ai- nt

192 Advanced Physics

In short, nanoscience is the "study" and nanotechnology 1s the "engineering"

components and
which deals with the design and manufacture of extremly small characterization and
systems. In other words. the technology of design, synthe sis,
application of materials on nanoscale is called nano technology. The most important thet
requirement for the defination of nano technology is that the nano-structure has Con
Special properties that are exclusively due to its nano scale proport1ons.
The US National nanotechnology Initiative defines nano-technology as 4.1
consisting of all of the following -
Research and technology development at the 1 to 100 nm range.
their dif
Creating and using structures that have novel properties because of
small size.
Ability to control or manipulate at the atomic scale.
4.12 Classification of Nano materials
When the size or dimension of a material is continuously reduced from a 4.
macroscope size to a very small size. then it is observed that the properties of the
matter remains same in the beginning but small changes occur afterwords. Further,
fthe size is reduced below 100 nm (i.e. in nano range), then drastic changes occur S
nthe optical, electrical and magnetic properties of the matter.
a
Nano materials can be classified dimension wise into following categories:
1. 1-D nano materials or quantum well: For a rectangular structure, as
shown in Fig.(a), if one dimension is reduced to the nano range. While
other dimensions remain large, then the structure so formed is known as
quantum well Fig. (b).

3D 2D 1D 0D
(Bulk) (Quantum Well) (Quantum Wire) (Quantum Dot)
(b) (c) (d)

DE)

E E

Fig. 4.19
2. 2-D nano materials or quantum wire : If the two dimensions are
reduced
to nano range while the third remains the same, then
the structures so
formed is known as quantum wire (fig. c).
Unit-V

3. 3-D 193
nano materials or quantum
the dot:when all the three
material are reduced to nano range, then it is called asdimensions
of
as shown in (fig. d).
quantum dot
It is inportant to
mention here that the word quantum is
lhe three structures. This is
Confinment effect.
because the changes in properties ariseassociated with all
due to Quantum
4.13 Manufacturing of Nanomaterials
Nano materials for different
different approaches. These are
applications may be manufactured by using two
1. Top-down approach
2. Bottom -up approach
4.13.1. Top-down approach
Top down method, begins, with a pattern generated on a larger scale, then
reduced to nano scale. In "top-down" approach, one has to start with rough, large
scale materials and carve a shape into it.This approach starts with a bulk material
and then break it into smaller pieces using mechanical, chemical or other form of
energy.
The most commonly used top-down approach is LIthography. Lithography is
an image that is produced by making a pattern on the stone, inking the stone and
then pushing the inked stone on to the paper. The lithography used may be a nanoscale
lithography or dip- pen lithography or an E -beam lithography. The lithography shines
radiation through a tip to the surface coated with radiation - sensitive resist. The
resist is then removed and the surface is chemically treated to produce the nano
structure.
Lithography technique is used to manufacture computer chips and produce
structures smaller than 100 nm.
 Advanced Physics
194

Bulk
TOP DOWN
METHOD

Powder

Nanoparticles

an
Cluster

BOTTEM UP
METHOD
Atoms

Fig. 4.20
4.13.2 Bottom-up approach
This methodology starts with atoms or molecules and builds up to
nano-structures. That is "Bottom-up" approach is to synthesise the material from
atom or molecule by a sequence of chemical reactions controlled by series of catalysts.
Bottom-up approach is a technique to collect, consolidate and fashion individual
atoms and molecules into the structure.
Methods to' produce nano particles from atom or molecule are chemical
processes based on transformations in solutions, e.g. Sol -Gel Process, Chemical
Vapour Deposition (CVD), plasma or flame spraying synthesis, laser
atomic or molecular condensation. These chemical pyrolysis and
of appropriate "metal organic" molecules as processess rely on the availability
precursors.
Bottom-up approach is also termed as self assembly technique. Self
is a method in which the assembly
components spontaneously assemble, typically by bouncing
around in a solution or gas phase until a stable
reached. Self assembly is important to the assemblystructure
of minimum energy is
of Nano technology and is thus a
promising method for assembling atomically precise devices. Components in
self-assembled structures find their appropriate location
structural properties (or chemical properties in the case of based solely on their
assembly). atomic or molecular self
Unit-N
195

414 Synthesis of Nano materials (Different Techniques for Synthesis of Nano-

materials)
Nano particles with size ranging from l nm to 100 nm can be synthesized by
neans of various techniques. Physical, chemical, biological and self assembly
technique are few common of them.
Some of them are discussed below:

L14.1. Mechanical alloying or Ball milling method

(DBall milling method is a mechànical method-This is a special type of grinder.
It is a cylindrical device used in grinding materials like ores, chemicals, ceramic
partially filled
raw materials etc, The mill rotates around a horizontal axis and is
material to be grounded
with material to be grounded pluse the grinding medum, Thetungasten carbide balls,
iscrushed mechanically in rotating drums by hard steel'óris crushed in the form of
material
under controlled atmospheric conditions. The in grain size.
reduction
powder. The repeated grinding process cause large when cylinder Bofetes,
The main features of the process are: re foe s
It can be used for surface chemistry.
Primarily an etching process, byt can be centlys
pocluced
used to
a bergt not
çreate new
Steel
materials. Glls

4.14.2. Sol-Gel Method esrenP/ Koifom

technique is a long established industrial procéss for the genera
The Sol-Gel chemical proce ss. It
colloidal nano-particles from liquid phase. Sol-Gel is a processing tempera
tion of processes due to its relatively low
differs from other chemical process cost effective and versatile.
Sol-Gel
ture. This makes the suspension of solid particles of
ions in a
molecular to
A Sol is a colloidal or forms when the solvent from the sol begins
semi-rigid mass that together in a continuous
solvent. A gel is a behind begin to join
ions left
evaporate and the particles or
network.
the use of appropriate precursors. Typical
This chemical process
rely on
chloridesThe most widely used are
and metal gels.
precursors 'are meta. alkOxides
tertraethosilanes (TEOS) which form silica
and
tetramethoxy silane TMOS) water}Alcohol used as a solvent. The metal chlorides
is dispersed in a
Alokoxides are immis ible in reactions to form a colloid
poly condensation inorganic network
undergo hydrolysis and evolves then towards the formation of an serves to
Solvent. Inorganic the sol this, a drying process is used which thermal
(gel) After Finally, a
containing a liquid p ase thus forming aporous material.condensation and
the liquid pha from the gel favour, further poly
remove order to
treatment (firing) is erformed in
enhance mechanicai oroperties.
 196
Advanced Physics

Precursor
(Usually mixture of metal, bimetallic or
-axobimetallic alkoxide)
Hydrolysis
Sol

Condensation

Gel

Critical Point Melt at lower

1. Thin films Drying temperature
2. Fibers
3. Spheres
4. Grains Speciality
Phase
Glasses
5. Powder

Fire
Noncryslalline
Crystal ceramic Ceramics
(Xerogel, Aerogels)

Fig. 4.21
Sol-Gel derived materials have
energy, space, bio-sensors, medicine anddiverse applications in optics, electronics,
separation technology (chromato graphy).
4.14.3. Physical Vapour Deposition Technique (PVD)
Physical Vapour Deposition or PVD technique includes a
technologies in which material is released from a source and number of deposition
substrate. transferred to the
Physical Vapour
deposition methods used toDeposition
deposite
technique includes a variety of vacuum
thin films by the condensation of a
form of the desired film material onto Vaporized
fers), rather than involving a chemical various surfaces (e.g. onto semiconductor wa
reaction at the surface to be coated as in
chemical vapour deposition (CVD]. PVD technigque is more
metals since it can be performed at lower common than CVD for
process risk and
materials cost. The quality of the film is inferior to CVD, which cheaper in regards to
higher resistivity and in insulators with more defects and results in metals with
traps.
The two most important PVD
technologies are -
1. Evaporation
2. Sputtering
1.
Evaporation: In evaporation the
in which a block (source) of the substrate placed inside a vacuum chamber,
is
material to be deposited is also located. The
source material is then heated to the point where it starts to boil and
evaporate.
Unit-N
197

The Vacuum is required to allow the molecules to

evaporate freely in the
chamber and they subsequently condense on all surfaces. This principle is
the same tor all evaporation technologies, only the method used to heat
(evaporate) the source material differs.
There are two popular evaporation technologies, which are e-beam, evaporation
and Resistive Evaporation each referring to the heating method. In e-beam
evaporation, an electron beam is aimed at the source material causing local
heating and evaporation. In resistive evaporation, a tungsten boat,containing
the source material, is heated electrically with a high current to make the
material evaporate.
2. Sputtering : Sputtering isa technology in which the material is released from
the source at much lower temperature than evaporation. The substrate is placed
in a Vaccum Chamber with the source material, named a target and an insert
gas (such as orgon) is introduced at low pressure. Gas plasma is struck using
an Kr (Kadio trequency) power source, Causing the gas to become ionized.
The ions are accelerated towards the surface of the target, causing atoms of
the source material to break off from the target in vapour form and condense
on all surfaces including the substrate
As tor evaporation, the basic principles of sputtering is the same for all
sputtering technologies. The differences are typically reflected in the amount
of energy provided to ion when bombardment of the target is realized.
4.14.4 Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) Technique:
which a number of
In this process, the substrate is placed inside a reactor to
is that a chemical reaction
gases are supplied. The fundamental principle of the processreaction is a solid material
takes place between the source gases. The product of that
with condenses on all surfaces inside the reactor.
The twO most important CVD technologies are -
1. Low pressure CVD [LPCVD]
2. Plasma Enhanced CVD [PECVD]
1. Low pressure CVD LPCVD]:The LPCVD process produces layers with excellent
problems with
uniformity of thickness and material characteristics. The main
than 600c) and the
the process are the high depostion temperature (higher
relatively slow deposition rate.
wafers at a time.
LPCVD systemns deposit films on both sides of at least 25
2. Plasma Enhanced CVD (PECVD) : The PECVD process can operate at lower
energy is
temperatures (below 300°c, much advantageous as the extra
supplied to the gas molecules by the plasma in the reactor.
material on one side of
Most PECVD deposition systems can only deposit the
the wafers on 1to 4 wafers at a time.
some of
Avariety of materials can be deposited,with this technology; however,
formed during
them are less popular because of hazardous by products
 Advanced Physics
198

of the material varies from process to process, however,

processing. The quality quality
generally higher process, temperature yields a material with higher
and less defects.
5. Lithography : The most commonly used top-down approach to make
Nano is an image (usually)
nanostructures is Lithography Technigue. A lithograph
inking the stone and then
stone,
that 1s produced by making a pattern on the
pushing inked stone on to the paper.
computer chips and produce structure
Lnis technique is used to manufacture
smaller than 100 nm.
The reason is that the wave
A nanoscale lithography cannot use visible light. structures, smaller than
length ofvisible light is at least 400 nanometers. Therefore,
that are difficult to make directly using it.
We will discuss following Nanolithography techniques
1. Photolithography
2. E-beam lithography
3. Dip Pen nanolithography
1. Photolithography : One common method of Nanotihography used particularly
for the production of microchips, is known as phothogaphy. In this technique,
a beam of UV light activates the photo resist, transferring the pattern from the
mask to the sample. This technigue has the limitation that it can not produce
the super fine sizes of the particle.
2. E-beam lithography :A technology that allows for smaller sizes than
photolithography is that of electron -beam or E-beam lithography.
The light based industrial lithography is limited to creating features no smaller
than the wavelength used. Although smaller wavelength of light can be used
but this creats side efects like blowing the feature which we are trying to
create. The reason is that smaller wavelength light has higher energy.
An alternate way to solve the problem is to use electrons instead of light. This
E- beam lithography is used toobtain a particle size of about 20 nm. E-beam
lithography is much more expensive and time consuming than
photolithography.
E-beam lithography also has applications in current micro electronic
manufacturing.
3. Dip Pen nanolithography (DPN) : Dip pen nanolithography is a process of
writing in the same way as we write ink lines with a fountain pen. In order to
make such lines in nano scale, it is necessary to have a nano pen. An atomic
force microscope (AFM) tips ideally work as nano pen.
Atomic force microscope is a very high resolution type of scanning probe
microscope. The scanning probe tip of this microscope is similar to the tip of a
fountain pen. In DPN, a reservoir of ink (atoms or molecules) is stored on the
top of scanning probe tip. The tip is manipulated across the surface, leaving
lines and patterns behind.
Unit-V 199

AFM has high resolution of fraction of A, i.e. more than 100 times better than
optical diffraction limit.
AFM tips are relatively easy to manipulate. This fact makes DPN the techniques
of choice for creating new and complex structures in small volumes.
A.15 Properties of nano materials
A15.1 Nano scale and its significance
When ws reduce the size of the particle to nano scale, the interactions and
physics between atoms display properties which are different from those at larger
Scale (i.e. bulk material).
For example, metals with a grain size of around 10 nanometers are as much
as seven times harder and tougher than their ordinary counter parts with grain sizes
in hundreads of nanometers.
of any material are
The reason for this change over is that the bulk propertiesatoms.
affecting all the As we make
merely the average of all the quantum forces the averaging
a point where
particle size smaller and smaller, we eventually reach not occur when we go from
the effect does
no longer holds. It is important to note that dominant only when the nanomneter size,
macro to micro dimensions, but become
range is reached.
at the nanoscale than bulk properties
The properties of materials are different
for following two main reasons larger surface
Surface to Volume Ratio : Nano materials have a relativelylarger form. This
1.
mass of material produced in a
area as compared to the same large surface to volume ratio than their bulk
implies that nanoparticles have
materials more chemically reactive and
affect
counterpart. This can make
properties.
their strength or electrical 3m

2 m

3m
m
2m

1m

1m 3 m

24m2 54m2
Surface area 6m2
8m3 27m3
lm3
Volume 2:1
3:1
Surface area: 6:1
Volume Fig. 4.22
 200 Advanced Physics
2. Quantum effects : Quantum effects begin to dominate the behaviour of matter
at the nano scale. This affects the optical, electrical and magnetic behaviour
of materials. Therefore, nanomaterials have unusual electrical, optical and
magnetic properties than their bulk counterpart.
Some interesting examples which shows, what kind of changes in the
properties occur at nano scale are
(1) Inert materials can become catalyst e.g. platinum.
(11) Opaque substaaces can become transparent, e.g. copper.
(111) Solids can turn into liquids at room temperature, e.g. gold
(iv) Insulators can become conductors, e.g. , silicon.
(v) Stable material can turn combustible, e.g. aluminium

4.15.2 Comparision of Properties of Nanomaterials with bulk material

1.
Mechanical Properties : The material in nano phase has very high strength
and super hardness.
Nanophase metals with their exceptionally simall grain size are found to be
very strong. The reason is that nano phase materials are mostly free from
dislocations.
The melting point of the cluster depends on the number of atoms in the crystal.
It increases with increase in number of atoms and attains the value of bulk
material when the cluster contains 1000 atoms or more. It is observed that
melting point reduction is not significant until the particle size is less than
about 1Onm.
2. Optical Properties : Optical properties of nano material are determined by
the internal electron energy level structure. The colour of the material is
determined by the wavelength (Energy) of the photon absorbed by it.
Thus the absorption spectra are determined by energy gaps between two
energy levels. In case of nano materials, as the size of nano particle decreases,
energy gaps increases and the absorption spectrum of the material changes.
In semiconductor nanoparticles, there are pronounced changes in the optical
properties as compared to bulk material.
In colour of metallic nano particles also depend on the size of (and
shape) of
the particle, For example, bulk gold is 'golden yellow' in colour but
nano
particles of gold can have red, purple or blue colour. 1 to 10 nm sized particle
give rise to this colour, Also thin film of gold of the thickness of the order of
100 nmn or less, transmits blue-violet light. Evidence shows that Gold nano
particles were used as a pigment of ruby -coloured stained glass in 17th
century.
Unit-N

201
3. Magnetic Properties: Magnetic
nano-particles are those which can be affected
using magnetic field. These particles
iron, nickel, cobalt etc. Magnetic usually contain magnetic elements like
magnetic behaviour when compared nano-particles show a variety of unusual
to the bulk materials,
surface or interface effects, including mostly due to
symmetry
environment or charge transfer and magnetic interactions. breaking, electronic
The phy sical and chemical properties of
depend upon the chemical structure and method magnetic nanoparticles mainly
of synthesis. For example,
nano particles, of Magnetite show super
paramagnetism at a transition
temperature, which is smaller than the transition temperature of bulkmaterial.
Magnetic nano particles are used for drug delivery, therapeutic treatment,
contrast agents for MRI imaging and in - vitro diagnosis. These nanoparticles
are super paramagnetic. Super paramagnetic nanoparticles are not magnetic
when located in a zero magnetic field, but they quickly become magnetized
when external magnetic field is applied. When returned to a zero magnetic
field they quickly revert to a non-magnetized state. Super paramagnetism is
one of the most important properties of nanoparticles used for bio-magnetic
separation. Also bulk gold and platinum are nonmagnetic but at the nano
size they are magnetic.
4. Electrical Properties: The electrical properties like conductivity or resistivity
of a bulk material does not depend upon dimensions like diameter or area of
found that in
cross section and twist in the conducting wire. However, it is
area of cross
case of carbon nano-tubes conductivity changes with change in given
twist) is
section. Conductivity also changes when some shear force (or
to nano-tube.
is different than that of single
Conductivity of a multi walled carbon nano-tube
nano-tube of same dimensions.

4.16 Some Special Nanomaterials:

4.16.1. Zeolites:
inter linked tet
hydrated alumina silicate materials made from
Zeolites are rock which
alumina (AIO,) and Silica (SiO,). Zeolite is a special kind ofopen, three -
rahedra of relatively
it. In other words zeolities are solids with a
traps water inside
structure made up of the elements aluminium, oxygen and sili
dimensional crystal
alkaline - Earth metals (such as sodium, potessium and
con along with alkali or trapped in the gaps between them.
magnesium) and water molecules zeo
naturally occuring zeolites and around 150 artificial
There are about 40
specific purposes e.g. Zeolite A is commonly used as
for catalytic Cracking. In general
lites have been designed X and Y are used for
laundry detergent and Zeolites
as
softeners to animal food and
different uses like from water
Zeolites have many
industrial catalysts.
 Fig. 4.23
Properties of Zeolites
eOhtes have many special properties which make them useful for different
applications. The important properties of zeolites are as follows
1.
Stable Structure : Zeolites are very stable solids that can resist all kinds of
environmental conditions. They also resist high pressures.
2. High melting point : Zeolites have relatively high melting point (mÍre than
1000°c) and they don't burn.
3. lnsoluble in water : Zeolites do not dissolve in water or other inorganic
solvents.
4. Zeolites do not oxidize in the air.
5.
Since Zeolites are unreactive and based on naturally occuring minerals, they
are do not have any harmful environment impacts.
6.
Open structure : The most important and interisting property of zeolites is
their open, cage-like, structure. Zeolites have regular openings of fixed sizein
them, which allows small molecules to pass straight through but traps larger
molecules. In this way, zeolites trap other molecules inside it. Because of this
property water molecules and allkali or alkaline earth metal ion become a part
of zeolite crystal. For this reason,zeolites are also referred as molecular sieves.
Natural zeolites occur in random forms and of mixed sizes but synthe tic
zeolites are manufactured very precisely and of uniform sizes to suit for a
particular application.
7. Cation Exchange : Zeolite s can exchange other positively charged ions
(cations) in place of the metal ions originally trapped inside them. This is
known as cation exchange.
Unit-N
203

Reversible dehydration: Zeolites can gain or lose their water

loosely. This process is known as molecules very
reversibledehydration.
Applications of Zeolites :
In water softeners and water filters : One of the
1.
in water softeners and water filters. important uses of zeolite is
Hard water (Containg calcium and magne sium ions) is piped through a column
filled with sodium - containing zeolites. The zeolites trap the calcium and
magnesium ions and release sodrum ions in their place, so the water becomes
softer but richer in sodium.
2. In odor control and pet litter: For odor control and pet litter, the porous
crystalline structure of the zeolites helps by trapping unwanted liquids and
odor molecules.
3. Zeolites are also used for removing radio active particles from nuclear waste
and cleaning up soils contaminated with toxic heavy metals.
4. As Catalysts : Zeolites are also used as catalysts in drug (Pharmaceutical)
production and in the petrochemical industry,where they are used in catalytic
crackers to break large hydro carbon molecules into gasoline, diesel,
kerosene, waxes and all kinds of other by products of petroleum.
The porous structure of ze olites plays an important role for it's use as catalyst.
tiny test
The many pores in a zeolite's open structure are like millions of
tubes where 'atoms and molecules become trapped and chemical reactions
again.
readily take place. Like allcatalysts, zeolites are reusable over and over
4.16.2 Graphene
arranged in a regu
Graphene is a substance made of pure carbon, with atoms
thick sheet. Graphene is the thinnest
lar hexagonal pattern the form of a one atom very light in weight. The weigth of a 1
and the strongest material known to us. It is
square meter sheet is only 0.77 mg.
is a single planar sheet of
Graphene is an allotrope of carbon whose structure
packed in a honey comb crystal lattice.
SP² bonded carbon atoms, that are density Novoselov by taking
Geim and K.
Graphene was first obtained in 2004 by A folded
carbon layers from it. They repeatedly
graphite and using sticky tape to peel off carbon obtained.
peel until a single layer was
the sticky part of the tape ontothe initial
Novoselour, received the Nobel prize in 2010 for
Both the Scientiests, A Geim and K.
this work.
of some carbon allotropes including
Graphene is the basic structúral element
and fullerenes.
graphite, chorcoal, carbon nano tubes
Properties of Graphene
of Graphene:
Following are some important properties and volume due to
largest surface area relative to its nass
Graphene has the
1.
lattice.
its two dimensional
 Advancod Physics
204

clectricity better than copper.

2 It conducts heat and
3 It has highest electron mobility. effective mass and very large mean free
low
4 Electrons in graphene have very
path.
5 is the thinnest, strongest and light weight material. transistors.
It has potential use in
properties, Graphene
Decause of such novel
made from silicon, improved solar cells, flexible elec
Wnich are faster than those
tronics and faster computers.
4.16.3 Carbon Nano Tubes (CNT): Inorganic
nanomaterials in the form of Carbon Nano tubes [CNTS)and
2-D
Nanotubes have wide applications
tubes were discovered by Sumio Lijma in 1991. Their name is
Carbon nano is in the order of few nanometer
size. The diameter of a nano tube
denved irom their length. Carbon nanotubes are allotropes
while they can be up to severalmiilmeter in
carbon with a nano structure that can have a length - to - diameter rati greater
O1
than 1,000,000. Carbon nano tube iscovalentlya sheet of graphite rolled into a cylindrical
bonded to three other carbon atoms.
structure in which one carbon atom is
Types of Nano tubes
1. Single - Walled Carbon Nano tube (SWNT)
2. Multi- Walled Carbon Nanotube (MWNT)
one aton
1. Single - Walled Carbon nano tubes: A SWNT can be thought of a
a seamless cylinder. In
thick layer of graphite (called graphene) wrapped in to electronics beyond the
the near future SWNT will be used for miniaturizing
micro electro mechanical scale.
2. Multi Walled Carbon Nanotubes : A MWNT Consists of multiple concentric
nanotube cylinders, i.e., they consist of multiple layers of graphite rolled in
on themselves to form a tube shape.

(a) SWNT (b) MWNT

Fig. 4.24
 205
Unit-N

(their young's modulus is

Carbon Nano Tubes are mechanically very strong
pascal, making CNT s as stiff as diamond), flexible (about their axis), and
aNer 2 tera well. Due to these properties nano tubes can
be
an conduct electricity extremly
1sed in following applications: much greater as to man
Nano tubes can produce materials with toughness
mechanical strength, nanotubes
made and natural materials. Due to its high
1
like clothes, sports gear to combat
can be used to produce from everyday items
|bullet proofjackets and space suits. made from
conduction mechanism, wires
Due to its unusual current with less power -wastage
nanotubes can conduct huge amount of current
2.
memory
can produce transistors and
With nano tubes and nano wires, we
3. tube based transistors can operate
devices about a nanometwer wide. Nano using a single
capable of digital switching
at room temperature and are
electron.
been developed using nano tubes.
Nano scale electric motors have also
4.
done to store hydrogen in nano tube. If successful, this
5. Research is being cell- powered cars.
would act as a fuel tank for hydrogen fuel vessel for
medical applications the carbon nano tube, can be used as a
6 In
transporting drugs into the body.
Nano tube sensors are used to detect
chemical vapours.
7.
Inorganic Nanotubes larged
nanotubes and inorganic fullerene - like materials based on
Inorganic discovery
disulphide were discovered shortlyafter
compunds such as molybdenum,
of CNTs. impact,
excellent lubricating properties, resistance to shock wave
They have hydrogen and lithium storage. Oxide -
based
catalytic reactivity and high capacity for applications in
being explored for their
nanotubes (such as titanium dioxide) are
catalysis, photocataly sis and energy storage:
4.7 Applications of Nano Material nanotube
Due to its unusual current conduction mechanism, wire made fromn
group
can conduct large amount of current with less power wastage. Charles Lieber'sof semi
demonstrated that crossed wires, made
at harvard university has recently as light emitting structures. These
conductors with nano scale dimension, can act
cross-wire emitters ar probably the smallest
current light sources. They are intense
their colours can be chosen. Therefore, the light emission, like photovoltaics is
and applications of nano-structure.
one of the most imme iately attractive
Electronics
Electronics is urrently the most important technology for computing and
las a major component of consumer
goods.
communications as v