Chapter 7: Human nutrition

Syllabus
 Objectives

1. Understand essential nutrients and their roles.

2. Identify deficiency diseases.
3. Explore digestive system anatomy and function.
4. Learn about digestion processes.
5. Analyze enzymatic breakdown of macromolecules.
6. Examine teeth structure and function.
7. Understand stomach pH regulation.
8. Explore bile's role in fat digestion.
9. Study nutrient absorption mechanisms.
10. The importance of a balanced diet.
 Questions Answers

First, think on your own about the answers to these questions

about biological molecules.

Then discuss your ideas with a partner.

Be ready to share your ideas.

1. What type of biological molecule is starch? 1. Starch is a carbohydrate.
2. What are the smaller units that a starch molecule is made of? 2. It is made of many glucose molecules linked together.

3. What are the smaller units that a protein molecule is made of? 3. Protein molecules are made of amino acids linked
together.
4. Lipase is an enzyme that digests fats. What are the products of
4. Lipase digest fats to fatty acids and glycerol.
this reaction?
5. What type of biological molecule is lipase? 5. It is an enzyme. All enzymes are protein molecules.
7.1 Diet
Six Essential Nutrients:
1. Carbohydrates,
2. proteins,
3. fats,
4. vitamins,
5. minerals, and
6. water are vital for human health.

Fiber Content:
• Fiber, or roughage, aids digestion but isn't absorbed into the body.
• It passes through the digestive system and is expelled in feces.

Balanced Diet:
• A balanced diet includes all essential nutrients in appropriate amounts and proportions.
• Ensures proper nutrition for overall health and well-being.
Energy Usage and Dietary Needs - Key Points:

Energy Expenditure:
• Daily energy expenditure varies with age, gender, and
occupation..

Energy Source:
• Energy for daily activities comes from food intake..
• Excess food intake leads to fat storage, while inadequate
intake causes fatigue.

Food Energy Content:

• Different foods contain varying amounts of energy.
• Fat provides approximately twice as much energy per gram
as protein or carbohydrates.

The joule is the unit of energy in the

International System of Units (SI).
MJ: MegaJoule
Dietary Adjustments:
• Dietary needs may change during different life stages.
• For instance, pregnant women require additional calcium and iron for fetal development.
• Metabolic rate typically decreases with age, leading to reduced food requirements in later life.
Food and Nutrient Requirements:

Beyond Energy:
• Food serves various purposes besides providing energy.
• A balanced diet includes carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, fibre, and water.

Nutritional Needs:
• Each nutrient plays a vital role in maintaining bodily functions.
• Inadequate intake of any nutrient can lead to health issues and hinder proper bodily function.
Carbohydrates and Energy - Key Points:
Energy Source:
• Carbohydrates are essential for providing energy to the body.
• They encompass starch and sugar.

Staple Foods:
• Staple foods in many countries supply a significant portion of dietary carbohydrates.
• Examples include potatoes, wheat (bread or pasta), rice, and maize.

Sweet Foods:
• Carbohydrates are also found in sweet foods, which primarily contain sugar.
Fats and Oils - Key Points:

Energy Source:
• Fats and oils are essential for providing energy to the body.
• They are also utilized in the formation of cell membranes.

Storage and Functions:

• Excess fat and oil are stored in adipose tissue under the skin.
• This storage acts as an insulator, reducing heat loss from the body.
• It also provides mechanical protection for organs like the kidneys.

Sources:
• Fat sources include cooking oils, meat, eggs, dairy products, and oily
fish.
Proteins - Key Points:

Cell Growth and Repair:

• Proteins are essential for building new cells and supporting growth.
• They are crucial for synthesizing various proteins in the body, including haemoglobin, insulin, and antibodies.

Sources:
• Protein-rich foods include:
- meat,
- fish,
- eggs,
- dairy products,
- peas,
- beans,
- nuts,
- seeds.
Vitamins - Key Points:

Essential Micronutrients:

• Vitamins are organic compounds required in small quantities for various bodily functions.
• Deficiency in vitamins can lead to deficiency diseases.

Vitamin Food that contains it Why it is needed Deficiency disease

C § Citrus fruits (such as § Function: Forms stretchy protein § Symptoms: Joint and muscle pain,
oranges, lemons) crucial for skin and tissue repair. bleeding gums, and other hemorrhages.

§ Raw vegetables § Importance: Maintains tissue § Historical Context: Common among

integrity and elasticity. sailors on long voyages due to lack of
fresh vegetables.
D § Food: Butter, egg yolk. § Function: Facilitates calcium § Rickets: Common in children from
absorption for bone and teeth industrial areas with little sun exposure.
§ Sunlight: Skin formation.
synthesizes most of the § Softens and deforms bones due to vitamin
vitamin D when D deficiency.
exposed to sunlight.
Minerals - Key Points :

• Inorganic substances required in small amounts.

• Table 7.2 outlines key sources and uses of important minerals.

Mineral ion Foods that Contain Why it is needed Deficiency disease

Calcium § Calcium Sources: Milk, § Uses: Bones, teeth, blood § Deficiency Effects: Brittle
dairy products, bread clotting bones and teeth, poor
blood clotting
Iron § Iron Sources: Liver, red § Uses: For producing § Anemia: insufficient red
meat, egg yolk, dark hemoglobin, the red blood blood cells, leading to
green vegetables pigment carrying oxygen. oxygen deficiency in
tissues.
Fiber - Key Points:

Digestive Function:
• Fiber aids in keeping the alimentary canal functioning properly.
• It promotes peristalsis, the movement of food through the digestive system.

Muscle Stimulation:
• Muscles contract and relax to move food along the alimentary canal.
• Fiber stimulates these muscles, especially in harder, less digestible foods.
• It helps prevent constipation by maintaining digestive system health.
Sources:
• Found in plant foods like fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and cereal husks.

• Excellent sources include bran from cereal grains like oats, wheat, and barley.

• Brown or unpolished rice is also a good fiber source.

Water - Key Points :

Body Composition:
• More than 60% of the human body consists of water.
• Water serves as a crucial solvent in various bodily functions.

Cellular Environment:
• Cytoplasm, the fluid within cells, is a solution of numerous substances in water.
• Interstitial spaces between cells are also filled with a watery liquid.

Metabolic Reactions:
• Chemical reactions within cells (metabolic reactions) rely on substances being in solution.
• Cell dehydration halts metabolic processes, leading to cell death.
Blood Composition:
• Blood plasma, mainly water, transports dissolved substances
throughout the body.

• Water facilitates the dissolution of enzymes and nutrients in

the digestive system.

Waste Removal:
• Water aids in eliminating waste products, such as urea, from
the body through urine.

• Most water intake comes from drinking fluids, although some

fruits also contain significant water content.
7.2 The human digestive system:
Body Systems Overview:
• Definition: Body systems comprise organs collaborating to execute specific functions.
• Example: The human digestive system encompasses the alimentary canal, liver, and pancreas, collectively
breaking down ingested food for absorption into the bloodstream.

Digestive Processes:
• Ingestion:
• Definition: Intake of food and drink through the mouth.
• Mechanism: Utilizes the lips, teeth, and tongue to initiate the
intake process.

• Digestion:
• Definition: Breakdown of large food pieces and molecules into
smaller components, both physically and chemically.
• Mechanism:
• Physical Digestion: Large pieces are broken down into
smaller ones.

• Chemical Digestion: Large molecules are broken down

into small molecules.
• Absorption:
• Definition: Movement of small nutrient molecules and mineral ions through intestinal walls into the
bloodstream.

• Mechanism: Facilitated by specialized cells and transport mechanisms in the intestinal lining.

• Assimilation:
• Definition: Incorporation of absorbed nutrients into body cells for energy production or synthesis of new
substances.

• Mechanism: Nutrients are absorbed by individual cells and utilized for various metabolic processes.
• Egestion:
• Definition: Elimination of undigested material, including fiber, from the body as feces.

• Mechanism: Involves muscular contractions of the intestines to move indigestible material toward the rectum
for excretion.
The alimentary canal:

Alimentary Canal Overview:

• Definition: Long tube from mouth to anus, part of the digestive
system, involving the liver and pancreas.

• Muscular Activity: Contains muscles for peristalsis, which is the

contraction and relaxation to propel food.

• Sphincter Muscles: Special muscles that can close certain parts of the
canal.

• Lubrication: Mucus produced by goblet cells along the canal facilitates

food passage.

• Functions: Each section contributes to digestion, absorption, and

egestion of food.
The mouth:
Ingestion and Initial Digestion:
• Process: Food enters through teeth, lips, and tongue.
• Teeth: Bite and grind food, increasing surface area for
digestion.
• Physical Digestion: Begins as food is broken into smaller
pieces.
• Tongue's Role: Mixes food with saliva, forms it into a bolus
for swallowing.

Salivary Glands and Saliva:

• Saliva Composition: Water, mucus, and amylase enzyme.
• Functions: Water dissolves food substances for taste, mucus
binds chewed food, and amylase starts starch digestion.

Importance: These processes initiate digestion and facilitate

swallowing.
The oesophagus:
Anatomy of the Throat:
• Structure: Two tubes lead from the back of the mouth.
• Front Tube: Trachea or windpipe for air to the lungs.
• Behind Trachea: Oesophagus for food to the stomach.

Lumen:
• Definition: Central space in any tube in the body.
• Presence: Found in all parts of the alimentary canal and blood
vessels.

Sphincter Muscle:
• Role: Controls the entrance to the stomach.
• Function: Relaxes to permit food passage, contracts to close the
entrance afterward.
The stomach:
Stomach Anatomy:
• Structure: Strong, muscular walls.
• Function: Mixes food with enzymes and mucus.

Cellular Composition:
• Goblet Cells: Secrete mucus.
• Enzyme-Producing Cells: Produce protease enzymes.
• Hydrochloric Acid Production: Secreted by specific cells.
Role of Enzymes and Hydrochloric Acid:
• Enzymes: Digest proteins (proteases).
• Hydrochloric Acid: Creates low pH (pH 2) environment, killing harmful microorganisms and activating protease enzymes.

Food Storage and Release:

• Storage: Stomach can retain food for an extended period.
• Release: Sphincter opens after one to two hours, allowing partly digested food to enter the duodenum.
The small intestine:

Small Intestine Overview:

• Location: Between the stomach and the colon.
• Length: Approximately 5 meters.
• Parts: Includes the duodenum (nearest to the stomach) and the ileum (nearest to the colon).

Pancreas Function:
• Location: Positioned beneath the stomach.
• Structure: Cream-colored gland.
• Pancreatic Duct: Connects the pancreas to the duodenum.

Pancreatic Juice:
• Composition: Contains various enzymes for chemical digestion.
• Delivery: Flows through the pancreatic duct into the duodenum.

Absorption Function:
• Ileum Role: Site of nutrient absorption into the bloodstream.
• Water Absorption: Occurs in the ileum along with nutrient absorption.
The large intestine:

Large Intestine Overview:

• Components: Consists of the colon and rectum.

Colon Function:
• Water Absorption: Primary function is to absorb water from the
remaining food.

Rectum Role:
• Storage: Stores undigested food as feces.

Elimination Process:
• Egestion: Faeces are expelled from the body through the anus.
The pancreas and liver:

Pancreas and Liver Function:

• Not Part of Alimentary Canal: Despite their importance in digestion,
food does not pass through the pancreas and liver.

Pancreas Role:
• Enzyme Secretion: Pancreas secretes enzymes aiding digestion in the
duodenum.

Liver Function:
• Bile Production: Liver secretes bile, aiding digestion.
Bile Storage and Release:
• Gallbladder Role: Bile produced by the liver is stored in the
gallbladder.
• Release: Bile is released into the duodenum via the bile duct
when food enters.

Bile Properties:
• Appearance: Yellowish green, alkaline, watery liquid.
• Neutralization: Helps neutralize the acidic stomach contents
in the duodenum.
7.3 Digestion:
Digestion Overview:
• Large Molecules Breakdown: Food molecules (starch, protein, fat) are initially too large to pass through intestinal
walls for absorption.

Digestion Stages:
• Physical Digestion: Large food pieces are mechanically broken down into smaller pieces, primarily by teeth and
stomach churning.

• Chemical Digestion: Enzymes catalyze reactions breaking large food molecules into smaller, water-soluble ones for
absorption.
Summary of Digestion Outcomes:
• Starch: Broken down into smaller molecules by enzymes.
• Protein: Enzymatic breakdown into smaller, soluble molecules.
• Fat: Enzymatic breakdown into smaller, absorbable molecules.

Exclusion from Chemical Digestion:

• Vitamins, Water, Mineral Ions: Already small enough for absorption, so no chemical digestion required.

Large Enzyme that Small molecules produced

molecule breaks it down
Starch Amylase Simple reducing sugars
Protein Protease Amino Acids
Fat Lipase Fatty
Teeth:

Teeth Function:
• Assist in ingestion and mechanical digestion of food.
• Bite, chop, crush, or grind food into smaller pieces, increasing surface area
for enzymatic action.
• Aid in dissolution of soluble molecules in saliva.

Tooth Structure:
• Enamel: Hardest animal substance, covers tooth above the gum, resistant
to breakage but can be dissolved by acids.

• Dentine: Bone-like layer beneath enamel, contains channels with living

cytoplasm.

• Nerves and Blood Vessels: Present in the tooth's middle, supplying

nutrients and oxygen to dentine cytoplasm.

• Cement: Covers tooth embedded in gum, attaches tooth to jaw bone via
fibers allowing slight movement.
Types of Teeth in Mammals:
• Incisors: Sharp-edged, front teeth for biting.
• Canines: Pointed teeth adjacent to incisors.
• Premolars and Molars: Large, back teeth for chewing.
• Wisdom Teeth: Last molars, develop later in life.
Chemical digestion:
Actions of Teeth and Stomach:
• Break food into smaller pieces, increasing surface area.
• Facilitate enzymatic contact with food molecules, aiding in their breakdown.

Enzyme Optimum Conditions:

• Work best at about 38°C, our normal body temperature.
• Vary in pH requirements:
• Stomach enzymes: Optimal pH around 2 due to hydrochloric acid secretion (HCL), HCL kills bacteria.
• Duodenum enzymes: Optimal pH just above 7 facilitated by bile and pancreatic juice, neutralizing
stomach acid.
Table 7.4 summarizes the production and working locations of different digestive enzymes in the human digestive system.

Enzyme Where it is secreted Where it acts

Amylase By the salivary glands In the mouth
By the pancreas In the duodenum
Protease By the walls of the stomach In the stomach
By the pancreas In the duodenum
Lipase By the pancreas In the duodenum
Enzymes in the human digestive system:

Amylase:
• Secreted in the mouth and duodenum.
• Breaks down starch into maltose.

Maltase:
• Found in the epithelial cells lining the small intestine.
• Breaks maltose into glucose for absorption.
Epithelial cells in the small intestine, the lining tissue is called epithelium
Protease:
• Pepsin in the stomach, trypsin in the duodenum.
• Breaks down protein into amino acids.

Pepsin:
• Functions optimally at pH 2 in the stomach's acidic environment.

Trypsin:
• Works in the duodenum with an optimum pH just above 7.
Bile:
• Emulsifies fats, breaking large fat droplets into smaller ones.
• Enhances fat digestion by increasing surface area for lipase action.

Emulsification:
• Physical digestion that increases fat droplet surface area.

Lipase:
• Chemically digests fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
Figure 7.12 summarizes the physical and chemical digestion of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates in the human digestive
system.
7.4 Absorption and assimilation:

Once food reaches the duodenum, most large molecules are fully
digested into small ones:
• Carbohydrates: Broken down to glucose.
• Proteins: Converted to amino acids.
• Fats: Hydrolyzed into fatty acids and glycerol.

These small, soluble molecules can now pass through the small intestine
walls into the bloodstream, a process known as absorption.

Additionally:
• Mineral ions (iron, calcium), vitamins, and water are absorbed
into the blood from the small intestine.
• A smaller amount of water is also absorbed in the colon.
Villi:

Villi and Microvilli:

• Inner wall of small intestine lined with villi, tiny projections about
1 mm long.
• Each villus covered with numerous microvilli, further increasing
surface area.

Function:
• Villi and microvilli facilitate absorption of various substances:
• Glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins, mineral
ions, and water.

Function of Maltase: Acts on the surfaces of villi and microvilli to break

down maltose into glucose molecules.
Absorption Process:
• Most substances absorbed into blood capillaries within villi.
• Blood capillaries from all villi join hepatic portal vein,
transporting substances to liver.
• Liver cells absorb and assimilate absorbed substances.
• Glucose may be converted to glycogen for storage
• Amino acids used for protein synthesis or converted to
urea for excretion.
• Fatty acids and glycerol enter lacteals, eventually reaching
bloodstream.

Surface Area Enhancement:

• Villi and microvilli greatly increase surface area of small
intestine, expediting absorption process.
Summary:
Balanced Diet: Types of Teeth:
• Contains proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, vitamins, • Incisors, canines, premolars, and molars; aid in grinding
water, and fibre in suitable amounts and proportions. food for increased surface area.

Deficiency Diseases: Enzymatic Action:

• Scurvy results from a lack of vitamin C, while rickets is • Amylase breaks down starch to maltose; protease breaks
caused by a deficiency in vitamin D. down proteins to amino acids; lipase breaks down fats to
fatty acids and glycerol.
Components of Digestive System:
• Mouth, oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, ileum (small Role of Hydrochloric Acid:
intestine), colon, rectum (large intestine), liver, gall • Provides low pH in stomach for enzyme activity and kills
bladder, and pancreas. harmful microorganisms in food.

Digestive Process: Function of Bile:

• Ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation, and • Emulsifies fats to aid in digestion by lipase; secreted by liver
egestion. and stored in gall bladder.
Physical Digestion: Absorption of Nutrients:
• Teeth and stomach break down large food pieces into • Occurs in small intestine, with water absorption also from
smaller ones. the colon.
Chemical Digestion: Role of Villi and Microvilli:
• Enzymes in mouth, stomach, and small intestine break • Increase surface area of small intestine, facilitating
down large nutrient molecules into smaller ones for absorption.
absorption.