DIRECTIONAL TERMS IN ANAPHY: 5.

) Tissues
6.) Organs
1.) Sagittal / Median Plane – Divides left and right 7.) Organ Systems
2.) Parasagittal Plane – Parallel to Sagittal 8.) The Human Organism
3.) Coronal / Frontal Plane – Divides front and back
4.) Axial – Aligned with center (head, neck, body)
5.) Appendicular – Ends of appendages (arms, legs) CELL AND TISSUE FUNCTION:
6.) Anterior / Ventral – Front of body
7.) Posterior / Dorsal – Back of body ● Cell – Smallest functional unit that an organism
8.) Superior / Cranial – Towards the top
9.) Inferior / Caudial – Towards the bottom
10.) Medial – Towards the midline
11.) Lateral – Away from midline
12.) Contralateral – opposite sides of midline
13.) Deep – Away from the body’s surface / body
part
14.) Intermediate – between two structures
15.) Proximal – Closer
16.) Distal – Away
17.) Superficial – Close to the surface of the body
18.) Supine – Lying on the back with the face
upward
DEFINITION OF TERMS: can be divided into and retain the
characteristics necessary for life.
● Anatomy – The study of the STRUCTURE and
● Tissues – Cells with similar embryonic origin or
relationships between body parts
function are often organised into larger
● Physiology – The science of how those parts functional units. Tissues combine to form the
come together to FUNCTION and keep that various body structures and organs.
body alive.
● Eukaryotic Cells – Have at least one nucleus;
● Pathology – Structural and functional changes Cells with a true nucleus.
in cells, tissues, and organs of the body that MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A EUKARYOTIC CELL:
cause or are caused by disease.
⮚ NUCLEUS
● Pathophysiology – Physiology of altered health
⮚ CYTOPLASM
● Anatomical Position – Body is erect and facing
⮚ CELL MEMBRANE
forward with the arms at the side and palms
forward. ● Prokaryotic Cells – Lack nucleus and nuclear
● Homeostasis – Maintain stable, internal membrane.
conditions no matter what changes are ● Protoplasm – Composed of water, proteins,
occurring outside the body.
lipids, carbohydrates, and electrolytes.
● Synthesis – Combination or composition of
⮚ Water makes up 70% to 85% of the
parts or elements so as to form as a whole.
cell’s protoplasm.
HIERARCHY OF ORGANIZATION: ● Cell Protein – The second most abundant
1.) Atoms constituents of protoplasm (10% to 20%).
2.) Molecules
3.) Organelles
4.) Cells
● Proteins – Can also be found complexed to the ⮚ Appears as rounded or elongated
other compounds such as nucleoproteins, structure
glycoproteins, lipoproteins.
⮚ Situated near the center of the cell
● Lipids – Comprises 2% to 3% of most cells;
⮚ Enclosed in a nuclear membrane
Combine with proteins to form the cell
membrane and the membranous barriers that ⮚ Contains CROMATIN and a distinct
separate different cell compartments. region called
MOST IMPORTANT LIPIDS:
Nucleolus – Darkly-stained
⮚ PHOSPHOLIPIDS Cromatin – The nuclear matrix Mainly insoluble
round body / Euchromatic
where complex structure of DNA in water
⮚ CHOLESTEROL and DNA-associated proteins are
dispersed.
● Triglycerides – Constitute up to 95% of the total NUCLEOLUS
cell mass; Fat stored in these cells represents
⮚ Control center of the cell
stored energy.
⮚ Few Carbohydrates are found in the
cell, and these are primarily used for WHY IS DNA ESSENTIAL TO THE CELL?
fuel. Because its genes contain the information necessary for the
MAJOR INTERCELLULAR ELECTROLYTES: synthesis of proteins that the cells must produce to stay alive.
⮚ POTASSIUM ION These proteins include structural proteins and enzymes used to
synthesize other substances including Carbohydrates and Lipids.
⮚ MAGNESIUM ION
⮚ Contains DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
⮚ PHOSPHATE ION
⮚ Site of RNA synthesis
⮚ SULFATE ION
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS: Transcription and Translation
⮚ BICARBONATE ION
These electrolytes facilitate generation and
transmission of electrochemical impulses in
nerve and muscle cells. THREE TYPES OF RNA:

Intracellular electrolytes participate in ✔ Messenger RNA (mRNA) – Copies and

reactions that are necessary for cellular
metabolism.
carries the DNA instructions for protein
synthesis to the cytoplasm.
⮚ Small quantities of sodium, chloride, ✔ Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – Moves to the
and calcium ions are also present in the cytoplasm and becomes the site for protein
cell. synthesis.
● Cellular Metabolism – The set of chemical ✔ Transfer RNA (tRNA) – Also moves into the
reactions that occur in living organisms in order cytoplasm, where it transports amino acids
to maintain life. to the elongating protein as it is being
⮚ Cellular metabolism involves complex synthesized.
sequences of controlled biochemical
reactions, better known as metabolic ⮚ Each DNA molecule is made up of two
pathways. extremely long, double-stranded helical chain
● Nucleus – Membrane-enclosed organelle within containing variable sequences of four (4)
a cell that contains the chromosomes.
 nitrogenous bases which forms the genetic
● Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) – An extensive
code.
system of paired membranes and flat vesicles
⮚ DNA must be replicated before Mitosis that connects various parts of the inner cell.
⮚ The fluid-filled space between the
● Mitosis – Cell division paired ER membrane layers is
connected with the space between the
⮚ During replication, complementary pairs of
two membranes of the double-layered
DNA are generated such that each daughter nuclear membrane, the cell membrane,
cell receives am identical set of genes. and various cytoplasmic organelles.
● Nucleoli – Structures composed of regions from ⮚ Functions as a tubular communication
five (5) different chromosomes, each with a part system through which substances can
of a genetic code needed for the synthesis of be transported from one part of the cell
rRNA, which is transcribed exclusively in the to another.
nucleolus.
⮚ A large surface area and multiple
● Nuclear Envelope / Nuclear Membrane – A
enzyme systems attached to the ER
double – layered membrane that surrounds the membranes also provide the machinery
nucleus. for a major share of the metabolic
● Cytoplasm – The gelatinous liquid that fills the functions of the cell.
inside of a cell. ⮚ 2 types of ER: Rough ER and Smooth ER
⮚ Surrounds the nucleus ● Rough ER – Studded with ribosomes attached to
⮚ Work of the cell takes place specific binding sites on the membrane.

⮚ Contains water, electrolytes, suspended ⮚ Proteins produced by the rough ER are

proteins, neutral fats, and glycogen usually destined for incorporation into
molecules. cell membranes and lysosomal enzymes
or for exportation from the cell. The
⮚ Pigments accumulate in the cytoplasm rough ER segregates these proteins
(such as melanin, which gives the skin color from other components of the
are normal constituents of the cell.) cytoplasm and modifies their structure
for a specific function.
● Organelles – Organs of a cell; Include
Ribosomes, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi ⮚ All cells require a rough ER for the
Complex, Lysosomes and Peroxisomes, and synthesis of lysosomal enzymes.
Mitochondria. ● Smooth ER – Involved in glycogen storage and
THE CYTOPLASM AND ITS ORGANELLES: metabolism of lipid soluble drugs.
⮚ Free of ribosomes and is continuous
● Ribosomes – Sites of protein synthesis in the
with the rough ER.
cell; Small particles of nucleoproteins (rRNA and
proteins) that can be found attached to the wall ⮚ Does not participate in the protein
of the endoplasmic reticulum or asNote:
free Ribosomes & synthesis.
ribosomes. mRNA synthesize
proteins Sarcoplasmic Reticulum - a complex network of specialized
● Polyribosomes – Formed because of free
smooth endoplasmic reticulum that is important in
ribosomes are scattered singly in the cytoplasm transmitting the electrical impulse as well as in the storage of
or joined by strands of mRNA. calcium ions.

⮚ Involved in the synthesis of lipid

molecules including: Lipoproteins,
 Steroid Hormones, Regulation of
⮚ The pH of cytoplasm is approximately
Intracellular Calcium, Metabolism and
Detoxification of Certain Hormone and 7.2, which protects other cellular
Drugs. structure in this activity.

⮚ The sarcoplasmic reticulum of skeletal ⮚ Lysosomal enzymes are synthesized in

and cardiac muscular cells is a form of the rough ER and then transported into
smooth ER. the Golgi Apparatus, where they are
biochemically modified and packaged as
⮚ Calcium ions needed for needed for lysosomes.
muscle contraction are stored and
⮚ The type of enzyme packaged in the
released from cisternae of the
sarcoplasmic reticulum. lysosome by the Golgi Complex
Determines this diversity.
● Golgi Complex – Golgi Apparatus
⮚ Some materials remain undigested even
⮚ Consists of stacks of thin, flattened though lysosomal enzymes can break
vesicles or sacs down most proteins, carbohydrates,
and lipids to their basic constituents;
⮚ Found near the nucleus
These undigested materials may remain
⮚ Functions in association with the ER in the cytoplasm as residual bodies or
be extruded from the cell.
⮚ Substances produced in the ER are
carried to the Golgi Complex in small,
membrane-covered transfer vesicles. LONG LIVED CELLS:
⮚ Modifies certain substances and
⮚ NEURONS
packages them into secretory granules
or vesicles. ⮚ HEART-MUSCLE CELLS
⮚ Produces large carbohydrate molecules Large quantities of residual
bodies accumulate as lipofuscin
that combine with proteins produced
granules or age pigment.
by the rough ER to form Glycoproteins.
● Lysosomes – Play an important role in the INDIGESTIBLE PIGMENTS:
normal metabolism of certain substances in the
body. ⮚ INHALED CARBON PARTICLES
⮚ Can be viewed as the digestive system ⮚ TATTOO PIGMENTS
of the cell. May accumulate and persist in
⮚ Consists of small, membrane-enclosed residual bodies for decades.

sacs containing hydrolytic enzymes

capable of breaking down worn-out cell
parts so they can be recycled. ● Peroxisomes – Smaller than lysosomes, these
are spherical membrane – bound organelles.
⮚ Breaks down foreign substances such as
bacteria taken into the cell. ⮚ Contains a special enzyme that
degrades peroxides
⮚ All lysosomal enzymes are acid
hydrolases which requires an acid ⮚ Function in the control of free radicals
environment (5 pH in their interior) ⮚ These highly unstable chemical
NOTES: compounds would damage other
 ✔
cytoplasmic molecules, unless
An inner membrane that forms
degraded.
shelflike projections called
⮚ Contains enzymes needed for breaking Cristae.
down very-long-chain fatty acids, which
are ineffectively degraded by MITOCHONDRIAL DNA:
mitochondrial enzymes.
⮚ Distinct from the chromosomal DNA
● Mitochondria – Powerhouse of the cell
found in the nucleus.
⮚ Transfers organic compounds into ⮚ Known as the “other human genome”
energy that is easily accessible to the
cell. ⮚ Double stranded, circular molecule that
encodes the rRNA and tRNA required
⮚ Contains enzymes needed for capturing
for intramitochondrial synthesis
most of the energy in foodstuffs and function of the mitochondria.
converting it into cellular energy. This
multi-step process requires oxygen and ⮚ Directs the synthesis of 13 of the DNA
is referred to as Aerobic Metabolism. proteins required for mitochondrial
function.
⮚ Most of this energy is stored in the
high-energy phosphate bonds of ⮚ DNA of the nucleus encodes the
compounds such as Adenosine structural proteins of the mitochondria
Triphosphate (ATP) that power the and other proteins needed to carry out
various cellular activities. Cellular Respiration.
⮚ Found close to the site of energy ⮚ Inherited matrilineally and provides a
consumption in the cell basis for familial lineage studies.
⮚ The number of mitochondria in a given ● Cytoskeleton – Controls cell shape and
cell type is largely determined by the movements.
type of activity the cell performs and ⮚ Network of microtubules,
how much energy is needed to
microfilaments, intermediate filaments,
undertake this activity.
thick filaments.
⮚ Contain their own DNA and ribosomes
and are self-replicating.

⮚ Composed of two (2) membranes:

✔ An outer membrane that

encloses the periphery of the
mitochondrion.
Forms two (2) spaces:

An outer intramembranous
space involved in lipid synthesis
and fatty acid metabolism.
An inner matrix that is filled
with a gel-like material that
contains the respiratory train
enzymes and transports proteins
needed for the synthesis of ATP.