SCIENCE

Volcanoesㅤㅤ ㅤ ㅤㅤ
● Volcanoes result from the escape of magma, molten rock, from Earth's mantle
to its surface through vents.
● Magma is formed through the melting of rocks due to heat and pressure
within the Earth.

Structure of a Volcanoㅤ ㅤㅤ
Summit
● The highest point of the volcano, often
Marked by a crater.
● The topmost part where various volcanic
activities occur.
Slope
● The inclined sides of the volcano that
lead from the summit to the base.
● The angle and steepness of the slope can
● vary based on the type of volcano.
Base
● Bottom or foot of the volcano where it connects with the surrounding terrain.
● Provides stability to the volcano and affects its overall shape and size.
Parts of a Volcanoㅤㅤ ㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ
Magma Chamber Primary Vent ● Point of discharge for
● Located beneath the ● Main opening on the magma, ash, and gas.
volcano's vent. volcano's surface.
Lava
● Reservoir storing ● Releases lava, gases,
● Molten rock expelled
molten rock (magma) ash, and volcanic
onto the Earth's
before eruption. materials.
surface during
Conduit Secondary Vent eruption.
● Central tube-like ● Smaller outlet apart
Ash and Gas Plume
structure connecting from the main vent.
● Mixture of rock
magma chamber to ● Another path for
fragments, minerals,
crater. magma to escape.
glass particles, and
● Pathway for magma
to travel from the
Crater gases.
● Found at the ● Ejected forcefully
chamber to the
volcano's summit. from the volcano
surface.
● Funnel-shaped or during an eruption.
bowl-shaped hollow
surrounding the vent.
Types of Volcanoes Based on Structureㅤ ㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ
Cinder Cone Volcanoes:
● Small, steep-sided, formed by the formed from ejected
solidified lava. Basic type, Lava is hurled into the air, breaking
into fragments that fall as cinders.
● Resulting in circular or oval cone shape with steep slope and
wide crater.
● Examples: Taal Volcano (Batangas), Mount Mayabobo
(Quezon), Smith Volcano (Babuyan Islands), Vulcan (Papua
New Guinea), Cerro Volcánico (Argentina)
Composite Volcanoes:
● Large, symmetrical cones with alternating layers of lava, ash,
cinders, and pyroclastic material.
● Conduit system allows magma to rise, resulting in sticky lava
buildup.
● Steep sides due to viscous lava accumulation.
● Examples: Mount Mayon (Albay), Mount Arayat (Pampanga),
Mount Kanlaon (Negros Island), Mount Apo (Davao Region)
Mount St. Helens (USA), Mount Rainier (USA), Mount Fuji
(Japan)
Shield Volcanoes
● Large, broad, resembling shields from above.
● Constructed mainly from fluid lava flows, leading to gentle
slopes. Identified by tall, broad, flat, rounded shapes.
● Generally safe due to lack of pyroclastic materials, eruptions
only explosive if water enters vent.
● Examples: Mauna Loa (Hawaii), Barrier Volcano (Kenya),
Skjaldbreiður (Iceland)

Lava Dome Volcanoes

● Dome-shaped structures formed from the accumulation of
thick, slow-moving lava.
● Typically exhibit steep sides and relatively small sizes.
● Often associated with explosive eruptions due to pressure
build-up from gradual lava extrusion.
● Prone to producing pyroclastic flows and can collapse.
● Examples: Wizard Island (USA), Novarupta Dome (Alaska,
USA), Mount Unzen (Japan), Santa María (Guatemala), Nea
Kameni (Greece)
Types of Volcanoes Based on Activityㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ
Active Volcanoes: often due to a lack of magma
● Have erupted at least once within supply.
the last 10,000 years. ● These volcanoes exhibit significant
● They display ongoing activity, such weathering and erosion.
as gas emissions, lava flows, and ● Examples: Mount Makiling
ash expulsion. (Laguna), Mount Banahaw
● Examples: Mayon Volcano (Albay), (Quezon), Mount Isarog
Taal Volcano (Batangas), Bulusan (Camarines Sur)
Volcano (Sorsogon) Potentially Active Volcanoes:
Inactive Volcanoes: ● Lack records of past volcanic
● Have remained dormant for over activity but still appear geologically
10,000 years and are unlikely to young.
erupt in the foreseeable future. ● Examples: Mount Apo (Davao del
● No signs of volcanic activity are Sur), Mount Kanlaon (Negros
observed for an extended period, Occidental), Mount Ragang (Lanao
del Sur)
Types of Volcanic Eruptionsㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ
Phreatic or Hydrothermal Eruption: Phreatomagmatic Eruption:
● This type results from hot rocks ● A violent eruption caused by the
coming into contact with water. interaction of water and magma.
● It's relatively short-lived and ● Produces a substantial column of
typically features ash columns. fine ash and high-speed sideways
● It can potentially mark the initial emission of pyroclastic materials,
stages of a larger eruption. known as base surges.
● Example: A phreatic eruption ● Example: The 1883 eruption of
occurred at Mount Pinatubo in 1991, Krakatoa in Indonesia showcased
preceding its major eruption. phreatomagmatic features.
Strombolian Eruption: Vulcanian Eruption:
● Characterized by periodic, ● Distinguished by tall eruption
fluctuating eruption intensity columns, often reaching heights of
ranging from weak to violent. up to 20 km.
● Eruptions include fountain-like lava ● Involves pyroclastic flows and ash
bursts. fall tephra.
● Example: The Irazú Volcano in ● Example: Paricutin Volcano in
Costa Rica exhibits Strombolian Mexico experienced Vulcanian
activity. eruptions during its emergence.
Plinian Eruption:
● Represents an extremely explosive eruption, releasing vast amounts of gas
and pyroclastic materials into the atmosphere.
● Often leads to the formation of mushroom-shaped eruption columns.
● Example: The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in Zambales, Philippines, in 1991
was a notable Plinian event.
Magma and Its Compositionㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ
● Magma, the molten rock beneath volcanoes, forms at destructive plate
boundaries and is rich in silicate, originating from crustal rocks with higher
silica content than the mantle rock.
Crystal Content:
● Magmas often begin crystallizing as they reach the surface.
● High-temperature minerals form as magma cools, followed by
low-temperature minerals.
● Magma consistently contains crystals of high-temperature origin.
Viscosity
● The measure of a ● Composition Viscosity in Magma and Its
substance's Influence: Effects:
resistance to flow. ● Silica-rich magmas ● Lava with Low Silica:
● Related to thickness are more viscous than ● Low viscosity, travels
and stickiness, higher those with low silica. far, forms thin sheets.
viscosity = greater ● Lower silica content ● Lava with High Silica:
resistance. leads to more fluid ● High viscosity,
● Example: Syrup has magma that travels doesn't travel far,
higher viscosity farther. breaks up as it flows.
compared to water. ● Gas Content Impact: ● Low Gas, High Silica
Factors Affecting Viscosity: ● Dissolved gases, Lava:
● Temperature Effects: mainly water vapor, ● Very viscous, doesn't
● Viscosity decreases increase magma's flow as it rises, forms
with higher flow ability. columnar plug.
temperature. ● Loss of gases near ● Low Gas Lava:
● Hotter magma has the surface makes ● High viscosity, piles
lower viscosity. magma more viscous. up at vent, creates a
● Cooling lava hardens, ● Forms domes or dome.
reducing its ability to columnar structures.
flow.
Temperature:
● Magma temperature reflects melting points of its mineral constituents.
● Magmas originating from partial melting of mantle rocks are significantly
hotter, often above 1200°C for basalts.
● Rhyolites that reach the surface are cooler, less than 900°C, and exhibit
higher viscosity.
Volatile Content:
● Contains small amounts of dissolved gases like water vapor and carbon
dioxide.
● Gases are released as pressure decreases.
● Magma from mantle rock melting generally has low volatile content, while
crustal rock melting results in volatile-rich magmas.
● The most abundant volcanic gases is:
 ○ Water vapor, then carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide.
○ Other gases are hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen
fluoride.
○ Trace gases like hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and volatile metal chloride
are also present.
● Gas movement is influenced by magma viscosity. High viscosity magma leads
to gradual gas release, increasing pressure and potential for explosive
eruptions.

Classification of Magma ㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ

Granitic or Felsic Intermediate or Basaltic or Mafic
Magma: Andesitic Magma: Magma:
● Viscosity: High ● Viscosity: ● Viscosity: Low
viscosity. Its thick Intermediate viscosity. Its low
consistency inhibits viscosity. Its silica content,
free movement. intermediate silica basaltic magma
● Temperature: Derived content results in boasts low viscosity.
from the partial fluidity between Its fluid nature allows
melting of basaltic & granitic for relatively free
continental crust, it magmas. movement.
has lower ● Temperature: Derived ● Temperature: Derived
temperatures: 750°C from the partial from the partial
to 900°C. melting of crustal melting of mantle
● Gas Content: Granitic rocks, it has medium rocks, are incredibly
magmas tend to have temperatures: 900°C hot: 1200°C-.
higher volatile to 1000°C. ● Gas Content: Basaltic
content: 4-6% ● Gas Content: magmas tend to have
● Explosiveness: Most Intermediate low volatile content:
explosive due to their magmas tend to have 1-2%
high viscosity, high moderate volatile ● Explosiveness: Least
volatile content, and content: 3-4% explosive due to their
lower temperatures. ● Explosiveness: low viscosity, low
● Location of Moderately explosive volatile content, and
Formation: Within due to their moderate high temperatures.
continental crust viscosity and silica ● Location of
environments. content. Formation: With
● Location of oceanic and
Formation: With continental settings.
continental margins
linked to subduction
zones.
Process of Volcanic Eruptionㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ
1. High temperature within the Earth bubble formation, akin to bubbles in
causes the melting of solid mantle an opened soda bottle.
rocks, forming dense molten 6. Crystallization of anhydrous
substance known as magma. minerals also triggers vesiculation
2. Continuous melting and as the vapor pressure of the
accumulation of magma lead to its residual cooling magma's liquid
accumulation within a volcano's increases.
magma chamber, located at the 7. Bubbles encapsulated in porous
vent. volcanic rock are termed vesicles.
3. Magma comprises primarily Both decompression and
dissolved gases like water vapor, crystallization have the potential to
carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. trigger explosive eruptions.
4. As dissolved gases are released, the 8. Upon reaching the Earth's surface,
process of vesiculation initiates, magma explodes due to the
forming bubbles within the magma. presence of dissolved gases.
5. Vesiculation can result from 9. The nature of a volcanic explosion
decompression or crystallization. In hinges on the composition of the
decompression, lowering pressure magma.
during magma ascent fosters

Volcanic Hazardsㅤ ㅤ Mud Flow (Lahar):

Ash Fall Fast-moving mixtures of water, molten
Occurs when a volcano erupts, propelling rocks, and debris that flow down the
fine particles of pulverized rocks, sand, slopes of a volcano during an eruption or
and abrasive glass particles into the due to rapid melting of snow and ice.
atmosphere. Effects: Lahars can bury communities,
Effects: Ash particles can be transported destroy infrastructure, and devastate
by wind over vast distances, leading to landscapes. They can also clog rivers and
reduced visibility, health risks, and waterways, leading to flooding.
damage to crops, machinery, and
infrastructure. Lava Flow:
● Additional Hazard: Acid Rain Streams of molten rock emitted by
● Definition: Acid rain forms when erupting volcanoes. The viscosity of the
sulfur dioxide emitted during lava determines its speed and behavior.
volcanic eruptions combines with Effects: Lava flows can damage or
atmospheric moisture, leading to destroy buildings, vegetation, and
acidified precipitation. infrastructure in their path. However,
● Effects: Acid rain can damage they generally move slowly enough for
vegetation, aquatic ecosystems, people to evacuate.
and infrastructure, impacting water
quality and soil fertility.
Pyroclastic Flow: Volcanic Gas Emissions: Volcanic Earthquakes:
High-speed mixtures of Volcanic gases, including Earthquakes associated
gas, ash, and molten rock sulfur dioxide, carbon with the movement of
fragments that surge down dioxide, and others, are magma beneath the Earth's
the sides of a volcano released during eruptions. surface.
during eruptions. Effects: These gases can Effects: These earthquakes
Effects: Extremely lead to air pollution, can trigger landslides,
destructive, incinerating respiratory problems, and, tsunamis, and even
everything in their path in the case of sulfur secondary volcanic hazards
and leaving little chance of dioxide, contribute to acid like pyroclastic flows and
escape for those caught rain. CO2 emissions may lahars.
within them. add to global warming.

Precautionary Measures for Dealing with Volcanic Eruptions ㅤ

Before the Eruption: ● Avoid entering designated danger
● Familiarize yourself with crucial zones for your safety.
information about volcanoes in ● Stay informed about the evolving
your region, including danger zones situation by tuning in to news
and historical eruption patterns. broadcasts on television or radio
● Be aware of the designated devices.
evacuation sites in your area. ● Follow the evacuation orders issued
● Stay attentive to announcements by authorities without delay.
from local authorities and relevant After the Eruption:
agencies. ● Before venturing outdoors, assess
● Ensure you have an adequate the situation to ensure it's safe to
supply of clean and safe drinking do so.
water, as well as essential food ● Inspect the surroundings of your
provisions. residence for any possible damage
During the Eruption: caused by volcanic activity.
● Remain indoors and keep doors and ● Clear your rooftop, gutters, and
windows closed to minimize windows of accumulated volcanic
exposure to volcanic ash and ash to prevent potential issues.
hazardous gases. ● Replace any water and food
● Safeguard your water and food supplies that may have been
supplies to ensure availability contaminated during the eruption.
during potential disruptions. ● Remain updated with the latest
● If you need to venture outside, use news and announcements provided
protective gear such as masks, by local authorities to stay
goggles, or face shields to shield well-informed about the ongoing
yourself from ash and debris. situation.
Geothermal Energy ㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ
● Geothermal energy is a renewable and sustainable form of energy derived
from the heat stored within the Earth's interior.
● Came from the Greek word where Geo means “Earth,” and Thermal means
“Heat.”
History of Geothermal Energy:
● The use of geothermal energy dates back thousands of years to ancient
civilizations like the Romans and Native Americans, who utilized hot springs
for bathing and heating.
● In the 20th century, the first geothermal power plant was built in Italy in 1904,
pioneering the generation of electricity from geothermal sources.
● The development of geothermal energy continued over the decades, with
countries like Iceland, the United States, and the Philippines becoming
significant contributors to its utilization.

Finding Geothermal Energyㅤ ㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ

● Some visible features of geothermal energy are:
○ Volcanoes: Openings in the Earth's crust through which molten rock,
ash, and gases can escape. They are often associated with geothermal
activity.
○ Fumaroles: Openings in the Earth's surface through which steam and
volcanic gases are emitted. They are often found near volcanic vents.
○ Hot Springs: Natural bodies of water heated by geothermal energy.
○ Geysers: Intermittent hot springs that periodically erupt, sending a
column of water and steam into the air.
● We cannot see most of these resources as they are deep underground, mostly
found along edges of tectonic plates..
● Exploration is done by digging well and testing temp deep underground.

Geothermal Power Plantsㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ

● A geothermal power plant is a facility designed to convert the Earth's natural
heat stored within the crust into electricity.
● It utilizes geothermal resources, such as hot water or steam from the Earth's
interior, to drive turbines that generate electrical power.

Geothermal Power Plant Location Volcano

Tiwi Geothermal Power Plant Albay Mount Malinao
Palinpinon Geothermal Power Plant Negros Oriental Mount Kanlaon
Leyte Geothermal Power Plant Leyte Mount Apo
Mak-Ban (Makiling-Banahaw) Laguna and Mount Makiling
Geothermal Power Plant Batangas
Bacon-Manito (BacMan) Geothermal Sorsogon Mount Bulusan
Power Plant
Tongonan Geothermal Power Plant Leyte Mahagnao Volcano
Group
Mindanao Geothermal Power Plant North Cotabato Mount Apo
Northern Negros Geothermal Power Plant Negros Occidental Mount Mandalagan

Types of Geothermal Power Plantㅤ ㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ

Dry Steam Power Plant
● Use high-temperature steam extracted directly from
geothermal reservoirs to drive turbines and generate
electricity.
● Usually geysers are the main source of dry steam.
● A rock catcher is used to protect turbine from rocks
coming along with steam.
● Steps:
● Extraction: High-temperature steam is extracted from
the production well in the geothermal reservoir.
● Turbine Operation: The extracted steam is directed to
turbines, causing them to rotate.
● Generator: The rotating turbines are connected to generators, converting
mechanical energy into electricity.
● Load: The electricity generated is transmitted to the power grid for use.
Flash Steam Power Plant
● Suitable for areas with high-temperature water
resources and moderate pressure conditions
● Steps:
● Extraction: High-temperature water is extracted from
the production well in the geothermal reservoir.
● Flash Tank: The extracted water is released into a
lower-pressure flash tank, causing it to "flash" into
steam.
● Turbine Operation: The steam is directed to turbines,
generating mechanical energy.
● Generator: The rotating turbines are connected to
generators, converting mechanical energy into
electricity.
● Load: The produced electricity is supplied to the power grid for consumption.
Binary Cycle Power Plants:
● Suitable for locations with lower-temperature geothermal
resources and a secondary fluid with a lower boiling point
than water.
● Steps:
● Extraction: Moderately hot geothermal water is
extracted from the production well in the geothermal
reservoir.
● Heat Exchanger with Working Fluids: The geothermal
water heats a secondary fluid with a lower boiling point
in the heat exchanger.
● Vaporization: The secondary fluid vaporizes due to the
geothermal heat.
● Turbine Operation: The vaporized secondary fluid drives
turbines, generating mechanical energy.
● Generator: The rotating turbines are coupled to generators, converting
mechanical energy into electricity.
● Load: The electricity generated is sent to the power grid for distribution.

Advantages of Geothermal Power Plants:ㅤ ㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ

● Geothermal energy is a renewable and sustainable source of power.
● Geothermal power plants produce minimal greenhouse gas emissions
compared to fossil fuels.
● Geothermal energy is consistent and available 24/7, reducing dependence on
weather conditions.
● Geothermal plants require less land compared to other energy sources.
● Geothermal power plants have long operational lifespans, contributing to
stable energy supply.
● They create jobs and stimulate local economies in areas with geothermal
resources.

Limitations of Geothermal Power Plants:ㅤ ㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ

● Geothermal power plants are viable only in regions with accessible geothermal
reservoirs.
● Over-extraction can lead to depletion and temporary reduction in reservoir
temperature.
● Initial investment and exploration costs can be high, especially in areas with
no existing infrastructure.
● Energy transmission to distant locations can face challenges and costs.
Climateㅤㅤ ㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ
● Represents the long-term average weather patterns in a region over an
extended period, typically 30 years or more.
Weather
● Refers to the short-term atmospheric conditions in a specific area at a
particular time, including temperature, humidity, wind speed, and
precipitation.

Factors Affecting Climateㅤ ㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ

Latitude: Prevailing Winds:
● The angle of sunlight varies with ● Prevailing winds like the westerlies
latitude. Near the equator (low bring ocean air to land, moderating
latitudes), sunlight strikes more temperatures. Coastal areas have
directly, creating hot temperatures milder temperatures, while inland
year-round. experience greater variations due to
● Toward the poles (high latitudes), the absence of maritime influence.
sunlight arrives at oblique angles, ● Contribute to moisture distribution.
leading to warm/colder climates Convergence of the northeasterly
and distinct seasons. and southeasterly trades near the
intertropical convergence zone
(ITCZ) leads to heavy rainfall in
equatorial regions.

Altitude
● As altitude increases, atmospheric
pressure decreases, causing the air
to expand and cool.
● This results in lower temperatures
at higher elevation.
Distance from the Sea: Land and Sea Breeze
● Coastal areas experience maritime ● At night, land cools swiftly, leading
climates due to the ocean's to cooler air above the land. As
moderating effect. Water heats up cooler, denser air descends, it
and cools down more slowly than establishes a high-pressure zone.
land, resulting in milder ● Consequently, air moves from land
temperatures. to sea, generating a gentle land
● Inland areas (continental climates) breeze that transports cooler, drier
have greater temperature variations air from the land to the ocean.
because land heats up and cools ● Conversely, during the day, land
down rapidly. heats up quickly, warming the air
above it. As this warmer, less dense
air rises, it creates a low-pressure
area.
● This induces air to flow from the sea
toward the land, forming a sea
breeze. Sea breezes bring cool,
moister air from the ocean to the
land, offering relief from heat .

Ocean Currents:
● Warm ocean currents, like the Gulf
Stream, bring warmth to coastal
regions, elevating temperatures.
● Cold currents, such as the
California Current, cool adjacent
coastal areas, influencing local
climates.
Topography:
● Mountains can act as barriers to
prevailing winds, causing moisture
to be deposited on the windward
side, creating a wetter climate
(windward side) and a rain shadow
(dry side) on the leeward side.
● Valleys can trap cold air, leading to
temperature inversions and cooler
conditions.

Climate Changeㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ

● Refers to long-term alterations in Impacts of Climate Change:
temperature, precipitation, wind ● Rising global temperatures causing
patterns, and other aspects of melting ice, sea-level rise, and more
Earth's climate. frequent and severe heatwaves.
● Often driven by human activities ● Altered precipitation patterns
releasing greenhouse gases into the leading to droughts and floods.
atmosphere. ● Changes in ecosystems and
● Leads to global shifts in weather biodiversity, with shifts in species'
patterns, sea-level rise, and ranges and habitats.
changes in ecosystems. ● Increased frequency of extreme
weather events, such as hurricanes
Greenhouse Effect:ㅤ ㅤ and wildfires.
● Natural process where certain ● Threats to food and water security,
gases in the atmosphere (such as human health, and economies.
carbon dioxide and methane) trap
heat from the sun, warming the El Niño and La Niña:ㅤ ㅤ
Earth. ● El Niño: A periodic climate
● Essential for maintaining a phenomenon where
habitable climate, as it keeps the warmer-than-average sea surface
planet's temperature within a temperatures in the central and
suitable range. eastern Pacific Ocean disrupt global
weather patterns.
Enhanced Greenhouse Effect: ● La Niña: Opposite of El Niño,
● Occurs when human activities characterized by
intensify the natural greenhouse cooler-than-average sea surface
effect by emitting excessive temperatures in the same region.
greenhouse gases. ● Both El Niño and La Niña can
● Leads to an increased trapping of cause extreme weather events like
heat, resulting in global warming floods, droughts, and storms in
and climate change. various parts of the world.
Stars ㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ
● Stars are luminous celestial objects composed of hot, glowing gases, primarily
hydrogen and helium, held together by gravity.
● Emit lights and heat due to nuclear fusion reactions occurring in their cores.
● Stars are the building blocks of galaxies, including our own Milky Way.

Characteristics of Starsㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ

Color & Temperature Brightness
● Stars emit light in various colors ● Brightness refers to the amount of
due to their temperatures. light a star emits or appears to emit
● Hotter stars emit blue light, while from Earth.
cooler stars emit red light. ○ Apparent Magnitude:
Star Color Temperatur ○ How bright a star appears
e (in Kelvin) from Earth's perspective.
○ Absolute Brightness:
Proxima Red Dwarf 2,800 -
○ Also known as intrinsic
Centauri 3,800
brightness, is the actual
Aldebara Orange Giant 3,500 - energy output of a star.
n 4,000
Sun Yellow Dwarf 5,500
Vega Blue-White 9,600
Main Sequence
Rigel Blue 11,000 -
Supergiant 17,000

Size Mass
● Exhibit a vast range of sizes, ● Crucial in determining a star's
contributing to their diversity and behavior, evolution, and eventual
unique characteristics. fate.
● White Dwarfs: The smallest stars, ● High-Mass Stars:
roughly the size of Earth. ○ Have greater mass than the
● Main-Sequence Stars: The majority Sun, typically several times to
of stars, like our Sun. tens of times more.
● Supergiants: Supergiant stars are ● Low-Mass Stars:
significantly larger than the Sun ○ Masses less than that of the
and other main-sequence stars. Sun.
● Hypergiants: Even larger than ● Intermediate-Mass Stars:
supergiants, hypergiants are ○ Stars with masses between
extremely massive stars that can be those of high-mass and
tens of times larger than even low-mass stars fall into this
supergiants. category.
Constellationsㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ
● From the Latin word “con” means group and “stella” means stars.
● A grouping of stars forming a recognizable pattern or shape in the night sky.
● Used as a way to navigate and tell stories across cultures.
● There are 88 constellations.
● Celestial Sphere: Imaginary sphere surrounding Earth where stars, planets,
and other celestial objects appear fixed.

Astrological Constellationsㅤ ㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ
● Aquarius: The Water Bearer
constellation, seen in Northern ● Libra: The Scales constellation,
Autumn/Southern Spring. seen in Northern Spring/Southern
● Aries: The Ram constellation, seen Autumn.
in Northern Autumn/Southern ● Pisces: The Fishes constellation,
Spring. seen in Northern Autumn/Southern
● Cancer: The Crab constellation, Spring.
seen in Northern Winter/Southern ● Sagittarius: The Archer or Centaur
Summer. constellation, seen in Northern
● Capricornus: The Sea Goat Summer/Southern Winter.
constellation, seen in Northern ● Scorpius: The Scorpion
Autumn/Southern Summer. constellation, seen in Northern
● Gemini: The Twins constellation, Summer/Southern Winter.
seen in Northern Winter/Southern ● Taurus: The Bull constellation, seen
Summer. in Northern Winter/Southern
● Leo: The Lion constellation, seen in Summer.
Northern Spring/Southern Autumn. ● Virgo: The Virgin constellation, seen
in Northern Spring/Southern
Autumn.
Astronomical Constellationsㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ
● Antlia: The Air Pump constellation. ● Caelum: The Sculptor's Chisel
● Apus: The Bird of Paradise constellation.
constellation. ● Camelopardalis: The Giraffe
● Aquila: The Eagle constellation. constellation.
● Ara: The Altar constellation. ● Canes Venatici: The Hunting Dogs
● Aries: The Ram constellation, seen constellation.
in Northern Autumn/Southern ● Canis Major: The Great Dog
Spring. constellation.
● Auriga: The Charioteer ● Canis Minor: The Lesser Dog
constellation. constellation.
● Boötes: The Herdsman ● Carina: The Keel constellation.
constellation, seen in Northern
Spring/Southern Autumn.
● Cassiopeia: The Queen ● Horologium: The Pendulum Clock
constellation, seen in Northern constellation.
Autumn/Southern Spring. ● Hydra: The Water Snake
● Centaurus: The Centaur constellation.
constellation. ● Hydrus: The Lesser Water Snake
● Cepheus: The King constellation, constellation.
seen in Northern Autumn/Southern ● Indus: The Indian constellation.
Spring. ● Lacerta: The Lizard constellation.
● Cetus: The Sea Monster ● Leo Minor: The Lesser Lion
constellation. constellation.
● Chamaeleon: The Chameleon ● Lepus: The Hare constellation.
constellation. ● Lupus: The Wolf constellation.
● Circinus: The Compasses ● Lynx: The Lynx constellation.
constellation. ● Lyra: The Lyre constellation, seen in
● Columba: The Dove constellation. Northern Summer/Southern Winter.
● Coma Berenices: The Hair of ● Mensa: The Table Mountain
Berenice constellation. constellation.
● Corona Australis: The Southern ● Microscopium: The Microscope
Crown constellation. constellation.
● Corona Borealis: The Northern ● Monoceros: The Unicorn
Crown constellation. constellation.
● Corvus: The Crow constellation. ● Musca: The Fly constellation.
● Crater: The Cup constellation. ● Norma: The Carpenter's Square
● Crux: The Southern Cross constellation.
constellation. ● Octans: The Octant constellation.
● Cygnus: The Swan constellation, ● Ophiuchus: The Serpent Bearer
seen in Northern Summer/Southern constellation, seen in Southern
Winter. Summer/Northern Winter.
● Delphinus: The Dolphin ● Orion: The Hunter constellation,
constellation. seen in Northern Winter/Southern
● Dorado: The Swordfish Summer.
constellation. ● Pavo: The Peacock constellation.
● Draco: The Dragon constellation, ● Pegasus: The Winged Horse
seen in Northern Spring/Southern constellation, seen in Northern
Autumn. Autumn/Southern Spring.
● Equuleus: The Little Horse ● Perseus: The Perseus constellation,
constellation. seen in Northern Autumn/Southern
● Eridanus: The River constellation. Spring.
● Fornax: The Furnace constellation. ● Phoenix: The Phoenix constellation.
● Grus: The Crane constellation. ● Pictor: The Painter's Easel
● Hercules: The Hercules constellation.
constellation. ● Piscis Austrinus: The Southern Fish
constellation.
 ● Puppis: The Stern constellation. ● Telescopium: The Telescope
● Pyxis: The Compass Box constellation.
constellation. ● Triangulum: The Triangle
● Reticulum: The Reticle constellation, seen in Northern
constellation. Autumn/Southern Spring.
● Sagitta: The Arrow constellation, ● Triangulum Australe: The Southern
seen in Northern Autumn/Southern Triangle constellation.
Spring. ● Tucana: The Toucan constellation.
● Sculptor: The Sculptor's Workshop ● Vela: The Sails constellation.
constellation. ● Volans: The Flying Fish
● Scutum: The Shield constellation. constellation.
● Serpens: The Serpent constellation. ● Vulpecula: The Fox constellation,
● Sextans: The Sextant constellation. seen in Northern Summer/Southern
Winter.

Uses of Constellationsㅤㅤ ㅤ ㅤㅤ
● Navigation: Constellations have ● Celestial Events Prediction: The
been used by navigators and appearance of certain
travelers for centuries to determine constellations signaled specific
direction and location. They served times for planting, harvesting, and
as natural guides, helping people other activities, which was crucial
find their way across land and sea. for agricultural societies.
● Timekeeping: Ancient cultures used ● Astrology: Some cultures believed
the positions of constellations to that the positions of stars and
mark the passage of time, such as constellations influenced human
seasons and celestial events. The affairs and personalities, leading to
movement of certain constellations the development of astrological
helped create calendars. practices.
● Cultural and Mythological ● Education and Outreach:
Significance: Many constellations Constellations are often used to
are associated with myths, stories, introduce astronomy to beginners,
and beliefs from different cultures. making it easier to identify and
They have played a role in shaping remember different parts of the
cultural identities and transmitting night sky.
folklore. ● Storytelling and Art: Constellations
● Astronomical Observation: have inspired countless stories, art,
Constellations provide a framework literature, and cultural expressions
for astronomers to locate and study across the world, contributing to a
celestial objects such as stars, rich tapestry of human creativity.
planets, galaxies, and nebulae.
They help astronomers navigate the
night sky.