A Must Have PostgreSQL Notes For Professionals 1688349123

Contents
About ................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1: Getting started with PostgreSQL .................................................................................................. 2
Section 1.1: Installing PostgreSQL on Windows ........................................................................................................... 2
Section 1.2: Install PostgreSQL from Source on Linux ............................................................................................... 3
Section 1.3: Installation on GNU+Linux ......................................................................................................................... 4
Section 1.4: How to install PostgreSQL via MacPorts on OSX ................................................................................... 5
Section 1.5: Install postgresql with brew on Mac ........................................................................................................ 7
Section 1.6: Postgres.app for Mac OSX ........................................................................................................................ 7
Chapter 2: Data Types ............................................................................................................................................... 8

Section 2.1: Numeric Types ........................................................................................................................................... 8
Section 2.2: Date/ Time Types .................................................................................................................................... 8
Section 2.3: Geometric Types ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Section 2.4: Network Adress Types ............................................................................................................................. 9
Section 2.5: Character Types ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Section 2.6: Arrays ......................................................................................................................................................... 9
Chapter 3: Dates, Timestamps, and Intervals ............................................................................................. 11

Section 3.1: SELECT the last day of month ............................................................................................................... 11
Section 3.2: Cast a timestamp or interval to a string .............................................................................................. 11
Section 3.3: Count the number of records per week ............................................................................................... 11
Chapter 4: Table Creation ..................................................................................................................................... 12

Section 4.1: Show table definition ............................................................................................................................... 12
Section 4.2: Create table from select ........................................................................................................................ 12
Section 4.3: Create unlogged table ........................................................................................................................... 12
Section 4.4: Table creation with Primary Key .......................................................................................................... 12
Section 4.5: Create a table that references other table .......................................................................................... 13
Chapter 5: SELECT ...................................................................................................................................................... 14

Section 5.1: SELECT using WHERE ............................................................................................................................. 14
Chapter 6: Find String Length / Character Length ................................................................................... 15

Section 6.1: Example to get length of a character varying field ............................................................................. 15
Chapter 7: COALESCE ............................................................................................................................................... 16

Section 7.1: Single non null argument ........................................................................................................................ 16
Section 7.2: Multiple non null arguments .................................................................................................................. 16
Section 7.3: All null arguments ................................................................................................................................... 16
Chapter 8: INSERT ...................................................................................................................................................... 17

Section 8.1: Insert data using COPY ........................................................................................................................... 17
Section 8.2: Inserting multiple rows ........................................................................................................................... 18
Section 8.3: INSERT data and RETURING values ..................................................................................................... 18
Section 8.4: Basic INSERT ........................................................................................................................................... 18
Section 8.5: Insert from select .................................................................................................................................... 18
Section 8.6: UPSERT - INSERT ... ON CONFLICT DO UPDATE.. ................................................................................ 19
Section 8.7: SELECT data into file .............................................................................................................................. 19
Chapter 9: UPDATE .................................................................................................................................................... 21
Section 9.1: Updating a table based on joining another table ................................................................................ 21
Section 9.2: Update all rows in a table ...................................................................................................................... 21
Section 9.3: Update all rows meeting a condition ................................................................................................... 21
Section 9.4: Updating multiple columns in table ...................................................................................................... 21
Chapter 10: JSON Support ..................................................................................................................................... 22
Section 10.1: Using JSONb operators ........................................................................................................................ 22
Section 10.2: Querying complex JSON documents .................................................................................................. 26
Section 10.3: Creating a pure JSON table ................................................................................................................. 27
Chapter 11: Aggregate Functions ........................................................................................................................ 28

Section 11.1: Simple statistics: min(), max(), avg() ..................................................................................................... 28
Section 11.2: regr_slope(Y, X) : slope of the least-squares-fit linear equation determined by the (X, Y) pairs
................................................................................................................................................................................ 28
Section 11.3: string_agg(expression, delimiter) ........................................................................................................ 29
Chapter 12: Common Table Expressions (WITH) ......................................................................................... 31

Section 12.1: Common Table Expressions in SELECT Queries ................................................................................. 31
Section 12.2: Traversing tree using WITH RECURSIVE ............................................................................................ 31
Chapter 13: Window Functions ............................................................................................................................. 32

Section 13.1: generic example ..................................................................................................................................... 32
Section 13.2: column values vs dense_rank vs rank vs row_number ................................................................... 33
Chapter 14: Recursive queries ............................................................................................................................. 34

Section 14.1: Sum of Integers ...................................................................................................................................... 34
Chapter 15: Programming with PL/pgSQL .................................................................................................... 35

Section 15.1: Basic PL/pgSQL Function ...................................................................................................................... 35
Section 15.2: custom exceptions ................................................................................................................................ 35
Section 15.3: PL/pgSQL Syntax .................................................................................................................................. 36
Section 15.4: RETURNS Block ..................................................................................................................................... 36
Chapter 16: Inheritance ............................................................................................................................................ 37

Section 16.1: Creating children tables ........................................................................................................................ 37
Chapter 17: Export PostgreSQL database table header and data to CSV file ........................... 38
Section 17.1: copy from query .................................................................................................................................... 38
Section 17.2: Export PostgreSQL table to csv with header for some column(s) ................................................... 38
Section 17.3: Full table backup to csv with header ................................................................................................... 38
Chapter 18: Triggers and Trigger Functions ................................................................................................. 39

Section 18.1: Type of triggers ...................................................................................................................................... 39
Section 18.2: Basic PL/pgSQL Trigger Function ....................................................................................................... 40
Chapter 19: Event Triggers .................................................................................................................................... 42

Section 19.1: Logging DDL Command Start Events .................................................................................................. 42
Chapter 20: Role Management ........................................................................................................................... 43

Section 20.1: Create a user with a password ............................................................................................................ 43
Section 20.2: Grant and Revoke Privileges ............................................................................................................... 43
Section 20.3: Create Role and matching database ................................................................................................. 44
Section 20.4: Alter default search_path of user ...................................................................................................... 44
Section 20.5: Create Read Only User ........................................................................................................................ 45
Section 20.6: Grant access privileges on objects created in the future ................................................................ 45
Chapter 21: Postgres cryptographic functions ............................................................................................ 46

Section 21.1: digest ....................................................................................................................................................... 46
Chapter 22: Comments in PostgreSQL ............................................................................................................ 47

Section 22.1: COMMENT on Table .............................................................................................................................. 47
Section 22.2: Remove Comment ............................................................................................................................... 47
Chapter 23: Backup and Restore ........................................................................................................................ 48

Section 23.1: Backing up one database .................................................................................................................... 48
Section 23.2: Restoring backups ................................................................................................................................ 48
Section 23.3: Backing up the whole cluster .............................................................................................................. 48
Section 23.4: Using psql to export data .................................................................................................................... 49
Section 23.5: Using Copy to import ........................................................................................................................... 49
Section 23.6: Using Copy to export ........................................................................................................................... 50
Chapter 24: Backup script for a production DB ......................................................................................... 51

Section 24.1: saveProdDb.sh ....................................................................................................................................... 51
Chapter 25: Accessing Data Programmatically .......................................................................................... 52

Section 25.1: Accessing PostgreSQL with the C-API ................................................................................................. 52
Section 25.2: Accessing PostgreSQL from python using psycopg2 ...................................................................... 55
Section 25.3: Accessing PostgreSQL from .NET using the Npgsql provider ......................................................... 55
Section 25.4: Accessing PostgreSQL from PHP using Pomm2 ............................................................................... 56
Chapter 26: Connect to PostgreSQL from Java ......................................................................................... 58

Section 26.1: Connecting with java.sql.DriverManager ............................................................................................ 58
Section 26.2: Connecting with java.sql.DriverManager and Properties ................................................................. 58
Section 26.3: Connecting with javax.sql.DataSource using a connection pool ..................................................... 59
Chapter 27: PostgreSQL High Availability ..................................................................................................... 61

Section 27.1: Replication in PostgreSQL .................................................................................................................... 61
Chapter 28: EXTENSION dblink and postgres_fdw ................................................................................... 64
Section 28.1: Extention FDW ....................................................................................................................................... 64
Section 28.2: Foreign Data Wrapper ........................................................................................................................ 64
Section 28.3: Extention dblink .................................................................................................................................... 65
Chapter 29: Postgres Tip and Tricks ................................................................................................................. 66

Section 29.1: DATEADD alternative in Postgres ....................................................................................................... 66
Section 29.2: Comma separated values of a column ............................................................................................. 66
Section 29.3: Delete duplicate records from postgres table .................................................................................. 66
Section 29.4: Update query with join between two tables alternative since Postresql does not support join
in update query ................................................................................................................................................... 66
Section 29.5: Di erence between two date timestamps month wise and year wise .......................................... 66
Section 29.6: Query to Copy/Move/Transafer table data from one database to other database table with
same schema ...................................................................................................................................................... 67
Credits .............................................................................................................................................................................. 68
You may also like ........................................................................................................................................................ 70
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Chapter 1: Getting started with

PostgreSQL
Version Release date EOL date
10.0 2017-10-05 2022-10-01
9.6 2016-09-29 2021-09-01
9.5 2016-01-07 2021-01-01
9.4 2014-12-18 2019-12-01
9.3 2013-09-09 2018-09-01
9.2 2012-09-10 2017-09-01
9.1 2011-09-12 2016-09-01
9.0 2010-09-20 2015-09-01
8.4 2009-07-01 2014-07-01
Section 1.1: Installing PostgreSQL on Windows

While it's good practice to use a Unix based operating system (ex. Linux or BSD) as a production
server you can easily install PostgreSQL on Windows (hopefully only as a development server).
Download the Windows installation binaries from EnterpriseDB:

http://www.enterprisedb.com/products-services-training/pgdownload This is a third-party
company started by core contributors to the PostgreSQL project who have optimized the
binaries for Windows.
Select the latest stable (non-Beta) version (9.5.3 at the time of writing). You will most likely want
the Win x86-64 package, but if you are running a 32 bit version of Windows, which is common on
older computers, select Win x86-32 instead.
Note: Switching between Beta and Stable versions will involve complex tasks like dump and
restore. Upgrading within beta or stable version only needs a service restart.
You can check if your version of Windows is 32 or 64 bit by going to Control Panel -> System and
Security -> System -> System type, which will say "##-bit Operating System". This is the path for
Windows 7, it may be slightly different on other versions of Windows.
In the installer select the packages you would like to use. For example:
pgAdmin ( https://www.pgadmin.org ) is a free GUI for managing your database and I

highly recommend it. In
9.6 this will be installed by default .
PostGIS ( http://postgis.net ) provides geospatial analysis features on GPS coordinates,
distances etc. very popular among GIS developers.
The Language Package provides required libraries for officially supported procedural
language PL/Python, PL/Perl and PL/Tcl.
Other packages like pgAgent, pgBouncer and Slony are useful for larger production servers,
only checked as needed.
All those optional packages can be later installed through "Application Stack Builder".
Note: There are also other non-officially supported language such as PL/V8, PL/Lua PL/Java
available.
Open pgAdmin and connect to your server by double clicking on its name, ex. "PostgreSQL 9.5
(localhost:5432).
From this point you can follow guides such as the excellent book PostgreSQL: Up and Running,
2nd Edition ( http://shop.oreilly.com/product/0636920032144.do ).
Optional: Manual Service Startup Type
PostgreSQL runs as a service in the background which is slightly different than most programs.
This is common for databases and web servers. Its default Startup Type is Automatic which
means it will always run without any input from you.
Why would you want to manually control the PostgreSQL service? If you're using your PC as a
development server some of the time and but also use it to play video games for example,
PostegreSQL could slow down your system a bit while its running.
Why wouldn't you want manual control? Starting and stopping the service can be a hassle if you
do it often.
If you don't notice any difference in speed and prefer avoiding the hassle then leave its Startup
Type as Automatic and ignore the rest of this guide. Otherwise...
Go to Control Panel -> System and Security -> Administrative Tools.
Select "Services" from the list, right click on its icon, and select Send To -> Desktop to create a
desktop icon for more convenient access.
Close the Administrative Tools window then launch Services from the desktop icon you just
created.
Scroll down until you see a service with a name like postgresql-x##-9.# (ex. "postgresql-x64-
9.5").
Right click on the postgres service, select Properties -> Startup type -> Manual -> Apply -> OK.
You can change it back to automatic just as easily.
If you see other PostgreSQL related services in the list such "pgbouncer" or "PostgreSQL
Scheduling Agent pgAgent" you can also change their Startup Type to Manual because they're
not much use if PostgreSQL isn't running. Although this will mean more hassle each time you
start and stop so it's up to you. They don't use as many resources as PostgreSQL itself and may
not have any noticeable impact on your systems performance.
If the service is running its Status will say Started, otherwise it isn't running.
To start it right click and select Start. A loading prompt will be displayed and should disappear
on its own soon after. If it gives you an error try a second time. If that doesn't work then there
was some problem with the installation, possibly because you changed some setting in Windows
most people don't change, so finding the problem might require some sleuthing.
To stop postgres right click on the service and select Stop.
If you ever get an error while attempting to connect to your database check Services to make
sure its running.
For other very specific details about the EDB PostgreSQL installation, e.g. the python runtime
version in the official language pack of a specific PostgreSQL version, always refer to the official
EBD installation guide , change the version in link to your installer's major version.
Section 1.2: Install PostgreSQL from Source on Linux

Dependencies:
GNU Make
Version >
3.80 an ISO/
ANSI C-
Compiler (e.g.
gcc) an extractor
like tar or gzip
zlib-devel
readline-devel oder
libedit-devel Sources:
Link to the latest source
(9.6.3) Now you can
extract the source files:
tar -xzvf postgresql-9.6.3.tar.gz
There are a large number of different options for the configuration of PostgreSQL:
Full Link to the full
installation procedure
Small list of available
options:
--prefix=PATH path for all files

--exec-prefix=PATH path for architectur-dependet file
--bindir=PATH path for executable programs
--sysconfdir=PATH path for configuration files
--with-pgport=NUMBER specify a port for your server
--with-perl add perl support
--with-python add python support
--with-openssl add openssl support
--with-ldap add ldap support
--with-blocksize=BLOCKSIZE set pagesize in KB
BLOCKSIZE must a power of 2 and between 1 and 32
--with-wal-segsize=SEGSIZE set size of WAL-Segment size
in MB SEGSIZE must be a power of 2 between 1
and 64
Go into the new created folder and run the cofigure script with the desired options:
./configure -- exec=/usr/local/pgsql
Run make to create the objectfiles

Run make install to install PostgreSQL from the built files
Run make clean to tidy up
For the extension switch the directory cd contrib , run make and make
install
Section 1.3: Installation on GNU+Linux

On most GNU+Linux operating systems, PostgreSQL can easily be installed using the operating
system package manager.
Red Hat family
Respositories can be found here: https://yum.postgresql.org/repopackages.php
Download the repository to local machine with the command
yum -y install https://download.postgresql.org/pub/repos/yum/X.X/redhat/rhel-7-x86_64/pgdgredhatXX-X.X-

X.noarch.rpm
View available packages:

yum list available | grep postgres*
Neccesary packages are: postgresqlXX postgresqlXX-server postgresqlXX-libs postgresqlXX-

contrib
These are installed with the following command: yum -y install postgresqlXX postgresqlXX-server
postgresqlXX-libs postgresqlXX-contrib
Once installed you will need to start the database service as the service owner (Default is
postgres). This is done with the pg_ctl command.
sudo - su postgres
. / usr / pgsql-X.X / bin / pg_ctl - D / var / lib / pgsql / X.X / data start
To access the DB in CLI enter psql
Debian family
On Debian and derived operating systems, type:

sudo apt-get install postgresql
This will install the PostgreSQL server package, at the default version offered by the operating
system's package repositories.
If the version that's installed by default is not the one that you want, you can use the package
manager to search for specific versions which may simultaneously be offered.
You can also use the Yum repository provided by the PostgreSQL project (known as PGDG)
to get a different version. This may allow versions not yet offered by operating system
package repositories.
Section 1.4: How to install PostgreSQL via MacPorts on

OSX
In order to install PostgreSQL on OSX, you need to know which versions are currently supported.
Use this command to see what versions you have available.

sudo port list | grep "^postgresql[[:digit:]]\{2\}[[:space:]]"
You should get a list that looks something like the following:
postgresql80 @8.0.26
databases/postgresql80 postgresql81 @8.1.23
databases/postgresql95 postgresql96 @9.6beta2
databases/postgresql96
In this example, the most recent version of PostgreSQL that is supported in 9.6, so we will install
that.
sudo port install postgresql96-server postgresql96
You will see an installation log like this:
---> Computing dependencies for postgresql96-server

---> Dependencies to be installed: postgresql96
---> Fetching archive for postgresql96
---> Attempting to fetch postgresql96-
9.6beta2_0.darwin_15.x86_64.tbz2 from
https://packages.macports.org/postgresql96 ---> Attempting to
fetch postgresql96-9.6beta2_0.darwin_15.x86_64.tbz2.rmd160 from
https://packages.macports.org/postgresql96 ---> Installing
postgresql96 @9.6beta2_0
---> Activating postgresql96 @9.6beta2_0 To use
the postgresql server, install the postgresql96-
server port
---> Cleaning postgresql96

---> Fetching archive for postgresql96-server
---> Attempting to fetch postgresql96-server-
9.6beta2_0.darwin_15.x86_64.tbz2 from
https://packages.macports.org/postgresql96-server ---> Attempting to
fetch postgresql96-server-9.6beta2_0.darwin_15.x86_64.tbz2.rmd160 from
https://packages.macports.org/postgresql96-server ---> Installing
postgresql96-server @9.6beta2_0
---> Activating postgresql96-server @9.6beta2_0
To create a database instance, after install do sudo

mkdir -p /opt/local/var/db/postgresql96/defaultdb
sudo chown postgres:postgres
/opt/local/var/db/postgresql96/defaultdb sudo su
postgres -c '/opt/local/lib/postgresql96/bin/initdb -
D /opt/local/var/db/postgresql96/defaultdb'
---> Cleaning postgresql96-server

---> Computing dependencies for postgresql96
---> Cleaning postgresql96
---> Updating database of binaries
---> Scanning binaries for
linking errors ---> No broken
files found.
The log provides instructions on the rest of the steps for installation, so we do that next.
sudo mkdir -p /opt/local/var/db/postgresql96/defaultdb sudo chown

postgres:postgres /opt/local/var/db/postgresql96/defaultdb sudo su
postgres -c '/opt/local/lib/postgresql96/bin/initdb -D
/opt/local/var/db/postgresql96/defaul
tdb' Now we start the server:
sudo port load - w postgresql96-server
Verify that we can connect to the server:

su postgres -c psql
You will see a prompt from postgres:
psql (9.6.1)
Type "help" for help.
postgres=#
Here you can type a query to see that the server is running.
postgres=#SELECT setting FROM pg_settings WHERE
NAME='data_directory'; And see the response:

setting
------------------------------------------
/opt/local/var/db/postgresql96/defaultdb
(1 row)
postgres=#
Type \q to quit:
postgres = #\q
And you will be back at your shell prompt.
Congratulations! You now have a running PostgreSQL instance on

OS/X.
Section 1.5: Install postgresql with brew

on Mac
Homebrew calls itself 'the missing package manager for macOS'. It can be used to build and install
applications and libraries. Once installed, you can use the brew command to install PostgreSQL
and it's dependencies as follows:
brew UPDATE
brew install postgresql
Homebrew generally installs the latest stable version. If you need a different one then brew SEARCH postgresql
will
list the versions available. If you need PostgreSQL built with particular options then brew info
postgresql will list which options are supported. If you require an unsupported build option, you
may have to do the build yourself, but can still use Homebrew to install the common
dependencies.
Start the server:

brew services START postgresql
Open the PostgreSQL prompt

psql
If psql complains that there's no corresponding database for your user, run
CREATEDB.
Section 1.6: Postgres.app for Mac OSX

An extremely simple tool for installing PostgreSQL on a Mac is available by downloading
Postgres.app.
You can change preferences to have PostgreSQL run in the background or only when the
application is running.
Chapter 2: Data Types
PostgreSQL has a rich set of native data types available to users. Users can add new types to
PostgreSQL using the CREATE TYPE command.
https://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.6/static/datatype.html
Section 2.1: Numeric Types
DOUBLE PRECISION
Name Storage Size Description Range
SMALLINT 2 bytes small-range integer -32768 to +32767
INTEGER 4 bytes ypical choice for integer -2147483648 to +2147483647
-9223372036854775808 to
BIGINT 8 bytes large-range integer
+9223372036854775807
up to 131072 digits before the decimal point; up
DECIMAL variable user-specified precision, exact
to 16383 digits after the decimal point
up to 131072 digits before the decimal point; up
NUMERIC variable user-specified precision, exact
to 16383 digits after the decimal point
REAL 4 bytes variable-precision, inexact 6 decimal digits precision
8 bytes variable-precision, inexact 15 decimal digits precision
smallserial 2 bytes small autoincrementing integer 1 to 32767 serial 4
bytes autoincrementing integer 1 to 2147483647
BIGSERIAL 8 bytes large autoincrementing integer 1 to 9223372036854775807
int4range Range of integer int8range Range of
bigint numrange Range of numeric
Section 2.2: Date/ Time Types

Storage
Name
Size Description Low Value High Value Resolution
TIMESTAMP
both date and time (no 1 microsecond / 14
(without time 8 bytes zone) 4713 BC 294276 AD
time zone) digits
TIMESTAMP (with both date and time, with 1 microsecond / 14
4713 BC 294276 AD
time zone digits
8 bytes
time zone)
DATE 4 bytes date (no time of day) 4713 BC 5874897 AD 1 day
TIME (without time 1 microsecond / 14
8 bytes time of day (no date) 00:00:00 24:00:00 digits
zone)
TIME (with time times of day only, with 1 microsecond / 14
12 bytes time zone 00:00:00+1459 24:00:00-1459 digits
zone)
1 microsecond / 14
INTERVAL 16 bytes time interval -178000000 years 178000000 years
digits
range of timestamp
tsrange
without time zone
range of timestamp with
tstzrange
time zone
daterange range of date
Section 2.3: Geometric Types

Name Storage Size Description Representation point
16 bytes Point on a plane (x,y) line 32 bytes
Infinite line {A,B,C}
lseg 32 bytes Finite line segment ((x1,y1),(x2,y2)) BOX 32
bytes Rectangular box ((x1,y1),(x2,y2))
path 16+16n bytes Closed path (similar to polygon)
((x1,y1),...) path 16+16n bytes Open path [(x1,y1),...]
polygon 40+16n bytes Polygon (similar to closed path) ((x1,y1),...)
CIRCLE 24 bytes Circle <(x,y),r> (center point and radius)
Section 2.4: Network Adress Types

Name Storage Size Description
CIDR 7 or 19 bytes IPv4 and IPv6 networks
INET 7 or 19 bytes IPv4 and IPv6 hosts and
networks macaddr 6 bytes MAC addresses
Section 2.5: Character Types

Name Description
CHARACTER varying (n), varchar (n) variable-length with limit
character (n), char (n) fixed-length, blank padded
TEXT variable unlimited length Section 2.6:

Arrays
In PostgreSQL you can create Arrays of any built-in, user-defined or enum type. In default there
is no limit to an Array, but you can specify it.
Declaring an Array
SELECT INTEGER [ ];
SELECT INTEGER [ 3] ;
SELECT INTEGER [ ][];
SELECT INTEGER [ 3] [ 3] ;
SELECT INTEGER ARRAY;
SELECT INTEGER ARRAY[ 3 ] ;
Creating an Array
SELECT '{0,1,2}' ;
SELECT '{{0,1},{1,2}}' ;
SELECT ARRAY[ 0 , 1 , 2 ] ;
SELECT ARRAY[ ARRAY[ 0 , 1 ] , ARRAY[ 1 , 2 ] ] ;
Accessing an Array
By default PostgreSQL uses a one-based numbering convention for arrays, that is, an array of n
ARRAY[1] and ends with ARRAY elements starts with [n].
-- accesing a spefific element
WITH arr AS ( SELECT ARRAY[ 0 , 1 , 2 ] int_arr ) SELECT int_arr [ 1 ] FROMarr;
int_arr
---------
0
( 1 ROW)
-- sclicing an array
WITH arr AS ( SELECT ARRAY[ 0 , 1 , 2 ] int_arr ) SELECT int_arr [ 1 : 2 ] FROMarr;
int_arr
---------
{ 0, 1}
( 1 ROW)
Getting information about an array
-- array dimensions (as text )
WITH arr AS ( SELECT ARRAY[ 0 , 1 , 2 ] int_arr ) SELECT ARRAY_DIMS( int_arr ) FROMarr;
array_dims
------------
[ 1: 3]
( 1 ROW)
-- length of an array dimension

WITH arr AS ( SELECT ARRAY[ 0 , 1 , 2 ] int_arr ) SELECT ARRAY_LENGTH( int_arr, 1 ) FROMarr;
array_length
--------------
3
( 1 ROW)
-- total number of elements across all dimensions

WITH arr AS ( SELECT ARRAY[ 0 , 1 , 2 ] int_arr ) SELECT cardinality ( int_arr ) FROMarr;
cardinality
-------------
3
( 1 ROW)
Array functions
will be added
Chapter 3: Dates, Timestamps, and

Intervals
Section 3.1: SELECT the last day of month
You can select the last day of month.
SELECT (DATE_TRUNC('MONTH', ('201608'||'01')::DATE) + INTERVAL '1 MONTH - 1 day')::DATE;
201608 is replaceable with a variable.
Section 3.2: Cast a timestamp or interval to a

string
You can convert a TIMESTAMP or INTERVAL value to a string with the TO_CHAR () function:
SELECT TO_CHAR('2016-08-12 16:40:32'::TIMESTAMP, 'DD Mon YYYY HH:MI:SSPM');
This statement will produce the string "12 Aug 2016 04:40:32PM". The formatting string can be
modified in many different ways; the full list of template patterns can be found here.
Note that you can also insert plain text into the formatting string and you can use the template
patterns in any order:
SELECT TO_CHAR('2016-08-12 16:40:32'::TIMESTAMP,

'"Today is "FMDay", the "DDth" day of the month of "FMMonth" of "YYYY');
This will produce the string "Today is Saturday, the 12th day of the month of August of 2016".
You should keep in mind, though, that any template patterns - even the single letter ones like
"I", "D", "W" - are converted, unless the plain text is in double quotes. As a safety measure, you
should put all plain text in double quotes, as done above.
You can localize the string to your language of choice (day and month names) by using the TM
(translation mode) modifier. This option uses the localization setting of the server running
PostgreSQL or the client connecting to it.
SELECT TO_CHAR('2016-08-12 16:40:32'::TIMESTAMP, 'TMDay, DD" de "TMMonth" del año "YYYY');
With a Spanish locale setting this produces "Sábado, 12 de Agosto del año 2016".
Section 3.3: Count the number of records per week

SELECT DATE_TRUNC( 'week' , <> ) AS "Week" , COUNT( * )
FROM <>
GROUP BY 1
ORDER BY 1 ;
Chapter 4: Table Creation

Section 4.1: Show table definition
Open the psql command line tool connected to the database where your table is. Then type the
following command:
\d tablename
To get extended information type

\d+ tablename
If you have forgotten the name of the table, just type \d into psql to obtain a list of tables and
views in the current database. Section 4.2: Create table from select
Let's say you have a table called person:
CREATE TABLE person (
person_id BIGINT NOT NULL,
last_name VARCHAR ( 255 ) NOT NULL,
first_name VARCHAR ( 255 ) ,
age INT NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY ( person_id )
);
You can create a new table of people over 30 like this:
CREATE TABLE people_over_30 AS SELECT * FROM person WHERE age > 30;
Section 4.3: Create unlogged table

You can create unlogged tables so that you can make the tables considerably faster. Unlogged
table skips writing WRITE-ahead log which means it's not crash-safe and unable to replicate.
CREATE UNLOGGED TABLE person (
person_id BIGINT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
address VARCHAR ( 255 ) ,
city VARCHAR ( 255 )
);
Section 4.4: Table creation with Primary Key

person_id BIGINT NOT NULL,
city VARCHAR ( 255 ) ,
PRIMARY KEY ( person_id )
);
Alternatively, you can place the PRIMARY KEY constraint directly in the column definition:
person_id BIGINT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
);
It is recommended that you use lower case names for the table and as well as all the columns.
If you use upper case names such as Person you would have to wrap that name in double
quotes ("Person") in each and every query because PostgreSQL enforces case folding.
Section 4.5: Create a table that references other table

In this example, User Table will have a column that references the Agency table.
CREATE TABLE agencies ( -- first create the agency table
id SERIAL PRIMARY KEY,
NAME TEXT NOT NULL
)
CREATE TABLE users (

agency_id NOT NULL INTEGER REFERENCES agencies ( id ) DEFERRABLE INITIALLY DEFERRED -- this is going
to references your agency table.
)
Chapter 5: SELECT
Section 5.1: SELECT using WHERE
In this topic we will base on this table of users :
CREATE TABLE sch_test.user_table
(
id serial NOT NULL,
username CHARACTER VARYING,
pass CHARACTER VARYING,
first_name CHARACTERvarying ( 30 ) ,
last_name CHARACTERvarying ( 30 ) ,
CONSTRAINT user_table_pkey PRIMARY KEY ( id )
)
+----+------------+-----------+----------+------+
| id | first_name | last_name | username | pass |
+----+------------+-----------+----------+------+
| 1 | hello | world | hello | word |
+----+------------+-----------+----------+------+
| 2 | root | me | root | toor |
+----+------------+-----------+----------+------+
Syntax
Select every thing:

SELECT * FROMschema_name.table_name WHERE < condition >;
Select some fields :
SELECT field1, field2 FROM schema_name.table_name WHERE <condition>;
Examples
-- SELECT every thing where id = 1
SELECT * FROMschema_name.table_name WHEREid = 1;
-- SELECT id where username = ? and pass = ?

SELECT id FROMschema_name.table_name WHEREusername = 'root' AND pass = 'toor' ;
-- SELECT first_name where id not equal 1

SELECT first_name FROMschema_name.table_name WHEREid ! = 1;
Chapter 6: Find String Length / Character
Length
To get length of "character varying", "text" fields, Use char_length() or character_length().
Section 6.1: Example to get length of a character varying

field
Example 1, Query: SELECT CHAR_LENGTH('ABCDE')
Result:
Example 2, Query: SELECT CHARACTER_LENGTH('ABCDE')
Result:
5
Chapter 7: COALESCE
Coalesce returns the first none null argument from a set of arguments. Only the first non null
argument is return, all subsequent arguments are ignored. The function will evaluate to null if all
arguments are null.
Section 7.1: Single non null argument

PGSQL> SELECT COALESCE( NULL, NULL, 'HELLO WORLD' ) ;
COALESCE
--------
'HELLO WORLD'
Section 7.2: Multiple non null arguments

PGSQL> SELECT COALESCE( NULL, NULL, 'first non null' , NULL, NULL, 'second non null' );
coalesce
--------
'first non null'
Section 7.3: All null arguments

PGSQL> SELECT COALESCE( NULL, NULL, NULL) ;
COALESCE
--------
Chapter 8: INSERT
Section 8.1: Insert data using COPY
COPY is PostgreSQL's bulk-insert mechanism. It's a convenient way to transfer data between
files and tables, but it's also far faster than INSERT when adding more than a few thousand rows
at a time.
Let's begin by creating sample data file.
cat > samplet_data.csv
1,Yogesh
2,Raunak
3,Varun
4,Kamal
5,Hari
6,Amit
And we need a two column table into which this data can be imported into.
CREATE TABLE copy_test ( id INT , NAMEvarchar ( 8) ) ;
Now the actual copy operation, this will create six records in the table.
COPY copy_test FROM '/path/to/file/sample_data.csv' DELIMITER ',';
Instead of using a file on disk, can insert data from STDIN

COPY copy_test FROM STDIN DELIMITER ',' ;
Enter DATA TO be copied followed BY a newline.
END WITH a backslash AND a period ON a line BY itself.
>> 7 ,Amol
>> 8 ,Amar
>> \.
TIME : 85254.306 ms
SELECT * FROMcopy_test ;
id | name
----+--------
1 | Yogesh
3 | Varun
5 | Hari
7 | Amol
2 | Raunak
4 | Kamal
6 | Amit
8 | Amar
Also you can copy data from a table to file as below:

COPY copy_test TO 'path/to/file/sample_data.csv' DELIMITER ',' ;
For more details on COPY you can check here
Section 8.2: Inserting multiple rows

You can insert multiple rows in the database at the same time:
INSERT INTO person ( NAME, age ) VALUES
( 'john doe' , 25 ) ,
( 'jane doe' , 20 ) ;
Section 8.3: INSERT data and RETURING values

If you are inserting data into a table with an auto increment column and if you want to get the
value of the auto increment column.
Say you have a table called my_table:

CREATE TABLE my_table
(
id serial NOT NULL, -- serial data type is auto incrementing four-byte integer
NAME CHARACTER VARYING,
contact_number INTEGER ,
CONSTRAINT my_table_pkey PRIMARY KEY ( id )
);
If you want to insert data into my_table and get the id of that row:
INSERT INTO my_table(NAME, contact_number) VALUES ( 'USER', 8542621) RETURNING id;
Above query will return the id of the row where the new record was
inserted. Section 8.4: Basic INSERT

Let's say we have a simple table called person:
person_id BIGINT ,
NAMEVARCHAR ( 255 ) .
age INT ,
);
The most basic insert involves inserting all values in the table:
INSERT INTO person VALUES ( 1 , 'john doe' , 25 , 'new york' );
If you want to insert only specific columns, you need to explicitly indicate which columns:
INSERT INTO person ( NAME, age ) VALUES ( 'john doe' , 25 ) ;
Note that if any constraints exist on the table , such as NOT NULL, you will be required to include
those columns in either case. Section 8.5: Insert from select

You can insert data in a table as the result of a select statement:
INSERT INTO person SELECT * FROMtmp_person WHEREage < 30 ;
Note that the projection of the select must match the columns required for the insert. In this
case, the tmp_person table has the same columns as person. Section 8.6: UPSERT -
INSERT ... ON CONFLICT DO UPDATE..
since version 9.5 postgres offers UPSERT functionality with INSERT statement.
Say you have a table called my_table, created in several previous examples. We insert a row,
returning PK value of inserted row:
b=# INSERT INTO my_table (name,contact_number) values ('one',333) RETURNING id;

id
----
2
(1 row)
INSERT 0 1
Now if we try to insert row with existing unique key it will raise an exception:
b=# INSERT INTO my_table VALUES (2,'one',333); ERROR: duplicate KEY
VALUE violates UNIQUE CONSTRAINT "my_table_pkey" DETAIL: KEY
(id)=(2) already EXISTS.
Upsert functionality offers ability to insert it anyway, solving the conflict:
b=# INSERT INTO my_table values (2,'one',333) ON CONFLICT (id) DO UPDATE SET name
= my_table.name||' changed to: "two" at '||now() returning *; id |
name | contact_number ----+---------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------+----------------
2 | one changed to: "two" at 2016-11-23 08:32:17.105179+00 | 333
(1 row)
INSERT 0 1
Section 8.7: SELECT data into file

You can COPY table and paste it into a file.
postgres=# select * from my_table;

c1 | c2 | c3
----+----+----
1 | 1 | 1
2 | 2 | 2
3 | 3 | 3
4 | 4 | 4
5 | 5 |
(5 rows)
postgres=# copy my_table to '/home/postgres/my_table.txt' using delimiters '|' with null as

'null_string' csv header;
COPY 5
postgres=# \! cat my_table.txt

c1|c2|c3
1|1|1
2|2|2
3|3|3
4|4|4
5|5|null_string
Chapter 9: UPDATE
Section 9.1: Updating a table based on joining another table
You can also update data in a table based on data from another table:
UPDATE person
SET state_code = cities.state_code
FROMcities
WHEREcities.city = city;
Here we are joining the person city column to the cities city column in order to get the city's state
code. This is then used to update the state_code column in the person table. Section 9.2:
Update all rows in a table
You update all rows in table by simply providing a column_name = VALUE :
UPDATE person SET planet = 'Earth' ;
Section 9.3: Update all rows meeting a condition

UPDATE person SET state = 'NY' WHEREcity = 'New York' ;
Section 9.4: Updating multiple columns in table

You can update multiple columns in a table in the same statement, separating col=val pairs with
commas:
UPDATE person
SET country = 'USA' ,
state = 'NY'
WHEREcity = 'New York' ;
Chapter 10: JSON Support

JSON - Java Script Object Notation , Postgresql support JSON Data type since 9.2 version. There
are some predefined
function and operators to access the JSON data. The -> operator returns the key of JSON column. The ->>
operator returns the value of JSON Column. Section 10.1: Using JSONb
operators
Creating a DB and a Table
DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS books_db;
CREATE DATABASE books_db WITH ENCODING= 'UTF8' TEMPLATEtemplate0;
DROP TABLE IF EXISTS books;
CREATE TABLE books (

client TEXT NOT NULL,
DATA JSONb NOT NULL
);
Populating the DB
INSERT INTO books ( client, DATA) VALUES (
'Joe' ,
'{ "title": "Siddhartha", "author": { "first_name": "Herman", "last_name": "Hesse" } }'
), (
'Jenny' ,
'{ "title": "Dharma Bums", "author": { "first_name": "Jack", "last_name": "Kerouac" } }'
), (
'Jenny' ,
'{ "title": "100 a ños de soledad", "author": { "first_name": "Gabo", "last_name": "Marqu éz" }
}'
);
Lets see everything inside the table books:

SELECT * FROMbooks;
Output:
-> operator returns values out of
JSON columns Selecting 1 column:
SELECT client,
DATA- > 'title' AS title
FROMbooks;
Output:
Selecting 2 columns:
SELECT client,
DATA- > 'title' AS title, DATA- > 'author' AS author
FROMbooks;
Output:
-> vs - >>
The -> operator returns the original JSON type (which might be an object), whereas - >>
returns text. Return NESTED objects
You can use the -> to return a nested object and thus chain the operators:
SELECT client,
DATA- > 'author' - > 'last_name' AS author
FROMbooks;
Output:
Filtering
Select rows based on a value inside your JSON:

SELECT
client,
FROMbooks
WHERE DATA- > 'title' = '"Dharma Bums"' ;
Notice WHERE uses -> so we must compare to JSON '"Dharma Bums"'
Or we could use - >> and compare to 'Dharma Bums'
Output:
Nested filtering
Find rows based on the value of a nested JSON object:

SELECT
client,
FROMbooks
WHERE DATA- > 'author' - >> 'last_name' = 'Kerouac' ;
Output:
A real world example

CREATE TABLE events (
NAMEvarchar ( 200 ) ,
visitor_id varchar ( 200 ) ,
properties json,
browser json
);
We’re going to store events in this table, like pageviews. Each event has properties, which could
be anything (e.g. current page) and also sends information about the browser (like OS, screen
resolution, etc). Both of these are completely free form and could change over time (as we think
of extra stuff to track).
INSERT INTO events ( NAME, visitor_id, properties, browser ) VALUES
(
'pageview' , '1' ,
'{ "page": "/" }' ,
'{ "name": "Chrome", "os": "Mac", "resolution": { "x": 1440, "y": 900 } }'
), (
'pageview' , '2' ,
'{ "page": "/" }' ,
'{ "name": "Firefox", "os": "Windows", "resolution": { "x": 1920, "y": 1200 } }'
), (
'pageview' , '1' ,
'{ "page": "/account" }' ,
'{ "name": "Chrome", "os": "Mac", "resolution": { "x": 1440, "y": 900 } }'
), (
'purchase' , '5' ,
'{ "amount": 10 }' ,
), (
'purchase' , '15' ,
'{ "amount": 200 }' ,
), (
'purchase' , '15' ,
'{ "amount": 500 }' ,
);
Now lets select everything:
SELECT * FROMevents;
Output:
JSON operators + PostgreSQL aggregate functions
Using the JSON operators, combined with traditional PostgreSQL aggregate functions, we can
pull out whatever we want. You have the full might of an RDBMS at your disposal.
Lets see browser usage:
SELECT browser- >> 'name' AS browser,

COUNT( browser )
FROMevents
GROUP BY browser- >> 'name' ;
Output:
Total revenue per visitor:
SELECT visitor_id, SUM( CAST( properties- >> 'amount' AS INTEGER ) ) AS total

FROMevents
WHERECAST ( properties- >> 'amount' AS INTEGER ) > 0
GROUP BY visitor_id;
Output:
Average screen resolution
SELECT AVG( CAST( browser- > 'resolution' - >> 'x' AS INTEGER ) ) AS width,
AVG( CAST( browser- > 'resolution' - >> 'y' AS INTEGER ) ) AS height
FROMevents;
Output:
More examples and documentation here and here.
Section 10.2: Querying complex JSON

documents
Taking a complex JSON document in a table:
CREATE TABLE mytable ( DATA JSONB NOT NULL) ;
CREATE INDEX mytable_idx ON mytable USING gin ( DATA jsonb_path_ops );
INSERT INTO mytable VALUES ( $$
{
"name" : "Alice" ,
"emails" : [
"[email protected]" ,
"[email protected]"
],
"events" : [
{
"type" : "birthday" ,
"date" : "1970-01-01"
},
{
"type" : "anniversary" ,
"date" : "2001-05-05"
}
],
"locations" : {
"home" : {
"city" : "London" ,
"country" : "United Kingdom"
},
"work" : {
"city" : "Edinburgh" ,
"country" : "United Kingdom"
}
}
}
$$ ) ;
Query for a top-level element:
SELECT DATA->>'name' FROM mytable WHERE DATA @> '{"name":"Alice"}';
Query for a simple item in an array:
SELECT DATA->>'name' FROM mytable WHERE DATA @> '{"emails":["[email protected]"]}';
Query for an object in an array:
SELECT DATA->>'name' FROM mytable WHERE DATA @> '{"events":[{"type":"anniversary"}]}'; Query
for a nested object:
SELECT DATA->>'name' FROM mytable WHERE DATA @> '{"locations":{"home":{"city":"London"}}}';

Performance of @> >>
compared to -> and -
It is important to understand the performance difference between using @>, -> and - >> in the
WHERE part of the query. Although these two queries appear to be broadly equivalent:
SELECT DATA FROM mytable WHERE DATA @> '{"name":"Alice"}';

SELECT DATA FROM mytable WHERE DATA->'name' = '"Alice"';
SELECT DATA FROM mytable WHERE DATA->>'name' = 'Alice'; the first statement will use the index
created above whereas the latter two will not, requiring a complete table scan.
It is still allowable to use the -> operator when obtaining resultant data, so the following queries
will also use the index:
SELECT DATA->'locations'->'work' FROM mytable WHERE DATA @> '{"name":"Alice"}';

SELECT DATA->'locations'->'work'->>'city' FROM mytable WHERE DATA @> '{"name":"Alice"}';
Section 10.3: Creating a pure JSON table

To create a pure JSON table you need to provide a single field with the type JSONB:
CREATE TABLE mytable ( DATA JSONB NOT NULL) ;
You should also create a basic index:
CREATE INDEX mytable_idx ON mytable USING gin (DATA jsonb_path_ops);
At this point you can insert data in to the table and query it efficiently.
Chapter 11: Aggregate Functions

Section 11.1: Simple statistics: min(), max(), avg()
In order to determine some simple statistics of a value in a column of a table, you can use an
aggregate function.
If your individuals table is:
Name Age
Allie 17
Amanda 14
Alana 20
You could write this statement to get the minimum, maximum and average value:
SELECT MIN( age ) , MAX( age ) , AVG( age )
FROMindividuals;
Result:
min max avg
14 20 17
Section 11.2: regr_slope(Y, X) : slope of the least-squares-fit

linear equation determined by the (X, Y) pairs
To illustrate how to use regr_slope(Y,X), I applied it to a real world problem. In Java, if you don't
clean up memory properly, the garbage can get stuck and fill up the memory. You dump
statistics every hour about memory utilization of different classes and load it into a postgres
database for analysis.
All memory leak candidates will have a trend of consuming more memory as more time passes.
If you plot this trend, you would imagine a line going up and to the left:
^
|
s | Legend:
i | * - data point
z | -- - trend
e |
( |
b | *
y | --
t | --
e | * -- *
s | --
) | *-- *
| -- *
| -- *
--------------------------------------->
time
Suppose you have a table containing heap dump histogram data (a mapping of classes to how
much memory they consume):
CREATE TABLE heap_histogram (
-- when the heap histogram was taken
histwhen TIMESTAMP WITHOUT TIME ZONE NOT NULL,
-- the object type bytes are referring to
-- ex: java.util.String
CLASS CHARACTER VARYING NOT NULL,
-- the size in bytes used by the above class
bytes INTEGER NOT NULL
);
To compute the slope for each class, we group by over the class. The HAVING clause > 0 ensures
that we get only candidates with a positive slop (a line going up and to the left). We sort by the
slope descending so that we get the classes with the largest rate of memory increase at the top.
-- epoch returns seconds
SELECT CLASS, REGR_SLOPE( bytes, EXTRACT( epoch FROMhistwhen ) ) AS slope
FROMpublic.heap_histogram
GROUP BY CLASS
HAVING REGR_SLOPE( bytes, EXTRACT( epoch FROMhistwhen ) ) > 0
ORDER BY slope DESC ;
Output:
class | slope
---------------------------+----------------------
java.util.ArrayList | 71.7993806279174
java.util.HashMap | 49.0324576155785
java.lang.String | 31.7770770326123
joe.schmoe.BusinessObject | 23.2036817108056
java.lang.ThreadLocal | 20.9013528767851
From the output we see that java.util.ArrayList's memory consumption is increasing the fastest
at 71.799 bytes per second and is potentially part of the memory leak. Section 11.3:
string_agg(expression, delimiter)
You can concatenate strings separated by delimiter using the STRING_AGG () function.
If your individuals table is:
Name Age Country

Allie 15 USA
Amanda 14 USA
Alana 20 Russia
You could write SELECT ... GROUP BY statement to get names from each country:
SELECT STRING_AGG( NAME, ', ' ) AS NAMES, country
FROMindividuals
GROUP BY country;
Note that you need to use a GROUP BY clause because STRING_AGG () is an aggregate function.
Result:
names country
Allie, Amanda USA
Alana Russia
More PostgreSQL aggregate function described here

Chapter 12: Common Table Expressions
(WITH)
Section 12.1: Common Table Expressions in SELECT Queries
Common table expressions support extracting portions of larger queries. For example:
WITH sales AS (
SELECT
orders.ordered_at,
orders.user_id,
SUM( orders.amount ) AS total
FROMorders
GROUP BY orders.ordered_at, orders.user_id
)
SELECT
sales.ordered_at,
sales.total,
users. NAME
FROMsales
JOIN users USING ( user_id )
Section 12.2: Traversing tree using WITH RECURSIVE
Chapter 13: Window Functions

Section 13.1: generic example
Preparing data:
CREATE TABLE wf_example(i INT, t TEXT,ts timestamptz,b BOOLEAN);

INSERT INTO wf_example SELECT 1,'a','1970.01.01',TRUE;
INSERT INTO wf_example SELECT 1,'a','1970.01.01',FALSE;
INSERT INTO wf_example SELECT 1,'b','1970.01.01',FALSE;
INSERT INTO wf_example SELECT 2,'c','1970.03.01',TRUE;
Running:
SELECT *
, DENSE_RANK( ) OVER ( ORDER BY i ) dist_by_i
, LAG( t ) OVER ( ) prev_t
, NTH_VALUE( i, 6 ) OVER ( ) nth
, COUNT( TRUE) OVER ( PARTITION BY i ) num_by_i
, COUNT( TRUE) OVER ( ) num_all
, NTILE ( 3 ) over ( ) ntile
FROMwf_example
;
Result:
i | t | ts | b | dist_by_i | prev_t | nth | num_by_i |

num_all | ntile ---+---+------------------------+---+-----------+--------+-----+--
--------+---------+-------
1 | a | 1970-01-01 00:00:00+01 | f | 1 | | 3 | 3 | 8
| 1
1 | a | 1970-01-01 00:00:00+01 | t | 1 | a | 3 | 3 | 8
| 1
1 | b | 1970-01-01 00:00:00+01 | f | 1 | a | 3 | 3 | 8
| 1
2 | c | 1970-03-01 00:00:00+01 | t | 2 | b | 3 | 2 | 8
| 2
2 | b | 1970-01-01 00:00:00+01 | f | 2 | c | 3 | 2 | 8
| 2
3 | b | 1970-01-01 00:00:00+01 | f | 3 | b | 3 | 1 | 8
| 2
4 | b | 1970-02-01 00:00:00+01 | f | 4 | b | 3 | 1 | 8
| 3 5 | b | 1970-03-01 00:00:00+01 | f | 5 | b | 3 | 1
| 8 | 3
(8 rows)
Explanation:
dist_by_i: DENSE_RANK() OVER ( ORDER BY i ) is like a row_number per distinct values. Can be
used for the number COUNT( DISTINCT i of distinct values of i () wold not work). Just use the
maximum value.
prev_t: LAG(t) OVER () is a previous value of t over the whole window. mind that it is null for the
first row.
nth: NTH_VALUE( i, 6) OVER () is the value of sixth rows column i over the
whole COUNT( TRUE) OVER ( PARTITION BY i window num_by_i: ) is an
amount COUNT( TRUE) OVER of rows for each value of i num_all: () is an
amount of rows over a whole window
ntile: NTILE (3) over () splits the whole window to 3 (as much as possible) equal in quantity parts
Section 13.2: column values vs dense_rank vs rank vs
row_number
here you can find the functions.
With the table wf_example created in previous example, run:

SELECT i
, DENSE_RANK( ) OVER ( ORDER BY i )
, ROW_NUMBER ( ) OVER ( )
, RANK( ) OVER ( ORDER BY i )
FROMwf_example
The result is:
i | dense_rank | row_number | rank

---+------------+------------+------
1 | 1 | 1 | 1
1 | 1 | 2 | 1
1 | 1 | 3 | 1
2 | 2 | 4 | 4
2 | 2 | 5 | 4
3 | 3 | 6 | 6
4 | 4 | 7 | 7
5 | 5 | 8 | 8
dense_rank orders VALUES of i by appearance in window. i=1 appears, so first row has
dense_rank, next and third i value does not change, so it is dense_rank shows 1 - FIRST
value not changed. fourth row i=2, it is second value of i met, so dense_rank shows 2, andso
for the next row. Then it meets value i=3 at 6th row, so it show 3. Same for the rest two
values of i. So the last value of dense_rank is the number of distinct values of i.
row_number orders ROWS as they are listed.
rank Not to confuse with dense_rank this function orders ROW NUMBER of i values. So it
starts same with three ones, but has next value 4, which means i=2 (new value) was met at
row 4. Same i=3 was met at row 6.
Etc..
Chapter 14: Recursive queries

There are no real recursive
querys! Section 14.1:

Sum of Integers
WITH RECURSIVE t ( n ) AS (
VALUES ( 1 )
UNION ALL
SELECT n+ 1 FROMt WHEREn < 100
)
SELECT SUM( n ) FROMt;
Link to Documentation
Chapter 15: Programming with PL/pgSQL
Section 15.1: Basic PL/pgSQL Function
A simple PL/pgSQL function:
CREATE FUNCTION active_subscribers ( ) RETURNS BIGINT AS $$
DECLARE
-- variable for the following BEGIN ... END block
subscribers INTEGER ;
BEGIN
-- SELECT must always be used with INTO
SELECT COUNT( user_id ) INTO subscribers FROMusers WHEREsubscribed;
-- function result
RETURNsubscribers;
EXCEPTION
-- return NULL if table "users" does not exist
WHENundefined_table
THEN RETURN NULL;
END;
$$ LANGUAGEplpgsql;
This could have been achieved with just the SQL statement but demonstrates the basic structure
of a function.
To execute the function do:

SELECT active_subscribers ();
Section 15.2: custom exceptions

creating custom exception 'P2222':
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION s164 ( ) RETURNSvoid AS
$$
BEGIN
raise exception USING message = 'S 164' , detail = 'D 164' , hint = 'H 164' , errcode = 'P2222' ;
END;
$$ LANGUAGEplpgsql
;
creating custom exception not assigning errm:

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION s165 ( ) RETURNSvoid AS
$$
BEGIN
raise exception '%' , 'nothing specified' ;
END;
$$ LANGUAGEplpgsql
;
calling:
t = # DO
$$
DECLARE
_t TEXT;
BEGIN
perform s165 ();
exception WHENSQLSTATE 'P0001' THEN raise info '%' , 'state P0001 caught: ' || SQLERRM;
perform s164 ();
END;
$$
;
INFO: state P0001 caught: NOTHING specified
ERROR: S 164
DETAIL: D 164
HINT: H 164
CONTEXT: SQL STATEMENT "SELECT s164()"
PL/pgSQL FUNCTION inline_code_block line 7 AT PERFORM
here custom P0001 processed, and P2222, not, aborting the execution.
Also it makes huge sense to keep a table of exceptions, like here:

http://stackoverflow.com/a/2700312/5315974
Section 15.3: PL/pgSQL Syntax

CREATE [ OR REPLACE] FUNCTION functionName ( someParameter 'parameterType' )
RETURNS 'DATATYPE'
AS $_block_name_$
DECLARE
-- declare something
BEGIN
-- do something
-- return something
END;
$_block_name_$
LANGUAGEplpgsql;
Section 15.4: RETURNS Block

Options for returning in a PL/pgSQL function:
Table(column_name column_type, ...)

Datatype List of all datatypes
SETOF 'Datatype' OR 'table_column'
Chapter 16:
Inheritance
Section 16.1: Creating children tables
CREATE TABLE users (username TEXT, email TEXT);
CREATE TABLE simple_users () INHERITS (users);
CREATE TABLE users_with_password (PASSWORD TEXT) INHERITS (users);
Our three tables look like this:
users
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Chapter 17: Export PostgreSQL database
table header and data to CSV file
From Adminer management tool it's has export to csv file option for mysql database But not
available for postgresql database. Here I will show the command to export CSV for postgresql
database.
Section 17.1: copy from query

COPY ( SELECT oid,relname FROMpg_class LIMIT 5 ) TO STDOUT;
Section 17.2: Export PostgreSQL table to csv with header for

some column(s)
COPY products(is_public, title, discount) TO 'D:\csv_backup\products_db.csv' DELIMITER ',' CSV
HEADER;
COPY categories(NAME) TO 'D:\csv_backup\categories_db.csv' DELIMITER ',' CSV HEADER;
Section 17.3: Full table backup to csv with header

COPY products TO 'D:\csv_backup\products_db.csv' DELIMITER ',' CSV HEADER;
COPY categories TO 'D:\csv_backup\categories_db.csv' DELIMITER ',' CSV HEADER;

Chapter 18: Triggers and Trigger Functions
The trigger will be associated with the specified table or view and will execute the specified
function function_name when certain events occur. Section 18.1: Type of

triggers
Trigger can be specified to fire:
BEFORE the operation is attempted on a row - insert, update or delete;

AFTER the operation has completed - insert,
INSTEAD OF update or delete; the operation in the case of
inserts, updates or deletes on a view.
Trigger that is marked:

FOR EACH ROWis called once for every row that the operation modifies;
FOR EACH STATEMENT is called onde for any given operation.
Preparing to execute examples

CREATE TABLE company (
id SERIAL PRIMARY KEY NOT NULL,
NAME TEXT NOT NULL,
created_at TIMESTAMP,
modified_at TIMESTAMP DEFAULT NOW( )
)
CREATE TABLE log (

id SERIAL PRIMARY KEY NOT NULL,
table_name TEXT NOT NULL,
table_id TEXT NOT NULL,
description TEXT NOT NULL,
created_at TIMESTAMP DEFAULT NOW( )
)
Single insert trigger

Step 1: create your function
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION add_created_at_function ()
RETURNS TRIGGER AS $BODY$
BEGIN
NEW.created_at : = NOW( ) ;
RETURN NEW;
END $BODY$
LANGUAGEplpgsql;
Step 2: create your trigger

CREATE TRIGGER add_created_at_trigger
BEFORE INSERT
ON company
FOR EACH ROW
EXECUTE PROCEDUREadd_created_at_function ();
Step 3: test it
INSERT INTO company ( NAME) VALUES ( 'My company' );
SELECT * FROM company;

Trigger for multiple purpose Step 1: create your function
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION add_log_function ()
RETURNS TRIGGER AS $BODY$
DECLARE
vDescription TEXT;
vId INT ;
vReturn RECORD;
BEGIN
vDescription : = TG_TABLE_NAME || ' ' ;
IF ( TG_OP = 'INSERT' ) THEN
vId : = NEW.id;
vDescription : = vDescription || 'added. Id: ' || vId;
vReturn : = NEW;
ELSIF ( TG_OP = 'UPDATE' ) THEN
vId : = NEW.id;
vDescription : = vDescription || 'updated. Id: ' || vId;
vReturn : = NEW;
ELSIF ( TG_OP = 'DELETE' ) THEN
vId : = OLD.id;
vDescription : = vDescription || 'deleted. Id: ' || vId;
vReturn : = OLD;
END IF ;
RAISE NOTICE 'TRIGER called on % - Log: %' , TG_TABLE_NAME, vDescription;
INSERT INTO log

( table_name, table_id, description, created_at )
VALUES
( TG_TABLE_NAME, vId, vDescription, NOW( ) ) ;
RETURN vReturn;
END $BODY$
LANGUAGEplpgsql;
Step 2: create your trigger

CREATE TRIGGER add_log_trigger
AFTER INSERT OR UPDATE OR DELETE
ON company
FOR EACH ROW
EXECUTE PROCEDUREadd_log_function ();
Step 3: test it
INSERT INTO company ( NAME) VALUES ( 'Company 1' ) ;
UPDATE company SET NAME= 'Company new 2' WHERE NAME= 'Company 2' ;
DELETE FROMcompany WHERE NAME= 'Company 1' ;
SELECT * FROMlog;
Section 18.2: Basic PL/pgSQL Trigger Function
This is a simple trigger function.
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION my_simple_trigger_function ()
RETURNS TRIGGER AS
$BODY$
BEGIN
-- TG_TABLE_NAME :name of the table that caused the trigger invocation
IF ( TG_TABLE_NAME = 'users' ) THEN
-- TG_OP : operation the trigger was fired

IF ( TG_OP = 'INSERT' ) THEN
-- NEW.id is holding the new database row value (in here id is the id column in users table )
-- NEW will return null for DELETE operations
INSERT INTO log_table ( date_and_time, description ) VALUES ( NOW( ) , 'New user inserted. User ID:
' || NEW.id ) ;
RETURN NEW;
ELSIF ( TG_OP = 'DELETE' ) THEN

-- OLD.id is holding the old database row value (in here id is the id column in users table )
-- OLD will return null for INSERT operations
INSERT INTO log_table ( date_and_time, description ) VALUES ( NOW( ) , 'User deleted.. User ID: '
OLD.id ) ;
RETURN OLD;
END IF ;
RETURN NULL;
END IF ;
END;
$BODY$
LANGUAGEplpgsql VOLATILE
COST 100 ;
Adding this trigger function to the users table

CREATE TRIGGER my_trigger
AFTER INSERT OR DELETE
ON users
FOR EACH ROW
EXECUTE PROCEDUREmy_simple_trigger_function ();
Chapter 19: Event Triggers

Event Triggers will be fired whenever event associated with them occurs in
database. Section 19.1: Logging DDL Command Start

Events
Event Type-
DDL_COMMAND_START
DDL_COMM
AND_END
SQL_DROP
This is example for creating an Event Trigger and logging DDL_COMMAND_START events.
CREATE TABLE TAB_EVENT_LOGS (
DATE_TIME TIMESTAMP,
EVENT_NAME TEXT,
REMARKS TEXT
);
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION FN_LOG_EVENT ( )

RETURNSEVENT_TRIGGER
LANGUAGESQL
AS
$main$
INSERT INTO TAB_EVENT_LOGS ( DATE_TIME,EVENT_NAME,REMARKS )
VALUES ( NOW( ) ,TG_TAG, 'Event Logging' );
$main$;
CREATE EVENT TRIGGER TRG_LOG_EVENT ON DDL_COMMAND_START

EXECUTE PROCEDUREFN_LOG_EVENT ( ) ;
Chapter 20: Role Management

Section 20.1: Create a user with a password
Generally you should avoid using the default database role (often postgres) in your application.
You should instead create a user with lower levels of privileges. Here we make one called
niceusername and give it a password very-
strong-PASSWORD
CREATE ROLE niceusername WITH PASSWORD 'very-strong-password' LOGIN;
The problem with that is that queries typed into the psql console get saved in a history file
.psql_history in the user's home directory and may as well be logged to the PostgreSQL database
server log, thus exposing the password.
To avoid this, use the \ PASSWORD command to set the user password. If the user issuing the
command is a superuser, the current password will not be asked. (Must be superuser to alter
passwords of superusers)
CREATE ROLE niceusername WITH LOGIN ;
\ PASSWORDniceusername
Section 20.2: Grant and Revoke Privileges

Suppose, that we have three users :
1. The Administrator of the database > admin

2. The application with a full access for her data > read_write
3. The read only access > read_only
-- ACCESS DB
REVOKE CONNECT ON DATABASE nova FROMPUBLIC;
GRANT CONNECT ON DATABASE nova TO USER;
With the above queries, untrusted users can no longer connect to the database.
-- ACCESS SCHEMA
REVOKE ALL ON SCHEMApublic FROMPUBLIC;
GRANT USAGE ON SCHEMApublic TO USER;
The next set of queries revoke all privileges from unauthenticated users and provide limited set
of privileges for the read_write user.
--ACCESS TABLES
REVOKE ALL ON ALL TABLES IN SCHEMA public FROM PUBLIC ;
GRANT SELECT ON ALL TABLES IN SCHEMA public TO read_only ;
GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ALL TABLES IN SCHEMA public TO read_write ;
GRANT ALL ON ALL TABLES IN SCHEMA public TO ADMIN ;
--ACCESS SEQUENCES
REVOKE ALL ON ALL SEQUENCES IN SCHEMA public FROM PUBLIC;
GRANT SELECT ON ALL SEQUENCES IN SCHEMA public TO read_only; -- allows the use of CURRVAL
GRANT UPDATE ON ALL SEQUENCES IN SCHEMA public TO read_write; -- allows the use of NEXTVAL and
SETVAL
GRANT USAGE ON ALL SEQUENCES IN SCHEMA public TO read_write; -- allows the use of CURRVAL and
NEXTVAL
GRANT ALL ON ALL SEQUENCES IN SCHEMA public TO ADMIN;
Section 20.3: Create Role and matching database

To support a given application, you often create a new role and database to match.
The shell commands to run would be these:

$ CREATEUSER -P blogger
Enter PASSWORD FOR the NEW ROLE: ********
Enter it again: ********
$ CREATEDB -O blogger blogger
This assumes that pg_hba.conf has been properly configured, which probably looks like this:
# TYPE DATABASE USER ADDRESS METHOD host

sameuser ALL localhost md5 LOCAL sameuser ALL
md5
Section 20.4: Alter default search_path of user

With the below commands, user's default search_path can be set.
1. Check search path before set default schema.

postgres = # \c postgres user1
You are now connected TO DATABASE "postgres" AS USER "user1" .
postgres => SHOWsearch_path;
search_path
----------------
"$user" ,public
( 1 ROW)
2. Set search_path with ALTER USER command to append a new schema my_schema
postgres => \c postgres postgres

You are now connected TO DATABASE "postgres" AS USER "postgres" .
postgres = # ALTER USER user1 SET search_path = 'my_schema, "$user", public' ;
ALTER ROLE
3. Check result after execution.

postgres = # \c postgres user1
PASSWORD FOR USER user1:
You are now connected TO DATABASE "postgres" AS USER "user1" .
postgres => SHOWsearch_path;
search_path
-------------
my_schema, "$user" , public
( 1 ROW)
Alternative:
postgres = # SET ROLE user1;
postgres = # SHOWsearch_path;
search_path
-------------
my_schema, "$user" , public
( 1 ROW)
Section 20.5: Create Read Only User

CREATE USER readonly WITH ENCRYPTED PASSWORD 'yourpassword' ;
GRANTCONNECT ON DATABASE < database_name > TO readonly;
GRANTUSAGE ON SCHEMApublic TO readonly;

GRANT SELECT ON ALL SEQUENCES IN SCHEMApublic TO readonly;
GRANT SELECT ON ALL TABLES IN SCHEMApublic TO readonly;
Section 20.6: Grant access privileges on objects created in

the future
Suppose, that we have three users :
1. The Administrator of the database > ADMIN

2. The application with a full access for her data > read_write
3. The read only access > read_only
With below queries, you can set access privileges on objects created in the future in specified
schema.
ALTER DEFAULT PRIVILEGES IN SCHEMA myschema GRANT SELECT ON TABLES TO read_only;
ALTER DEFAULT PRIVILEGES IN SCHEMA myschema GRANT SELECT,INSERT,DELETE,UPDATE ON TABLES TO
read_write; ALTER DEFAULT PRIVILEGES IN SCHEMA myschema GRANT ALL ON TABLES TO
ADMIN; Or, you can set access privileges on objects created in the future by specified user.
ALTER DEFAULT PRIVILEGES FOR ROLE ADMIN GRANT SELECT ON TABLES TO read_only;
Chapter 21: Postgres cryptographic

functions
In Postgres, cryptographic functions can be unlocked by using pgcrypto module. CREATE
EXTENSION pgcrypto;
Section 21.1: digest

DIGEST() functions generate a binary hash of the given data. This can be used to create a
random hash.
Usage: digest(DATA TEXT, TYPE TEXT) RETURNS BYTEA
digest(DATA BYTEA, TYPE TEXT) RETURNS BYTEA

Or:
Examples:
SELECT DIGEST('1', 'sha1')
SELECT DIGEST(CONCAT(CAST(CURRENT_TIMESTAMP AS TEXT), RANDOM()::TEXT), 'sha1')

Chapter 22: Comments in PostgreSQL
COMMMENT main purpose is to define or change a comment on database object.
Only a single comment(string) can be given on any database object. COMMENT will help us to
know what for the particular database object has been defined whats its actual purpose is.
The rule for COMMENT ON ROLE is that you must be superuser to comment on a superuser role,
or have the
CREATEROLE privilege to comment on non-superuser roles. Of course, a superuser can comment
on anything Section 22.1: COMMENT on Table

COMMENT ON TABLE table_name IS 'this is student details table';
Section 22.2: Remove Comment

COMMENT ON TABLE student IS NULL;
Comment will be removed with above statement execution.

Chapter 23: Backup and Restore
Section 23.1: Backing up one database
pg_dump -Fc -f DATABASE.pgsql DATABASE
The -Fc selects the "custom backup format" which gives you more power than raw SQL; see
pg_restore for more details. If you want a vanilla SQL file, you can do this instead:
pg_dump -f DATABASE.sql DATABASE
or even
pg_dump DATABASE > DATABASE.sql
Section 23.2: Restoring backups

psql < backup.sql
A safer alternative uses -1 to wrap the restore in a transaction. The -f specifies the filename
rather than using shell redirection.
psql -1f backup.sql
Custom format files must be restored using pg_restore with the -d option to specify the database:
pg_restore -d DATABASE DATABASE.pgsql
The custom format can also be converted back to SQL:

pg_restore backup.pgsql > backup.sql
Usage of the custom format is recommended because you can choose which things to restore
and optionally enable parallel processing.
You may need to do a pg_dump followed by a pg_restore if you upgrade from one postgresql
release to a newer one. Section 23.3: Backing up the whole cluster

$ pg_dumpall -f backup.sql
This works behind the scenes by making multiple connections to the server once for each
database and executing pg_dump on it.
Sometimes, you might be tempted to set this up as a cron job, so you want to see the date the
backup was taken as part of the filename:
$ postgres-backup-$ ( DATE +%Y-%m-%d ) .sql
However, please note that this could produce large files on a daily basis. Postgresql has a much
better mechanism for regular backups - WAL archives
The output from pg_dumpall is sufficient to restore to an identically-configured Postgres
instance, but the configuration files in $PGDATA (pg_hba.conf and postgresql.conf) are not part of the
backup, so you'll have to back them up separately.
postgres = # SELECT pg_start_backup ( 'my-backup' );
postgres = # SELECT pg_stop_backup ();
To take a filesystem backup, you must use these functions to help ensure that Postgres is in a
consistent state while the backup is prepared. Section 23.4: Using psql to
export data
Data can be exported using copy command or by taking use of command line options of psql
command.
To Export csv data from table user to csv file:
psql -p \<port> -U \<username> -d \<DATABASE> -A -F<DELIMITER> -c\<sql TO EXECUTE> \> \<output filename
WITH path> psql -p 5432 -U postgres -d test_database -A -F, -c "select * from user" >
/home/USER/user_data.CSV
Here combination of -A and -F does the trick.
-F is to specify delimiter
- A OR -- no-align
Switches to unaligned output mode. (The default output mode is otherwise
aligned.) Section 23.5: Using Copy to import

To Copy Data from a CSV file to a table
COPY < tablename > FROM '<filename with path>' ;
To insert into table USER from a file named user_data.CSV placed inside /home/USER
/:
COPY USER FROM '/home/user/user_data.csv';
To Copy data from pipe separated file to table

COPY USER FROM '/home/user/user_data' WITH DELIMITER '|';
Note: In absence of the option WITH DELIMITER , the default delimiter is comma ,
To ignore header line while
importing file Use the
Header option:
COPY USER FROM '/home/user/user_data' WITH DELIMITER '|' HEADER;

Note: If data is quoted, by default data quoting characters are double quote. If the data is
quoted using any other character use the QUOTE option; however, this option is allowed only
when using CSV format.
Section 23.6: Using Copy to export

To Copy table to standard o/p
COPY <tablename> TO STDOUT (DELIMITER '|');
To export table user to Standard output:
COPY USER TO STDOUT (DELIMITER '|'); To Copy table to file

COPY USER FROM '/home/user/user_data' WITH DELIMITER '|'; To Copy the output of
SQL statement to file
TO '/home/user/user_data';
COPY (sql STATEMENT) TO '<filename with path>'; COPY (SELECT * FROM USER WHERE user_name LIKE 'A%')
To Copy into a compressed file
COPY USER TO PROGRAM 'gzip > /home/user/user_data.gz';
Here program gzip is executed to compress user table data.

Chapter 24: Backup script for a
production DB
parameter details
save_db The main backup directory

dbProd The secondary backup directory
DATE The date of the backup in the specified format dbprod
The name of the database to be saved
/opt/postgres/9.0/bin/pg_dump The path to the pg_dump binary
Specifies the host name of the machine on which the server is running, Example :
-h localhost
Specifies the TCP port or local Unix domain socket file extension on which the
-p
server is listening for connections, Example 5432
-U User name to connect as.
Section 24.1: saveProdDb.sh

In general, we tend to back up the DB with the pgAdmin client. The following is a sh script used
to save the database (under linux) in two formats:
SQL file: for a possible resume of data on any version of PostgreSQL.
Dump file: for a higher version than the current version.
#!/bin/sh
cd / save_db
#rm -R /save_db/*
DATE= $ ( date + %d- %m- %Y- %Hh%M)
echo - e "Sauvegarde de la base du ${DATE} "
mkdir prodDir ${DATE}
cd prodDir ${DATE}
#dump file
/ opt / postgres / 9.0 / bin / pg_dump - i - h localhost - p 5432 - U postgres -Fc -b -w -v -f
"dbprod ${DATE} .backup" dbprod
#SQL file
/ opt / postgres / 9.0 / bin / pg_dump - i - h localhost - p 5432 - U postgres -- format plain -- verbose -f
"dbprod ${DATE} .sql" dbprod
Chapter 25: Accessing Data

Programmatically
Section 25.1: Accessing PostgreSQL with the C-API
The C-API is the most powerful way to access PostgreSQL and it is surprisingly comfortable.
Compilation and linking
During compilation, you have to add the PostgreSQL include directory, which can be pg_config --
found with includedir, to the include path.
You must link with the PostgreSQL client shared library ( libpq.so on UNIX, libpq.dll on Windows).
This library is in the PostgreSQL library directory, which can pg_config --libdir be found with .
Note: For historical reason, the library is called libpq.soand not libpg.so, which is a popular trap for
beginners.
Given that the below code sample is in file coltype.c, compilation and linking would be done with
gcc -Wall -I "$(pg_config --includedir)" -L "$(pg_config --libdir)" -o coltype coltype.c -lpq
with the GNU C compiler (consider adding -Wl,-rpath,"$(pg_config --libdir)" to add the
library search path) or
with
cl /MT /W4 /I < include directory > coltype.c < path TO libpq.lib >
on Windows with Microsoft Visual C.
Sample program
/* necessary for all PostgreSQL client programs, should be first */
#include <libpq-fe.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#ifdef TRACE
#define TRACEFILE "trace.out"
#endif
int main ( int argc, char ** argv ) {

#ifdef TRACE
FILE * trc ;
#endif
PGconn * conn ;
PGresult * res ;
int rowcount, colcount, i, j, firstcol ;
/* parameter type should be guessed by PostgreSQL */
const Oid paramTypes [ 1] = { 0 } ;
/* parameter value */
const char * const paramValues [ 1 ] = { "pg_database" };
/*
* Using an empty connectstring will use default values for everything.
* If set, the environment variables PGHOST, PGDATABASE, PGPORT and
* PGUSER will be used.
*/
conn = PQconnectdb ( "" ) ;
/*
* This can only happen if there is not enough memory * to allocate the
PGconn structure. */ if (conn == NULL)
{ fprintf(stderr, "Out of memory connecting to PostgreSQL.\n"); return 1; }
/* check if the connection attempt worked */ if

(PQstatus(conn) != CONNECTION_OK)
{ fprintf(stderr, "%s\n", PQerrorMessage(conn));
/*
* Even if the connection failed, the PGconn structure has been * allocated
and must be freed.
*/
PQfinish(conn); return
1; }
#ifdef TRACE if (NULL == (trc = fopen(TRACEFILE, "w")))

{
fprintf(stderr, "Error opening trace file \"%s\"!\n", TRACEFILE); PQfinish(conn); return
1; }
/* tracing for client-server communication */

PQtrace(conn, trc);
#endif
/* this program expects the database to return data in UTF-8 */

PQsetClientEncoding(conn, "UTF8");
/* perform a query with parameters */ res =

PQexecParams( conn, "SELECT
column_name, data_type "
"FROM information_schema.columns "
"WHERE table_name = $1", 1, /* one
parameter */ paramTypes, paramValues,
NULL, /* parameter lengths are not required for strings */
NULL, /* all parameters are in text format */
0 /* result shall be in text format */ );
/* out of memory or sever communication broken */ if (NULL == res)

{
fprintf(stderr, "%s\n", PQerrorMessage(conn));
PQfinish(conn);
#ifdef TRACE
fclose(trc);
#endif return 1;
}
Section 25.2: Accessing PostgreSQL from python using
psycopg2
You can find description of the driver here.
The quick example is:

import psycopg2
db_host = 'postgres.server.com'
db_port = '5432'
db_un = 'user'
db_pw = 'password'
db_name = 'testdb'
conn = psycopg2. connect ( "dbname={} host={} user={} password={}" . format (

db_name , db_host , db_un , db_pw ) ,
cursor_factory = RealDictCursor )
cur = conn. cursor ( )
sql = 'select * from testtable where id > %s and id < %s'
args = ( 1 , 4 )
cur. execute ( sql , args )
print ( cur. fetchall ())
Will result:
[ { 'id' : 2, 'fruit' : 'apple' }, { 'id' : 3, 'fruit' : 'orange' }]
Section 25.3: Accessing PostgreSQL from .NET using the

Npgsql provider
One of the more popular .NET providers for Postgresql is Npgsql, which is ADO.NET compatible
and is used nearly identically as other .NET database providers.
A typical query is performed by creating a command, binding parameters, and then executing
the command. In C#:
var connString = "Host=myserv;Username=myuser;Password=mypass;Database=mydb" ;
using ( var conn = new NpgsqlConnection ( connString ) )
{
var querystring = "INSERT INTO data (some_field) VALUES (@content)" ;
conn . Open ( ) ;
// Create a new command with CommandText and Connection constructor
using ( var cmd = new NpgsqlCommand ( querystring, conn ))
{
// Add a parameter and set its type with the NpgsqlDbType enum
var contentString = "Hello World!" ;
cmd . Parameters . Add( "@content" , NpgsqlDbType . Text ) . Value = contentString ;
// Execute a query that returns no results

cmd . ExecuteNonQuery ( ) ;
/* It is possible to reuse a command object and open connection instead of creating new ones
*/
// Create a new query and set its parameters
int keyId = 101 ;

cmd . CommandText = "SELECT primary_key, some_field FROM data WHERE primary_key = @keyId" ;
cmd . Parameters . Clear ( ) ;
cmd . Parameters . Add( "@keyId" , NpgsqlDbType . Integer ) . Value = keyId ;
// Execute the command and read through the rows one by one
using ( NpgsqlDataReader reader = cmd . ExecuteReader ( ) )
{
while ( reader . Read ( ) ) // Returns false for 0 rows, or after reading the last row of
the results
{
// read an integer value
int primaryKey = reader . GetInt32 ( 0 ) ;
// or
primaryKey = Convert . ToInt32 ( reader [ "primary_key" ] );
// read a text value

string someFieldText = reader [ "some_field" ] . ToString ();
}
}
}
} // the C# 'using' directive calls conn.Close() and conn.Dispose() for us
Section 25.4: Accessing PostgreSQL from PHP using Pomm2

On the shoulders of the low level drivers, there is pomm. It proposes a modular approach, data
converters, listen/notify support, database inspector and much more.
Assuming, Pomm has been installed using composer, here is a complete example:
< ?php
use PommProject\Foundation\Pomm ;
$loader = require __DIR__ . '/vendor/autoload.php' ;
$pomm = new Pomm( [ 'my_db' => [ 'dsn' => 'pgsql://user:pass@host:5432/db_name' ] ] );
// TABLE comment (
// comment_id uuid PK, created_at timestamptz NN,
// is_moderated bool NN default false,
// content text NN CHECK (content !~ '^\s+$'), author_email text NN)
$sql = <<< SQL
SELECT
comment_id,
created_at,
is_moderated,
content,
author_email
FROM comment
INNER JOIN author USING (author_email)
WHERE
age(now(), created_at) < $*::interval
ORDER BY created_at ASC
SQL;
// the argument will be converted as it is cast in the query above

$comments = $pomm[ 'my_db' ]
-> getQueryManager ( )
-> query ( $sql , [ DateInterval :: createFromDateString ( '1 day' )] );
if ( $comments -> isEmpty ( ) ) {

printf ( "There are no new comments since yesterday." );
} else {
foreach ( $comments as $comment) {
printf (
" %s has posted at %s. %s\n " ,
$comment[ 'author_email' ],
$comment[ 'created_at' ] -> format ( "Y-m-d H:i:s" ),
$comment[ 'is_moderated' ] ? '[OK]' : '' ) ;
}
}
Pomm’s query manager module escapes query arguments to prevent SQL injection. When the
arguments are cast, it also converts them from a PHP representation to valid Postgres values.
The result is an iterator, it uses a cursor internally. Every row is converted on the fly, booleans to
booleans, timestamps to \DateTime etc.
Chapter 26: Connect to PostgreSQL from
Java
The API to use a relational database from Java is JDBC.
This API is implemented by a JDBC driver.
To use it, put the JAR-file with the driver on the JAVA class path.
This documentation shows samples how to use the JDBC driver to connect to a
database. Section 26.1: Connecting with

java.sql.DriverManager
This is the simplest way to connect.
First, the driver has to be registered with java.sql.DriverManager so that it knows which class to use.
This is done by loading the driver class, typically with java.lang.CLASS.forname( ;driver class
name>).
/**
* Connect to a PostgreSQL database.
* @param url the JDBC URL to connect to; must start with "jdbc:postgresql:"
* @param user the username for the connection
* @param password the password for the connection
* @return a connection object for the established connection
* @throws ClassNotFoundException if the driver class cannot be found on the Java class path
* @throws java.sql.SQLException if the connection to the database fails
*/
private static java. sql . Connection connect ( String url, String user, String password )
throws ClassNotFoundException , java. sql . SQLException
{
/*
* Register the PostgreSQL JDBC driver.
* This may throw a ClassNotFoundException.
*/
Class . forName ( "org.postgresql.Driver" );
/*
* Tell the driver manager to connect to the database specified with the URL.
* This may throw an SQLException.
*/
return java. sql . DriverManager . getConnection ( url, user, password );
}
Not that user and password can also be included in the JDBC URL, in which case you don't have
to specify them in the getConnection method call.
Section 26.2: Connecting with java.sql.DriverManager and
Properties
Instead of specifying connection parameters like user and password (see a complete list here) in
the URL or a separate parameters, you can pack them into a java.util.Properties object:
/**
* Connect to a PostgreSQL database.
* @param url the JDBC URL to connect to. Must start with "jdbc:postgresql:"
* @return a connection object for the established connection
* @throws ClassNotFoundException if the driver class cannot be found on the Java class path
* @throws java.sql.SQLException if the connection to the database fails
*/
private static java. sql . Connection connect ( String url, String user, String password )
throws ClassNotFoundException , java. sql . SQLException
{
/*
* Register the PostgreSQL JDBC driver.
* This may throw a ClassNotFoundException.
*/
Class . forName ( "org.postgresql.Driver" );
java. util . Properties props = new java. util . Properties ( ) ;
props. setProperty ( "user" , user ) ;
props. setProperty ( "password" , password ) ;
/* don't use server prepared statements */
props. setProperty ( "prepareThreshold" , "0" ) ;
/*
* Tell the driver manager to connect to the database specified with the URL.
* This may throw an SQLException.
*/
return java. sql . DriverManager . getConnection ( url, props );
}
Section 26.3: Connecting with javax.sql.DataSource using a

connection pool
It is common to use javax.sql.DataSource with JNDI in application server containers, where you
register a data source under a name and look it up whenever you need a connection.
This is code that demonstrates how data sources work:

/**
* Create a data source with connection pool for PostgreSQL connections
* @param url the JDBC URL to connect to. Must start with "jdbc:postgresql:"
* @return a data source with the correct properties set
*/
private static javax. sql . DataSource createDataSource ( String url, String user, String password )
{
/* use a data source with connection pooling */
org. postgresql . ds . PGPoolingDataSource ds = new org. postgresql . ds . PGPoolingDataSource ();
ds. setUrl ( url ) ;
ds. setUser ( user ) ;
ds. setPassword ( password ) ;
/* the connection pool will have 10 to 20 connections */
ds. setInitialConnections ( 10 ) ;
ds. setMaxConnections ( 20 ) ;
/* use SSL connections without checking server certificate */
ds. setSslMode ( "require" );
ds. setSslfactory ( "org.postgresql.ssl.NonValidatingFactory" );
return ds ;
}
Once you have created a data source by calling this function, you would use it like this:
/* get a connection from the connection pool */
java.sql. CONNECTIONconn = ds.getConnection ();
/* do some work */
/* hand the connection back to the pool - it will not be closed */

conn.close ( ) ;
Chapter 27: PostgreSQL High Availability
Section 27.1: Replication in PostgreSQL
Configuring the Primary Server
Requirements:
Replication User for replication activities

Directory to store the WAL archives
Create Replication user
CREATEUSER -U postgres replication -P -c 5 --replication

+ OPTION -P will prompt you FOR NEW PASSWORD
+ OPTION -c IS FOR maximum connections. 5 connections are enough FOR replication
+ -replication will GRANT replication PRIVILEGES TO the USER
Create a archive directory in data directory
mkdir $PGDATA/archive
Edit the pg_hba.conf file
This is host base authentication file, contains the setting for client autherntication.
Add below entry:
#hosttype database_name user_name hostname/IP method host

replication replication <slave-IP>/32 md5 Edit the postgresql.conf file
This is the configuration file of PostgreSQL.

wal_level = hot_standby
This parameter decides the behavior of slave server.
`hot_standby` logs what IS required TO accept READ ONLY queries ON slave SERVER.
`streaming` logs what IS required TO just apply the WAL's on slave.
`archive` which logs what is required for archiving.
archive_mode = ON
This parameters allows to send WAL segments to archive location using
archive_command parameter.
archive_command = 'test ! -f /path/to/archivedir/%f && cp %p /path/to/archivedir/%f'
Basically what above archive_command does is it copies the WAL segments to archive
directory.
wal_senders = 5 This is maximum number of WAL sender processes.
Now restart the primary server.

Backing up the primay server to the slave server
Before making changes on the server stop the primary server.

Important: Don't start the service again until all configuration and backup steps are
complete. You must bring up the standby server in a state where it is ready to be a
backup server. This means that all configuration settings must be in place and the
databases must be already synchronized. Otherwise, streaming replication will fail to
start`
Now run the pg_basebackup utility
pg_basebackup utility copies the data from primary server data directory to slave data
directory.
$ pg_basebackup -h < PRIMARY IP > -D /var/lib/postgresql/ < VERSION > /main -U replication -v -P --
xlog-method=stream
-D: This IS tells pg_basebackup WHERE TO the initial backup
-h: Specifies the SYSTEM WHERE TO look FOR the PRIMARY SERVER
-xlog-method = stream: This will FORCE the pg_basebackup TO open another CONNECTION AND stream
enough xlog WHILE backup IS running.
It ALSO ensures that fresh backup can be started WITHOUTfailing back TO
USING an archive.
Configuring the standby server
To configure the standby server, you'll edit postgresql.conf and create a new configuration
file named recovery.conf.
hot_standby = ON
This specifies whether you are allowed to run queries while recovering
Creating recovery.conf file
standby_mode = ON
Set the connection string to the primary server. Replace with the external IP
address of the primary server. Replace with the password for the user named
replication `primary_conninfo = 'host= port=5432 user=replication password='
(Optional) Set the trigger file location:
trigger_file = '/tmp/postgresql.trigger.5432'
The trigger_file path that you specify is the location where you can add a file when
you want the system to fail over to the standby server. The presence of the file
"triggers" the failover. Alternatively, you can use the pg_ctl promote command to
trigger failover.
Start the standby server
You now have everything in place and are ready to bring up the standby server
Attribution
This article is substantially derived from and attributed to How to Set Up PostgreSQL for High
Availability and Replication with Hot Standby, with minor changes in formatting and examples
and some text deleted. The source was published under the Creative Commons Public License
3.0, which is maintained here.
Chapter 28: EXTENSION dblink and
postgres_fdw
Section 28.1: Extention FDW
FDW is an implimentation of dblink it is more helpful, so to use it:
1. Create an extention:
CREATE EXTENSION postgres_fdw;
2. Create SERVER:
CREATE SERVER name_srv FOREIGN DATA WRAPPER postgres_fdw OPTIONS (host 'hostname',
dbname 'bd_name', port '5432');
3. Create user mapping for postgres server
CREATE USER MAPPING FOR postgres SERVER name_srv OPTIONS(USER 'postgres', PASSWORD 'password');
4. Create foreign table:
CREATE FOREIGN TABLE table_foreign (id INTEGER, code CHARACTER VARYING)

SERVER name_srv OPTIONS(schema_name 'schema', table_name 'table');
5. use this foreign table like it is in your database:

SELECT * FROMtable_foreign;
Section 28.2: Foreign Data Wrapper

To access complete schema of server db instead of single table. Follow below steps:
1. Create EXTENSION :
CREATE EXTENSION postgres_fdw;
2. Create SERVER :
CREATE SERVER server_name FOREIGN DATA WRAPPERpostgres_fdw OPTIONS ( host 'host_ip' ,

dbname 'db_name' , port 'port_number' );
3. Create USER MAPPING:
CREATE USER MAPPING FOR CURRENT_USER

SERVER server_name
OPTIONS ( USER 'user_name' , PASSWORD 'password' );
4. Create new schema to access schema of server DB:

CREATE SCHEMAschema_name;
5. Import server schema:
IMPORT FOREIGN SCHEMAschema_name_to_import_from_remote_db

FROM SERVER server_name
INTO schema_name;
6. Access any table of server schema:
SELECT * FROMschema_name.table_name;
This can be used to access multiple schema of
remote DB. Section 28.3: Extention

dblink
dblink EXTENSION is a technique to connect another database and make operation of this
database so to do that you need:
1-Create a dblink extention:

CREATE EXTENSION dblink;
2-Make your operation:
For exemple Select some attribute from another table in another database:
SELECT * FROM dblink ('dbname = bd_distance port = 5432 host = 10.6.6.6

user = username password = passw@rd', 'SELECT id, code FROM
schema.table')
AS newTable(id INTEGER, code CHARACTER VARYING);
Chapter 29: Postgres Tip and Tricks

Section 29.1: DATEADD alternative in Postgres
SELECT CURRENT_DATE + '1 day'::INTERVAL
SELECT '1999-12-11'::TIMESTAMP + '19 days'::INTERVAL
SELECT '1 month'::INTERVAL + '1 month 3 days'::INTERVAL
Section 29.2: Comma separated values of a column

SELECT
STRING_AGG( < TABLE_NAME> . < COLUMN_NAME
>, ',' )
FROM
< SCHEMA_NAME > . < TABLE_NAME> T
Section 29.3: Delete duplicate records from postgres table
DELETE
FROM < SCHEMA_NAME > . < Table_NAME >
WHERE
ctid NOT IN
(
SELECT
MAX( ctid )
FROM
< SCHEMA_NAME > . < TABLE_NAME>
GROUP BY
< SCHEMA_NAME > . < TABLE_NAME> .*
)
;
Section 29.4: Update query with join between two tables

alternative since Postresql does not support join in update
query
UPDATE < SCHEMA_NAME > . < TABLE_NAME_1> AS A
SET < COLUMN_1> = TRUE
FROM < SCHEMA_NAME > . < TABLE_NAME_2> AS B
WHERE
A. < COLUMN_2> = B. < COLUMN_2> AND
A. < COLUMN_3> = B. < COLUMN_3>
Section 29.5: Difference between two date timestamps

month wise and year wise
Monthwise difference between two dates(timestamp)
SELECT
(
( DATE_PART ( 'year' , AgeonDate ) - DATE_PART ( 'year' , tmpdate )) * 12
+
( DATE_PART ( 'month' , AgeonDate ) - DATE_PART ( 'month' , tmpdate ))
)
FROMdbo. "Table1"
Yearwise difference between two dates(timestamp)
SELECT (DATE_PART('year', AgeonDate) - DATE_PART('year', tmpdate)) FROM dbo."Table1"
Section 29.6: Query to Copy/Move/Transafer table data

from one database to other database table with same
schema
First Execute
CREATE EXTENSION DBLINK;
Then
INSERT INTO
< SCHEMA_NAME > . < TABLE_NAME_1>
SELECT *
FROM
DBLINK (
'HOST=<IP-ADDRESS> USER=<USERNAME> PASSWORD=<PASSWORD> DBNAME=<DATABASE>' ,
'SELECT * FROM <SCHEMA_NAME>.<TABLE_NAME_2>' )
AS < TABLE_NAME>
(
< COLUMN_1> < DATATYPE_1 > ,
< COLUMN_1> < DATATYPE_2 > ,
< COLUMN_1> < DATATYPE_3 >
);
Thank You!

A Must Have PostgreSQL Notes For Professionals 1688349123

Uploaded by

A Must Have PostgreSQL Notes For Professionals 1688349123

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Contents

Chapter 2: Data Types ............................................................................................................................................... 8

Chapter 3: Dates, Timestamps, and Intervals ............................................................................................. 11

Chapter 4: Table Creation ..................................................................................................................................... 12

Chapter 5: SELECT ...................................................................................................................................................... 14

Chapter 6: Find String Length / Character Length ................................................................................... 15

Chapter 7: COALESCE ............................................................................................................................................... 16

Chapter 8: INSERT ...................................................................................................................................................... 17

Chapter 11: Aggregate Functions ........................................................................................................................ 28

Chapter 12: Common Table Expressions (WITH) ......................................................................................... 31

Chapter 13: Window Functions ............................................................................................................................. 32

Chapter 14: Recursive queries ............................................................................................................................. 34

Chapter 15: Programming with PL/pgSQL .................................................................................................... 35

Chapter 16: Inheritance ............................................................................................................................................ 37

Chapter 18: Triggers and Trigger Functions ................................................................................................. 39

Chapter 19: Event Triggers .................................................................................................................................... 42

Chapter 20: Role Management ........................................................................................................................... 43

Chapter 21: Postgres cryptographic functions ............................................................................................ 46

Chapter 22: Comments in PostgreSQL ............................................................................................................ 47

Chapter 23: Backup and Restore ........................................................................................................................ 48

Chapter 24: Backup script for a production DB ......................................................................................... 51

Chapter 25: Accessing Data Programmatically .......................................................................................... 52

Chapter 26: Connect to PostgreSQL from Java ......................................................................................... 58

Chapter 27: PostgreSQL High Availability ..................................................................................................... 61

Chapter 29: Postgres Tip and Tricks ................................................................................................................. 66

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The information presented in this book is not guaranteed to

Please send feedback and corrections to [email protected]

Chapter 1: Getting started with

Section 1.1: Installing PostgreSQL on Windows

Download the Windows installation binaries from EnterpriseDB:

pgAdmin ( https://www.pgadmin.org ) is a free GUI for managing your database and I

Go to Control Panel -> System and Security -> Administrative Tools.

To stop postgres right click on the service and select Stop.

Section 1.2: Install PostgreSQL from Source on Linux

Link to the latest source

(9.6.3) Now you can

extract the source files:

tar -xzvf postgresql-9.6.3.tar.gz

Full Link to the full

Small list of available

--prefix=PATH path for all files

Run make to create the objectfiles

Run make clean to tidy up

Section 1.3: Installation on GNU+Linux

Red Hat family

Respositories can be found here: https://yum.postgresql.org/repopackages.php

Download the repository to local machine with the command

yum -y install https://download.postgresql.org/pub/repos/yum/X.X/redhat/rhel-7-x86_64/pgdgredhatXX-X.X-

View available packages:

Neccesary packages are: postgresqlXX postgresqlXX-server postgresqlXX-libs postgresqlXX-

To access the DB in CLI enter psql

On Debian and derived operating systems, type:

Section 1.4: How to install PostgreSQL via MacPorts on

Use this command to see what versions you have available.

You will see an installation log like this:

---> Computing dependencies for postgresql96-server

the postgresql server, install the postgresql96-

---> Cleaning postgresql96

To create a database instance, after install do sudo

---> Cleaning postgresql96-server

sudo mkdir -p /opt/local/var/db/postgresql96/defaultdb sudo chown

tdb' Now we start the server:

sudo port load - w postgresql96-server

Verify that we can connect to the server:

You will see a prompt from postgres:

postgres=#SELECT setting FROM pg_settings WHERE

NAME='data_directory'; And see the response:

And you will be back at your shell prompt.

Congratulations! You now have a running PostgreSQL instance on

Section 1.5: Install postgresql with brew

Start the server:

Open the PostgreSQL prompt

Section 1.6: Postgres.app for Mac OSX

Section 2.1: Numeric Types