and terminology that you will
need to know for your careers at sea. It is important that you understand and familiarise with these
before your first sea phase.

Terminology
Merchant Navy personnel and those who are involved in designing, maintaining, and servicing these
commercial vessels will use different vocabulary when describing structures or spaces within a ship,
some of which are provided below.

Ashore: On land
Aboard: On the ship
Floor: Deck
Front of the ship: Bow
Back of the ship: Stern
Walls: Bulkheads
Ceiling: Deckhead
Corridor: Passageway
Staircase: Companionway
Bedroom: Cabin
Dining room: Mess
Kitchen: Galley
Toilets: Heads
Left Port
Right Starboard

Table 1: Common Vocabulary used on Commercial Vessels.

Terminology for describing the dimensions of a vessel follow.

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 1Figure 1: Ship Length

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Ship Dimensions

FP Fore Perpendicular The vertical line that passes through the intersection of
the bow with the Summer Load Line
AP After Perpendicular The vertical line that passes through the intersection of
the centre axis of the rudder stock.
Midship The midpoint between the forward and after
perpendicular. (LBP/2)
LBP (LPP) Length Between The distance between the two perpendiculars
Perpendiculars
LOA Length Overall The length of the vessel measured between vertical lines
at the extreme contours of the vessel and perpendicular
to the design keel or waterline.
LWL Length on the The length of the vessel at any specific waterline.
Waterline
Moulded Beam The greatest breadth measured to the inside of the shell
plating
D Depth The vertical distance from the outside of the keel plate
to the outside of the deck plating. It is measured on the
centreline and includes the camber.
d (T) Draft (Draught) The vertical distance from outside of the keel plating to
the level coincident with the waterline.
Camber Transverse curvature of the deck.
Flare The outward curvature of the bow plating upwards from
the waterline.
Sheer Longitudinal curvature of the deck.
Freeboard The vertical distance measured at the vessel’s side from
the top of the deck to the waterline.

Table 2: Ship Dimension Definitions

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Draft (Draught) Marks

Draft marks are welded and painted to the ship in the following locations:

Aft Draught Marks

Aft – usually on the rudder

Forward – very close to the bow

Amidships

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There are several important draft measurements.

2Figure 2: Measurement of Draft

Lightship draft: Draft of the vessel when empty

Loaded draft: Draft of the vessel when loaded
Sinkage: The amount the draft changes when the vessel is loaded/unloaded
Underkeel clearance: The distance from the keel to the seabed.

Trim

3Figure 3: Trim

Trim is caused by loading of the vessel and is the difference between the draft measured at the FP
and the draft measured at the AP.

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And finally, some ship features.

Ship Feature

4Figure 4: Centre Line Profile of an Oil Tanker

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Ship Types
Merchant Navy vessels may be categorised under the following headings:
1. Dry Cargo Vessels.
2. Liquid Carrying Vessels.
3. Passenger Vessels
4. Other Ship Types.
5. Working Platforms
6. Offshore Industry

Dry Cargo Vessels.

This group of vessels includes Bulk Carriers; Car Carriers; Container ships; General Cargo Ro-Ro ships
and will trade throughout the world.

Bulk Carrier

Figure 5: Bulk Carrier

Bulk carriers are used to transport loose cargo such as coal, scrape metal, grain; cement and
aggregate. The superstructure is located at the aft end of the vessel directly above the engine room.
Transverse bulkheads are used to split the space forward into cargo holds. These vessels are
constructed from steel. Today, Bulk Carriers make up 15–17% of the world's merchant fleets and

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range in size from single-hold mini-bulk carriers to mammoth ore ships able to carry 400,000 metric
tons of deadweight (DWT).
Crews can range in size from three people on the smallest ships to over 30 on the largest.

Container Ship

Figure 6: Container Ship

Container ships carry all their load in truck-size containers. This is a common means for transporting
commercial freight that is not bulk cargo. Container ship capacity is measured in twenty-foot
equivalent units (TEU). Typical loads are a mix of 20-foot and 40-foot (2-TEU) ISO-standard
containers.

Today, about 90% of non-bulk cargo worldwide is transported by container ships, and the largest
modern container ships can carry over 21,000. Container ships now rival crude oil tankers and bulk
carriers as the largest commercial seaborne vessels.
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General Cargo Ships

Figure 7: General Cargo Ship

General cargo ships normally have their own gear, which allows these versatile ships to trade at
smaller ports and terminals that do not have shoreside loading and unloading facilities. These ships
are often employed to transport abnormal loads that other specialised ships cannot accommodate.
When trade is poor, general cargo ships can easily turn their hand to carrying containers, bulk or
bagged cargo.

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Liquid Carrying Vessels
This group of vessels includes Oil Tankers, Liquefied Gas Carriers and Chemical Carriers.

Oil Tankers

Figure 8: Oil Tanker

An oil tanker, is a ship designed for the bulk transport of oil or its products. There are two basic
types of oil tankers: crude tankers and product tankers. Crude tankers move large quantities of
unrefined crude oil from its point of extraction to refineries. For example, moving crude oil from oil
wells in Nigeria to the refineries on the coast of the United States. The smaller Product tankers are
designed to move refined products from refineries to points near consuming markets. For example,
moving gasoline from refineries in Europe to consumer markets in Nigeria and other West African
nations.

Oil tankers are often classified by their size as well as their occupation. The size classes range from
inland or coastal tankers of a few thousand metric tons of deadweight (DWT) to the mammoth ultra
large crude carriers (ULCCs) of 550,000 DWT. Tankers move approximately 2,000,000,000 metric
tons of oil every year.

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Passenger Vessels
This group of vessels includes Liners, Cruise ships, Ferries, Roll On-Roll Off Ferries (Ro-Ro),
Hovercraft and Small Water Area Twin Hull (SWATH) vessels.

Ro-Ro Ferry

Figure 9: Ro-Ro Ferry

Roll-on/roll-off (RORO or ro-ro) ships are vessels designed to carry wheeled cargo, such
as cars, trucks, semi-trailer trucks, trailers, and railroad cars, that are driven on and off the ship on
their own wheels or using a platform vehicle, such as a self-propelled modular transporter.

Ro-Ro vessels have either built-in or shore-based ramps that allow the cargo to be efficiently rolled
on and off the vessel when in port. While smaller ferries that operate across rivers and other short
distances often have built-in ramps. The ramps and doors may be located in stern, bow or sides.

Ro-Ro may also carry passengers with cabins, restaurants and entertainment areas. Cargo is
measured in terms of lane metres.

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Cruise Ships and Liners

Figure 10: Cruise Ship

A cruise ship or cruise liner is a passenger ship used for pleasure voyages, when the voyage itself,
the ship's amenities, and sometimes the different destinations along the way (i.e., ports of call), are
part of the experience. Transportation is not the only purpose of cruising, particularly on cruises that
return passengers to their originating port.

In contrast, dedicated transport oriented ocean liners do "line voyages" and typically transport
passengers from one point to another, rather than on round trips. Traditionally, a liner for the
transoceanic trade will be built to a higher standard than a typical cruise ship to withstand rough
seas and adverse conditions encountered in the open ocean, such as the North Atlantic. Ocean liners
also usually have larger capacities for fuel, food, and other stores for consumption on long voyages,
compared to dedicated cruise ships, but few are still in existence, such as the preserved liners
and Queen Mary 2, which makes scheduled North Atlantic voyages.

The distinction between ocean liners and cruise ships has blurred, particularly with respect to
deployment, although differences in construction remain. Larger cruise ships have also engaged in
longer trips, such as transoceanic voyages which may not return to the same port for months (longer
round trips)

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Working Platforms
This group of vessels includes; Cable Layers; Tugs; Dredgers, Buoy Tender; Tenders; Pilot Boats,
Floating Dry Docks and Floating Cranes.

Cable Layer

5Figure 11: Cable Layer

A cable layer or cable ship is a deep-sea vessel designed and used to lay underwater cables for
telecommunications, electric power transmission, or other purposes. Cable ships are distinguished
by large cable sheaves for guiding cable over bow or stern or both. Bow sheaves, some very large,
were characteristic of all cable ships in the past, but newer ships are tending toward having stern
sheaves only.

The first transatlantic telegraph cable was laid by cable layers from 1857–58. It briefly enabled
telecommunication between Europe and North America before misuse resulted in failure of the line.
In 1866 the SS Great Eastern successfully laid two transatlantic cables, securing future
communication between the continents

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Dredgers

6Figure 12: Suction Dredger

Dredging is the operation of removing material from one part of the water environment and
relocating it to another. In all but a few situations the excavation is undertaken by specialist floating
plant, known as a dredger. Dredging is carried out in many different locations and for many different
purposes, but the main objectives are usually to recover material that has some value or use, or to
create a greater depth of water.

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Offshore Industry
This group of vessels includes; Supply vessels; Pipe Tenders; Crane Barges; Drill Ships and Production
vessels.

Supply Vessel

Figure 13: Off Shore Supply Vessel.

A Platform supply vessel (often abbreviated as PSV) is a ship specially designed to supply offshore oil
and gas platforms. These ships range from 50 to 100 meters in length and accomplish a variety of
tasks. The primary function for most of these vessels is logistic support and transportation of goods,
tools, equipment and personnel to and from offshore oil platforms and other offshore structures. In
the recent years a new generation of Platform Supply Vessel entered the market, usually equipped
with Class 1 or Class 2 Dynamic Positioning System.

Cargo
A main function of a platform supply vessel is to transport supplies to the oil platform and return
other cargoes to shore. Cargo tanks for drilling mud, pulverized cement, diesel fuel, potable and
non-potable water, and chemicals used in the drilling process comprise the bulk of the cargo spaces.
Fuel, water, and chemicals are almost always required by oil platforms. Certain other chemicals
must be returned to shore for proper recycling or disposal, however, crude oil product from the rig
is usually not a supply vessel cargo.

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Support
Common and specialty tools are carried on the large decks of these vessels. Most carry a
combination of deck cargoes and bulk cargo in tanks below deck. Many ships are constructed (or re-
fitted) to accomplish a specific job. Some of these vessels are equipped with a firefighting capability
and fire monitors for fighting platform fires. Some vessels are equipped with oil containment and
recovery equipment to assist in the clean-up of a spill at sea.

Measurement of Cargo
Gross tonnage is a measure of the internal capacity of the ship whereas net tonnage gives an idea of
the earning or useful capacity of the ship. Various port dues and other charges may be assessed on
the gross and net tonnage.

Measurement for tonnage and issue of an International Tonnage Certificate is the responsibility of
the appropriate authorities in the country of registration of the ship. In the UK the Maritime and
Coastguard Agency (MCA) had delegated this authority to Class.

Tolls for transiting the Suez Canal are based on net tonnage of the ship as determined by the Suez
Canal authority. For container ships they have adopted the TEU as the measurement unit.

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LOADLINE Regulations
Intentions
The intention of the Load Line is to provide a visual check that the load vessel has enough reserve of
buoyancy and hull strength prior to going to sea and defines how the watertight integrity of the hull
is to be maintain. It also gives protection to the crew when working on open decks by specifying
where guard rails or bulwarks are to be fitted.

Regulations
The current Load Line Regulations are contained within the UK Statutory Instrument (SI) 224 (1998)
as amended by SI 1335 (2000) and originate from the 1966 International Convention that were
ratified in 1968. These SI can be found by searching www.hmso.org.uk .

Definitions
Watertight:
The boundary must be capable of preventing the passage of water in any direction.

Weathertight (excluding weathertight doors):

Water will not penetrate and enter the hull in the worse and weather conditions.

Freeboard deck
This is either the uppermost complete deck exposed to the weather and sea which has permanent
means of closing all openings its weather portion and below which all side openings have permanent
watertight closing appliances.

Reserve buoyancy
Reserve buoyancy is the volume of the hull contained between the waterline and the freeboard
deck. All openings in the weather deck and all side openings in the vessel’s hull below the weather
deck must be fitted with permanent weathertight means of closure and would be inspected during
the annual survey to ensure that reserve buoyancy is maintained. Note that the first tier of
superstructure might form part of the reserve buoyancy and could be included in the stability
calculations thereby requiring that these associated openings be efficiently maintained as well.
Commercial vessels
Commercial vessels engaged in international trade are marked with load lines to indicate the
maximum depth of loading allowed in different areas of the world at different seasons. An
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International Load Line Certificate contains gives details of the load lines and the corresponding
freeboards to be marked port and starboard.

The assigned or Summer freeboard is the distance between the ‘S’ line and the freeboard deck and
is calculated according to rules that compares the actual hull form against a ‘standard’ vessel. The
uppermost complete weathertight deck, that is the one that would be exposed to the weather and
sea, is usually the freeboard deck but a lower deck may be designated as such. The distance
between the Summer, Tropical and Winter lines, (S, T and W) are equal to 1/48th of the summer
Draft. The distance of the fresh water line between F and S and the tropical fresh line TF and T are
both equal to the Fresh Water Allowance (FWA). Note that all lines are 25mm thick and the datum
is the upper edge of the line.

Figure 14: Freeboard Load Line

Fresh Water Allowance (FWA)

If a ship is floating at a certain draft in fresh water and moves to denser water without a change in
displacement then, the underwater volume required to maintain equilibrium is less. As the length
and beam of the ship can be assumed to be the draft that the vessel is sailing at will decrease and
freeboard will increase. By the same reasoning, when a ship passes from a denser water to a less
dense water the freeboard decreases and the draft increases.

A ship loading in fresh water can submerge the salt watermark, knowing that when she reaches the
open sea (RD 1.025) she will be on her marks and within the law. This draft increase when the
vessel is in fresh water is known as the Fresh Water Allowance and can be calculated.

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Damage control
Vessels built according to the code will be subdivided by transverse watertight bulkheads and
designed to remain afloat after suffering a specified amount of damage. All watertight fittings such
as bulkhead doors and valves must be are always maintained in a satisfactory condition.

Type ‘A’ and Type ‘B’ ships

A Type ‘A’ ship is designed to carry only liquid cargoes in bulk where access to any of the cargo
spaces is through a small watertight opening. All other types of ships are classed as Type ‘B’ ships.

The freeboard assigned to Type ‘A’ ships is less than that for the same size Type ‘B’ ships. This is
because in the case of a cargo hold being damaged, there is less vacate space for the seawater to
penetrate; hence the increase in draft due to flood water will be less.

Certification
The Classification Societies such as Lloyd’s Register of Shipping etc have delegated authority to
certify Load Lines once the MCA have approved the stability information. This information is then
passed to the Shipbuilder who welds the marks to the vessel and once a Class Surveyor has agreed
that they are correctly positioned a certificate will be issued. This certificate is valid up to five years
and the ship needs to be surveyed before a further Load Line certificate can be issued.

Surveys
Initial Survey
Before the ship is put into service the vessel must be inspected to ensure that all the arrangements,
materials and scantling comply with the regulations.

Annual Survey
The ship is inspected each year to ensure that no alterations have been made to either the hull or
superstructure that would affect the basis on which the position of the load line had been assigned
and that all fitting and appliances for the protection of openings, the guard rails, the free ports and
the means of access to crew’s accommodation are maintain in an effective condition.

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Periodical Survey
These surveys are undertaken at interval of no more than five years when the load line is to be
renewed. The vessel is inspected to ensure that all the arrangements, materials and scantling
comply with the regulations.

Once the Load Line has been assigned it is the responsibility of the Owner and Master to ensure that
no material alterations are made to the ship, its structure and equipment that will affect the Load
Line without approval of the Assigning Authority.

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Ship Motions
Ship motions result from waves and wind acting on the whole vessel. The vessel can move six
directions, three linear and three rotational.

7Figure 15: Ship motions

The three linear motions are:

Surge Forward to Aft

Sway Port to starboard
Heave Up and Down

And the three rotational motions are:

Roll Rotation about the horizontal axis
Sway Rotation about the transverse axis
Yaw Rotation about the vertical axis

These six motions are shown in the above figure.

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Structural Loads
Any vessel will experience loads due to:
1. Action by the sea.
2. Being manoeuvred.
3. The stowage of cargo.

Depending upon the type of material that a vessel is constructed from, the vessel can be subjected
to known stress value before ‘breaking’. Ships are generally designed so that critical components are
never loaded to over one third of their maximum stress level.

Stress can be defined as the force per unit area of a material. Stress can be reduced by either
decreasing the load or increasing the size of the component. The larger the component, the heavier
it is and so the heavier the ship’s structure will be.

Most merchant vessels exist to carry cargo and their maximum loaded draft is set by the freeboard
regulations. The greater the lightship ship, the less cargo can be transported and the less viable the
vessel is to operate. The design of ship structure is always a trade-off between stress and weight of
structure and each Classification Society has its own rules for each type of vessel.

Loaded Displacement is equal to the Lightship displacement plus deadweight.

Lightship can be defined as the mass of the empty vessel including working fluids.
Deadweight is the ship’s carrying capacity and includes crew, fuel oil, water, water ballast, cargo,
stores, provisions etc

There are two categories of loads.

Static Stationary or slow-moving loads.
Dynamic Moving loads

Each of these loads may act on the main ship’s girder (global) or they may act on a small specific
area of ship’s structure (local).

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Static load acting on local structure
Items of Equipment
This may be an item of equipment that is secured to the hull’s structure through structural interface
call a ‘seat’. The seat may form part of the main ship’s girder. Examples would be the main engine
seats, steering gears seat etc. In other cases, additional structure may be incorporated to transfer
loads from a pump or life boat into the ship’s structure.

Figure 16: Integrated Engine Seat

Tank
A tank partly filled with liquid will experience a hydrostatic load acting on the bottom and bulkhead
structure.

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Dynamic load acting on local structure.
Panting
As a ship moves through the water, particularly in head seas, the water tends to push the structure
in and out at the waterline.

Head Sea

8Figure 17: Panting

Pounding (Slamming)
As a ship moves through the water in a head sea the bow tens to lift clear of the water. As it drops
back into the sea, the vessel “slams” at the forefoot. This known as pounding.

Figure 18: Slamming

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Static loads acting on the ship’s girder.
Hydrostatic Pressure
Water pressure, or hydrostatic pressure, increases in a linear relationship with depth. The pressure
of the water tries to crush the ship, and so the structure is required to resist this force. Hydrostatic
pressure always acts normal (90 degrees) to the surface.

9Figure 19: Hydrostatic Pressure Acting on the Hull Girder

Still Water Bending Moment

Mass Force

Buoyancy Force

10Figure 19 Still Water

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Ships are constantly subjected to two forces. Gravity acts downwards long the whole length of the
vessel and buoyancy that acts upwards at the underwater volume sections. In the Lightship
condition, the mass and buoyancy forces are equal and opposite and an evenly distributed along the
vessel.

Dynamic load acting on the hull girder.

Racking
Quartering seas or tugs can cause the vessel to distort sideways. This known as racking.

Figure 20: Racking

Wave Bending Moment

Hogging
When the troughs of waves are located at the bow and stern, the crest of the wave will be located at
midships. This results in an excess of buoyancy at midship that pushes the ship girder upwards. The
vessel is said to be in hog.
Sagging
When the trough of a wave is located at midships and the crests of the waves are located at the bow
and stern there is an excess of weight at midship that pushes the ship girder downwards. The vessel
is said to be in sag.

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Hog and Sag conditions are shown in the figure beneath.

More buoyancy than weight at midships More weight than buoyancy at midships

11 Figure 21: Hogging and Sagging

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Structural Members
The structure of any ship is specific to its type, however, they will all consists common components,
referred to as structural members. Individual components that run fore to aft are called ‘longitudinal
members’ and those that run port to starboard are called ‘transverse members’.

Bottom Structure
Keels
The keel is the backbone of the ship and its main strength bearing member of the framework. It runs
along the ships bottom, on the centreline from forward to aft.
There are three types of keels.

Bar Keel
Used on small ships and tugs where having a large structure member is an advantage where
grounding is likely. The keel itself is fitted on the centreline at the bottom structure and contributes
to the longitudinal strength.

Figure 22: Bar Keel

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Plate Keel
This is a common type of keel. The centre line girder is continuously welded to the keel and the
inner bottom plate with n scalloping. It can be made watertight, however this is not a requirement
and it is used to form the double bottom.

Figure 23: Plate Keel

Duct Keel

These are formed of flat plated keels and have two centreline girders instead of one. They provide a
convenient tunnel for pipework making such pipework accessible when the ship is loaded.

Figure 24: Duct Keel

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Floors
Plate floor
The floors are constructed from mild steel plate and have lightening holes to provide access within
the tank and to reduce weight. They are stiffened with vertical mild steel members. To prevent the
floors from buckling they are supported by vertical stiffeners.

Longitudinal
Girder

Duct
Keel

Plate Floor
Vertical
Lightening Hole
Stiffener

Figure 25: Vertical Floors

Plating
A plate is a rectangular piece of material, normally steel used to close in the top, bottom and sides
of the structure. Plating makes a significant contribution to the longitudinal strength of the hull and
resists the hydrostatic pressure load. The Garboard and Sheer strakes are highly stressed.

Garboard Strake The first strake (plate) on each side of a keel

Deck Plating It is steel plate that forms the main deck of the ship.
Margin Plate The plate forming the sides of the inner bottom tank of a ship
Sheer Strake Is the top most strake of the Side shell plating
Shell Plating Is the outer skin of a ship

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Transverse Structure

Deck Beam Transverse member of the deck frame

Frame Transverse member running continuously from the keel to the deck. Resists
transverse loads.

Deck Beam

Web

Frame

Bracket

Transverse
Frame

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Bulkhead
Bulkheads divide the vessel transversely and longitudinally to create zones and compartments
within a ship. They have several functions:

1. Transverse bulkheads are used to zone the ship into watertight areas.
2. To control flooding
3. To control fire
4. To add strength to the vessel.

Bulkheads are constructed from strakes of steel. The steel is thicker at the bottom of the tank where
the hydrostatic pressure is greater. The bulkhead is stiffened vertically by bulb plates. The number of
penetrations is to be kept to a minimum and are of welded construction.

Figure 26: Steel Bulkhead

The watertight integrity of a bulkheads is demonstrated by hosing them at a pressure of 200kN/m 2.

This is carried out from the side on which the stiffeners are attached.

Collison Bulkhead.
To prevent the ingress of water in the event of an accident so ensure that the watertight integrity of
the hull is maintained collision bulkheads are fitted. Their position within the ship is specified in

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SOLAS as not being less than 0.05L and not more than 0.075L from the forward end of the load
waterline. The reason for this is to minimise the risk of flooding of the maim hull when damaged.

Collision bulkheads are constructed from strakes of steel. The steel is thicker at the bottom of the
tank where the hydrostatic pressure is greater. The bulkhead is stiffened by vertical bulb plates.
Brackets must be fitted in-way of the vertical stiffener and any longitudinal structural member. This
bulkhead is 12% thicker than the other watertight bulkheads. It is welded construction and it must
extend up to the upper most continuous watertight deck.

Fire Proof Bulkheads

Bulkheads are classed as one of three types and each have a number attached which states the time
that they are expected to survive fire conditions.

Type A
These are steel bulkheads that are stiffened to prevent buckling under intense heat, preventing the
passage of both smoke and flame to the end of a 60 minutes standard fire test.

Type B
These bulkheads are constructed from an approved non-combustible material that prevent the
passage of flame to the end of a 30 minutes standard fire test.

Type C
These are bulkheads are constructed from an approved material and have no requirements for the
passage of smoke or flames.

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Midship Sections
General Cargo Ship

12Figure 27: Midship Section of a General Cargo Vessel

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Bulk Carrier

Figure 28: Midship Section of a Bulk Carrier

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