Life-Span Development

● As we get older, our memory may be effected but we retain some knowledge
● Life span development- pattern of movement and change that begins at conception and
continues through the human lifespan until life as we know it ceases to exist.
● Developmental scientists study human development over lifespan
● Adult developmental psych is still being explored
● Principles of Life-Span Development: Life Span Perspective
○ Lifelong- not limited to childhood adolescence, continues to all ages
○ Multi-dimensional- each stage provides new challenges and opportunities for
growth
■ Cognitive
■ Physical
■ socio-emotional
○ Multidirectional - development is not straightforward, involves losses and gains
○ Plastic (plasticity)- the ability to change or adapt
■ Neuroplasticity- the brain's ability to change or adapt with life experiences
○ Development is contextual (culture and socio-economic status)
■ Normative age-graded influences- characteristics that we share depending
on our age
■ Normative history-graded influences- characteristics we share depending
on time period
■ Nonnormative life events- things that happen to individuals, not groups
○ Involves growth, maintenance, and regulation
● It took 5000 years to extend human life expectancy from 18 to 41 years, now it is 79.
○ In 1970 the life expectancy was 70 in the U.S.
○ Monaco has the highest life expectancy at 89

Differentiate Periods of Human Development

● Periods of development:
○ Prenatal period (conception to birth)
○ Infancy (birth to 18-24 months)
 ○ Early childhood (3-5 years)
○ Middle and late childhood (6-10/11 years old)
○ Adolescence (10-12 to 18-21 years)
○ Early adulthood (20s and 30s)
○ Middle childhood (40s and 50s)
○ Late adulthood (60s-70s)
● The unfolding of life's periods of development is influenced by the interaction of
biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes
● What is age?
○ Conceptions of age
■ Chronological age
■ Biological age
■ Psychological age
■ Social age
○ Three developmental patterns of aging:
■ Normal aging
■ Pathological aging- tied to disease
■ Successful aging - involves life satisfaction and other concepts of age
○ What is the maximum age you, as human, can live?
○ How many years can you expect to live based on when you were born?
○ How old do you feel?

Developmental Issues
● Developmental issues
○ Nature-nurture
○ Stability-change
○ Continuity-discontinuity
○ Active-passive
● Evaluating the developmental issues
○ All issues are significant to development throughout the human lifespan
Biological Beginnings
● Cells , Chromosomes, DNA, and Genes
○ Chromosomes
■ Contained in the nucleus of every cell
■ Contains our genetic code
○ Genes
■ Decides almost everything about living beings
■ Identifying different genes within ourselves, to understand diseases
● People are looking at gene therapy to understand the function of
them
○ Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
■ complex molecule containing genetic information or instructions that
promote life and growth
○ Epigenetics
■ Internal and external factors influence whether genetics turn on or off
● How do genes endure and pass on to the next generation: mitosis, meiosis, and
fertilization
○ Mitosis
■ Makes body cells
■ Goes through PMAT once
■ Phrophase- chromosomes condense, or thicken
○ Meiosis
■ Makes gametes
■ Goes through PMAT twice
○ Fertilization
■ The fusing of a sperm cell with an egg (gametes) that creates a new cell
(zygote) with a cell set of 46 chromosomes
○ Genotype
■ Internal traits that cannot be seen
● Ex. disease genetics
○ Phenotype
 ■ Physical characteristics that can be seen
● Genetic principles
○ Dominant-recessive genes
■ Only shows when someone has two recessive genes
○ Sex-linked genes
○ Genetic imprinting
○ Polygenic inheritance
○ Almost every trait is:
■ Polygenic
■ Multifactorial
● Chromosomal abnormalities
○ Alterations in chromosomes
■ Can be numerical or structural
● Gene-linked abnormalities
○ Produced by harmful genes

Genetic Testing and Genetic Dilemmas

● Husband and wife have a child with cystic fibrosis.
● The couple wants to determine the risk of having another child with this disorder
○ CF is a recessive disorder
● The DNA test revealed that the child’s mother is a carrier of the CF trait; her husband is
not
○ What does this information reveal?
○ What are the couple’s risk of having another child with CF?
● Good News: The couple’s chance of having another child with CF is very low. However,
test puts the counselor in a difficult situation.
● What should the counselor do?

Heredity Environment Genetics

● Behavioral genetics
 ○ Studies the influence of hereditary and environmental on individual differences in
human traits and development
■ Twin studies
● Identical (homozygous) vs fraternal twins
■ Adoption studies
● Comparisons between adoptive and biological siblings
● Genetic influences on personal characteristics
○ Range of reaction
○ Canalization
○ Gene-environment correlations
● Hereditary-Environment Correlation View
○ Passive genotype-environment correlations
■ Genetically related parents provide a rearing environment that is
correlated to the child’s genotype
○ Evocative genotype-environment correlations
■ How the social environment reacts to individuals based on their inherited
characteristics
○ Active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations
■ Children seek out environments they find compatible and stimulating
(niche picking)
● Epigenetic View
○ Development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between
hereditary and environment (G x E interactions)
○ Studies look at the interaction of a specific measured variation in DNA and a
specific measured aspect of the environment
The nature-nurture debate: what can we conclude?
● Genetic heritage and environmental experiences are pervasive influences on development
● Like genes, the specific environmental influences are complex.
● Consider that development is the co-construction of biology, nature, and the individual
Prenatal Development: Stages
Germinal stage (conception to 2 weeks)
● Zygote forms and cell division starts
● Usually not susceptible to teratogens
Embryonic Stage (2 weeks to 8 weeks)
● Cell differentiation intensifies/layers
● Support systems for the cells form
● Organogenesis- vulnerability to teratogens high
Fetal Stage (8 weeks to birth)
● Recognizable human form
● Growth and maturation
● Less susceptible to teratogens

Factors that influence prenatal development

● Teratogen:
○ Any agent that can potentially cause a birth defect or negatively alter cognitive or
behavioral outcomes.
● Effects of teratogens depend on:
○ Dose
○ Genetic susceptibility
○ Time of exposure

Birth and the Postpartum Period

● Childbirth setting and attendants.
○ At hospital or at home?
■ In the united states, 98.5% of births take place in hospitals (2015)
■ Mothers receive assistance from fathers/birth coaches
○ Natural or c-section?
○ Doctors
○ Midwives
○ Doulas
The Transition from Fetus to Newborn
● Birth involves considerable stress for the baby.
○ If delivery takes too long, the baby can develop anoxia
○ Baby has considerable capacity to withstand the stress of childbirth

Factors that place newborns at risk

● Biological factors:
○ Prematurity
○ Intracranial hemorrhage
○ Growth retardation
○ Infections
○ Lung disease
○ Biochemical abnormalities
○ Brain abnormalities
○ Seizures
● Environmental factors
○ Poverty
○ No medical insurance
○ Teenage mother
○ Mental retardation or emotional disturbance in parent or caregiver
○ Substance abuse by caregiver
○ Child abuse or neglect

Physical Development
● Involves changes in an individual’s size and body structure
○ Similar across cultures but differences exist due to genetic and envrionmental
factors
○ Malnurishment effects brain development and cognition
● Patterns of Physical development
○ A. cephalocaudal- development begins at the top of the head and moves down the
body
 ○ B. proximal- development from the center of the body and outwards
● Changes in proportions of the human body during growth
○ The head becomes smaller in relation to the body
○ At fetal age of 2 months head size is half of body length, at 5 months of fetal age
it is about 3rd of the size
○ Newborn’s heads are ¼ the total body length
● Factors that influence weight and height
○ Genetics
○ Growth hormone deficiency
○ Nutrition
■ Malnutrition is a common issue in developing countries
● Marasmus- your body wastes away because of malnutrition
● Kwashiorkor- protein deficiency that lead to symptoms of
letheragy, irritibility, body fills with fluid
● Anemia- lack of iron in blood
■ Obesity is the most common issue in affluent countries
○ Disease
● Infancy and childhood mortality causes
○ Malnutrition and disease (diarrhea) in developing countries
○ Accidents in developed countries

Adolescence
● Puberty
○ Rapid period of maturation involving hormonal & body changes
○ Influenced by heredity, hormones, weight and body fat
○ Secular trend- with improvements of health and nutrition, girls have gotten their
periods earlier throughout history
○ Precocious puberty
■ The extreme early coming of puberty, age 8 (girls) age 9 (boys)
■ Can diminish growth potential
● Psychological implications of puberty
 ○ Appearance and body image
○ Feelings and anxiety about the process
○ Family relations
■ Placing distance
■ Increased demands
○ Early vs late maturation
■ For boys advantageous to mature early (short term)
■ For girls advantageous to mature late

Adulthood
● Early adulthood physical growth:
○ Physical development of maturation completed
○ Peak of physical capabilities
○ Brain waves patterns show more mature patterns
○ Senses peak
○ Peak of athletic performance for many
○ General declines and chronic conditions may begin to develop
● Middle adulthood physical development:
○ Visible signs of aging start to appear
○ Strength and bcoordination declines
○ Reaction time (mainly motor) declines (experience and expertise)
○ Structural and systemic changes
○ Cardiovascular disease chances increases
○ Climateric
○ Society double standards
● Late adulthood
○ senesence - the act of aging
○ Physical changes:
■ Skin, hair, and voice
■ Body build and posture
■ Mobility
 ■ Sensory systems
■ Cardiovascular and respiratory systems
■ Reproductive system
■ Nervous system
○ Aging DOES NOT mean disease
○ Some aging related to diet, abuse and lifestyle
○ Psychological implication related to aging

Early Studies of Motor Development

● Arnold Gesell and Myrtle McGraw Studies
○ Arnold Gesell did experiments on infants and babies to learn more about motor
developments
○ Myrtle McGraw studied the development of stepping
● They created the infant motor milestone graph

Motor Development: The Dynamic Systems Theory

● Infants assemble motor skills for perceiving and acting
● Motivation leads to new motor behaviors, “tuned” with repetition (as in the baby
bouncer)
● New motor behaviors are therefore the result of
○ The body’s physical properties
○ Nervous system development
○ The goal the child is motivated to reach
○ Environmental support

Reflexes
● Infants are born with some motor skills called reflexes
● Unlearned, organized, involuntary, automatic responses
● Disappear gradually
● Inadequate reflexes might suggest neurological damage
● Moro, rooting, sucking, Babinski reflexes
Gross and Fine Motor Skills
● Gross motor skills
○ Involves large muscles
○ Require postural control
○ Walking, running, throwing
● Fine motor skills
○ Involves small muscles in hands and wrists
○ Require precise movements
○ Picking a raisin, buttoning a shirt, etc.
● Fine motor development
○ Reaching and grasping refines (1-2 years)
○ Eye-hand coordination issues
■ Early reaching (4-5 months)
■ Thumb finger grasp
■ Place blocks IN a container
■ Scribble on paper (12-16 months)
■ Stack blocks (18-24 months)
■ Imitate a vertical line (2- 3 ½ years)
■ Copy circle @ about three years
■ Finger painting (2-3 years)
■ Ties shoes (5 years)
● Childhood motor development (2-12 years)
○ Early childhood (2-6 years)
■ Gross and fine motor skills progress rapidly
■ Development and refinement of fundamental motor movements
■ Perceptual-motor abilities develop rapidly
○ Middle-late childhood (6-11 years)
■ Motor development smoother and coordinated
■ Sport skills and coordination of fundamental movements
■ Potential of mature movement skills
■ Refinement of perceptual and motor perceptual skills
 ● Adolescence and Adulthood
○ Motor development
■ Gross motor skills typically improve
■ Adults reach the peak of physical performance before age 30
● Peak in speed, endurance, coordination and endurance
● Most olympic athletes are early adults
● Complete physical, mental and social well being
■ Young adults are halthy and fir but are beginning to decline in some areas
● E.x. flexibility
■ Decline in general biological functioning begins at abobut age 30
● Middle and late adulthood
○ Strength and coordination decline
○ Reaction time (mainly motor) declines
■ Depends on experience and expertise
○ Older adults move more slowly
■ Adequate mobility important for maintaining an active and independent
lifestyle in late adulthood

What is Cognitive Development?

● Cognition
○ Processes or faculties by which we acquire and manipulate knowledge
○ A reflection of a mind. Not directly observable but inferred
○ Involves thought processes, intelligence and language
● Cognitive development
○ Mechanisms that underlie cognition and its development
○ How thinking (cognition) changes over time
● Cognitive development psychologist- Jean Piaget
○ Piaget’s theory addresses two main questions:
■ How does cognitive development happen?
■ How does children’s thinking look like at various points throughout
development?
 ● Schema- patterns of thinking and behavior that people use to interpret the world
○ Examples of childhood schema:
■ A child plays in the sand for the first time. Instead of digging it, he tries to
scoop and throw it, just luke he plays with water in the bathtub
■ A child knows cars are called vehicles, then he hears others calling busses
and trucks vehicles. Now he calls truck and cars vehicles.
● Most learning requires both assimilation and accommodation
○ If we only assimilate no learning occurs
○ If we only accommodate learning will be chaotic, and every experience will feel
new

Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)

● Main developments
○ Object permanency
○ Intentionality
○ Representational thoughts

Preoperational Stage (2-6 years)

● 2 sub stages
○ Symbolic
■ Language
■ Imitation and pretend play
○ Intuitive
■ Use of primitive reasoning
● Limitations or errors in thinking
○ Egocentric thinking
○ Thinking tied to perception and physical world

Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)

● Beginning of complex mental operations
○ Seriation
 ○ Classification
○ Transitivity applied to concrete situations
○ Mastery of conversation
● Logical thinking about physical, concrete world

Formal Operational Stage (12 years and up)

● Characteristics:
○ Abstract, idealistic thinking about the possible
○ Systematic, hypothetical deductive thinking
● Adolescent thinking is egocentric
○ Imaginary audience- thinking that everyone is looking at you
○ Personal fable

Cognitive Development Summary

● Most comprehensive theory of cognitive development
● Focused on
○ The mechanisms of cognitive development
○ 4 stages each of cognitive growth each representing qualitative different levels of
thought.
● However, Piaget
○ Underestimated young children’s abilities and overestimated adolescent thinking
○ Observations hold, explanations for children’s responses to Piagetian tasks may
differ
○ Limited attention to social and cultural influences on cognitive development

Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development

● Russian psychologist (1896-1934)
● Main tenets:
○ Children actively construct knowledge and understanding
○ Children’s thinking and understanding develops primarily through social
interaction
 ○ Cognitive development depends on the tools provided by society; mind is shaped
by the cultural context people live in
● How development occurs
○ Cognitive skills develop from interactions with others (interpersonal level)
○ Then get internalized
● Zone of proximal development (zpd) and scaffolding
○ What can I do with help
● Vygotsky: Language and Thought
○ Language is one of human’s greatest tools for cognitive development, not just
communication
○ Language until about 2 only used as a mean to communicate with others
○ Private speech appears at about 3 to guide thinking
○ Later it becomes silent inner speech and internal thought process.
● Evaluating his theory
○ Importance of sociocultural context in children’s cognitive development (learning
and construction of knowledge)
○ End point of cognitive development may differ depending on skills valued by a
culture
○ Critics
■ Not specific enough
■ Overemphasizes the role of language in thinking
■ Emphasis on collaboration and guidance has potential pitfalls.
Adult Cognitive Development
● Qualitative differences in adults thinking: post formal thought
○ Less abstract and idealistic
○ Realistic and pragmatic
○ Dialectical thinking
○ Increased tolerance for ambiguity
○ Conflicting views integrated (synthesis)
○ Relativist, less absolute thinking maple
Processes of Development
● Schemes- actions or mental representations that organize knowledge
○ Behavioral schemes (physical activities) characterize infancy
○ Mental schemes (cognitive activities) develop in childhood
● Assimilation and Accommodation
○ Explains how children use and adapt their schemes
○ Assimilation- occurs when children incorporate new experiences into existing
schemes
○ Accommodation- occurs when children adjust their schemes to account for new
information and experiences
○ Will always take the child to a higher ground
● Organization- the grouping of isolated behaviors and thoughts into a order system
● Equilibration- a mechanism proposed to explain how children shift from one stage of
thought to the next
○ Disequilibrium- cognitive conflict that arises when trying to understand the world,
the child constantly encounter inconsistencies to their existing schemes
○ Children constantly assimilate and accommodate as they seek equilibrium

Substages of Sensorimotor Stage

● 1. Simple reflexes
○ Birth to one month
○ Coordination of sensation and action through reflexive behaviors
○ Examples: rooting, sucking and grasping reflexes
● 2. Primary circular reactions
○ 1-4 months
○ A scheme based on the attempt to reproduce an event that initially occurred by
chance
○ Examples: repeating a body sensation first experienced by chance
● 3. Secondary circular reactions
○ 4-8 months
 ○ Infants become more object-oriented, moving beyond self-preoccupation; they
repeat actions that bring interesting or pleasurable results
○ Example: an infant coos to make a person stay near
● 4. Coordination of secondary circular reactions
○ 8-12 months
○ Coordination of vision and touch, hand-eye coordination; coordination of schemes
and intentionality
○ Example: infant manipulates a stick in order to bring an attractive toy within
reach
● 5. Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity
○ 12-18 months
○ Infants become intrigued by the many properties of objects and by the many
things they can make happen to objects; they experiment with new behavior
○ Example: a block can be made to fall, spin, hit another object, and slide across the
ground
● 6. Internalization of schemes
○ 18-24 months
○ Infants develop the ability to use primitive symbols and form enduring mental
representations
○ Example: an infant who has never thrown a temper tantrum sees one, he throws
one himself the next day
Object Permanence
● Object permanence- the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they
cannot be seen, heard, or touched
● Acquiring the sense of object permanence is one of the infant’s most important
accomplishments, according to piaget
Evaluating Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
● A-not-B error- occurs when infants make the mistake of selecting the familiar hiding
place (a) of an object rather than its new hiding place (b) as they progress into substage 4
of the sensorimotor stage
○ Older infants are less likely to make this error
 ○ Error does not show up consistently
○ One explanation for this is that infants tend to repeat a previous motor behavior

Language Development
● What is language?
○ A form of communication based on a system on symbols
○ All human langugaes have:
■ Infinite generativity
■ Organizational rules
● To master a language, we must learn its:
○ Phonology- the basic sounds (phonemes) of a language
○ Morphology- the way meaningful units (morphemes) can be combined into words
○ Syntax- how words can be combined to create meaningful statements
■ Ex: spanish- “eyes blue” english- “blue eyes”
○ Semantics- the meaning of words and sentences
■ Ex: ______ is an animal that swims and has scales
○ Pragmatics- the appropriate se language in social situations
■ Ex: waiting your turn in line

How does language develop?

● Infancy: prelinguistic communication
○ Early vocalizations used to practice making sounds, to communicate, and to
attract attention
■ Different types of crying
■ Cooing (2-4 months)
■ Babbling (6 months)
○ Gestures to communicate beings at 8-12 months
■ Ex: sign language and communication
○ Infants are “citizens of the world” but that changes with age
 ■ Infants can differentiate sound differences in languages other than their
own in the first half of the first year, and they lose this ability in the
second half of the first year. TV is not a good way to learn a language.
● To preserve a language, you need to teach/speak the language to children and babies
● The japanese “r” sound is used a lot less than in english
● What comes after babbling? First words
○ Infants can understand words before they can speak them
○ Increase at rapid rate
○ Culture influence the type of first words spoken
○ Receptive vocabulary> expressive vocabulary
● First sentences are telegraphic
○ First sentences appear about 8 to 12 months after first words (18-24 months)
○ Understanding of labels and relationships between these
○ Telegraphic speech
■ Ex: more milk, all gone
● Linguistic inaccuracies
○ Telegraphic speech
○ Under extensions- child does not use a word for enough particular cases
○ Over extension- linguistic errors children engage in to label things as different
things
● Language development: preschool years
○ Sentence length and complexity increases steadily
○ Syntax notably improves
■ Mastery of complex rules for word order
○ Enormous leaps in number of words
■ Fast mapping
● ~1 new word every 2 hours, 24 hours/day
○ Increased implicit knowledge and understanding of phonology & morphology
rules
■ Use of plural and possessive nouns
■ Appropriate verb endings
● Language development: early childhood
○ Six key principles in vocab development: children learn words…
■ They hear most often
■ For things and events that interest them
■ Best in responsive and interactive contexts rather than passive contexts
■ Best in meaningful contexts
■ Best when they access clear information about word meaning
■ Best when grammar and vocab are considered
● Early childhood advances in practical communication?
○ Advances in pragmatics
○ Talk about things that are not here and not now
○ Learn to change their speech style to suit the situations
● Mastering the mechanics of language in middle childhood
○ Vocabulary continues to increase
○ Understanding and use of complex grammar
○ Understanding of syntax grows
○ Certain phonemes remain troublesome
○ Decoding difficulties when dependent on intonation
○ More competence in pragmatics
○ Increased meta-linguistic awareness
● Middle and late childhood: reading
○ Whole language vs. the phonics approach: which one is best?
○ Children benefit from both approaches, but instruction in phonics needs to be
emphasized
○ Becoming a good reader requires reading fluency
○ Learning to read vs. reading to learn
● Middle and late childhood: writing
○ Writing emerges from early scribbles (~2-3 years old)
○ Writing improves as motor skills improve
○ Inventing spelling, based on the sounds of the words they hear
○ Writing skills develop as language and cognitive skills develop
 ○ Writing takes practice
■ Motoring one’s writing progress is especially important
■ Metacognitive strategies are linked with those of reading

Bilingualism and Education

● Does bilingualism result in cognitive advantages?
● Should US schools require learning a second language during elementary school? Why?
● Is dual language learning beneficial to students? And if so, for which students?
○ English only
○ Dual language approach
○ Subtractive bilingualism
● Are there sensitive periods in learning a second language?
○ Sensitive periods likely vary across language systems
○ For adolescents and adults, new vocabulary easier to learn than new sounds or
grammar
○ Ability to pronounce words with a native-like accent in a second language
typically decreases with age
○ Overall, bilingualism linked to more positive outcomes for language and
cognitive development
■ Ex: analytical reasoning, cognitive flexibility, concept formation
■ Code switching and EF

Second Language Learning and Bilingualism

● Different types of bilingualism occurs when immigrant children must learn their new
language at school
○ In the U.S, many end up monolingual speakers of english– subtractive
bilingualism
● English language learners (ELL) have been taught in one of two ways:
○ Instruction in English only
○ Dual language approach: instruction in both the home language and english
How Language Develops: Adolescence
● Greater sophistication in word use
○ understand/use metaphors, satire and use of irony
● Better understanding of complex literary works
● Use of dialect with peers, characterized by jargon and slang
○ EX: what was yours?
○ EX: WTF, LMAO, BTW

How Language Develops: Adulthood and Aging

● Distinct personal linguistic style often tied to occupation
● Vocabulary increases up until late adulthood
● Tip of the tongue phenomenon
● Understanding language in some contexts may be hard
○ Information processing?
○ Memory issues?
○ Sensory loss?
● Alzheimer’s and language
○ Word-finding
○ Semantic verbal fluency decrease
○ Bilingualism and alzheimer’s onset

What influences language development?

● Biological influences
○ Two specific regions of the brain involved in language abilities
■ Broca’s area- involved in the production of words
■ Wernicke’s area- involved in language comprehension
○ Humans are biologically prewired for language (Noam Chomsky)
■ Children born with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
● Supported by the uniformity of language milestones across
languages and cultures and biological foundations but,
● Does not explain the entirety of language acquisition
 ● Children use social skills to acquire language and learn language in specific contexts

What are emotions?

● A subjective experience that involves
○ Physiological arousal
○ Expressive behavior
○ Can be positive or negative
● How do emotions relate to the development of relationships?
● What influences our emotions?
● Basic concepts about emotion
○ Emotion expression
■ Primary emotions
■ Self-conscious emotions
○ Emotion understanding
○ Emotion regulation and coping
○ Emotional competence

Development of Emotions
● When do emotions emerge? Primary emotions
○ First 6 months of life
■ Crying
■ Smiling
■ Anger
■ Sadness
■ Fear
■ Disgust
○ Crying
■ Basic cry- rhythmic, a cry, brief silence, short inspiratory high, pitch
whistle, brief rest
 ■ Anger cry- similar to basic cry, more air forced through vocal cords, loud,
harsh
■ Pain cry- sudden long, loud cry, followed by breath holding
○ Happiness (smiling)
■ Reflexive smile- 1st month, usually during REM sleep, not in response to
external stimuli
■ Social smile- 4-6 weeks after birth in response to stimuli
○ Fear
■ Appears at about 6 months and peaks at about 10 months
● Stranger anxiety
● Separation anxiety
○ Self conscious emotions
■ Emerge ~18 months
■ Related to sense of self-awareness and SRG knowledge
● Ex: shame, guilt, empathy, jealousy, pride, embarrassment
■ Debate exists on emergence of these emotions
● Infants can’t experience emotions that require thought before their
first year
● Some research shows that jealousy might appear as 3 months
● Empathy can be expressed before the first year of life
● Emotion regulation in infancy
○ Ability to inhibit or minimize the intensity and duration of emotional reactions
■ Rudimentary appears in the first year
○ Contexts influences emotion regulation
■ fatigue , hunger, time of day
■ Location and people
○ Infants must learn to adapt to different contexts that require emotion regulation
○ Should a crying baby be soothed? Does soothing a baby in distress spoil them?
● Early childhood
○ Expressing of emotions
○ Understanding emotions
 ■ Increased descriptions of emotions
■ Emotions cause-effect
■ Reflect on emotions
■ Understanding variations on people’s emotional responses
■ Emotions and social standards awareness
■ By 5, most children identify emotions broduced by challenging
circumstances and ways to cope.
○ Regulating of emotions
● Regulation of emotions for kids (and adults)
○ 1. Develop emotional awareness
○ 2. Helping them identify big emotions
○ 3. Learning to manage big emotions
■ Learning to calm down activities
○ 4. Boost emotional intelligence
■ Identifying emotions
■ Labeling them
■ Adjust thoughts and behaviors in response to emotions
● Reframing
● Development of emotion: middle and late childhood
○ Emotional expression
■ Marked improvements in the ability to suppress or conceal negative
emotional reactions
○ Improved emotional understanding
■ Considering the events leading to emotional reactions
○ Regulation of emotions
■ Use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings.
○ Development of a capacity for genuine empathy
● Development of emotion: adult development and aging
○ Effective adaptation = emotional intelligence
 ■ Skilled at percieving and expressing emotions, understanding emotions,
using feelings to facilitate thought and managing own emotions
effectively.
○ As we age more likely to create lifestyles that are emotionally satisfying,
predictable, and manageable
● Adult development and aging: stress and gender
○ Gender differences in coping with stress
■ Women are more vulnerable to social stressors, to become depressed in
response to stressful events, and to seek and form social alliances
■ Men more likely to respond in a fight or flight mode when facing stress
○ Older adults report
■ More positive and less negative emotion than younger adults
■ React less strongly to negative circumstances
■ Remember more positive than negative information
○ Social selectivity theory (Laura Cartensen)
■ Older adults better at emotional regulation
■ They become more selective about their activities and social relationships
in order to maintain social and emotional well-being.

Temperament and personality defined

● Temperament:
○ Genetically based tendencies to respond in predictable ways to events
● Personality: enduring personal characteristics of an individual (includes temperament and
character)
● Temperament and types
○ Chess and Thomas Temperamental Types
■ Easy (40%)
■ Difficult (10%)
■ Slow to warm up (15%)
■ Unclassified (35%)
○ Behavioral traits
 ■ Activity level
■ Rhythmicity
■ approach/withdrawal
■ Adaptability
■ Intensity
■ Mood
■ Persistence and attention span
■ Distractability
■ Sensory threshold
● Other influential theories of temperament
○ Kagan’s behavioral inhibition
■ Inhibition shows stability from infancy to early childhood
■ Many inhibited children become more intermediate during middle
childhood
○ Rothbart and Bates
■ extraversion/surgency
■ Negative affectivity
■ Effortful control (self-control)
● Continuities and discontinuities between child’s temperament and adult personality
○ Infant temperament stable over the first year but not
■ A good predictor for later temperaments
■ Temperament at age 3 stable and predicts temperament at age 6 and
personality at age 26
● Factors that confluence continuities and discontinuities in infant/child temperament
○ Physiology and heredity
■ Physiology: brain frontal development, excitability of the amygdala
■ Heredity: moderate heritability coefficient (twin and adoption studies)
○ Gender and culture
■ Cultural differences in temperament based on cultural norms
■ Gender differences based on differential treatment based on sex
○ Parenting
 ○ Goodness of fit
■ Match between a child’s temperament and the environmental demands the
child must cope with
● What it means “to be difficult” depends on the fit between the
child’s temperament with the environment
● Attachment definition
○ “A strong affectional tie that binds a person to an intimate companion” (Bowlby
1969)
○ Early attachment can influence the development of later relationships
■ “Internal working model” that helps organize interactions in working
relationships with others
● Theories of attachment
○ Freud- infants become attached to the source of oral satisfaction
■ Is food what makes us attached to our caregiver?
○ Harlow and the nature of love
■ Food or security?
○ Erikson
■ Physical comfort and sensitive care to key establishing basic trust in
infants
■ Trust vs. mistrust stage (0-2 years)
● Attachment in adulthood
○ Romantic partners fulfill similar needs as infants’ caregivers:
■ Secure base and haven of safety needs
■ Responsive, available partner important for secure attachment
○ Secure attachment correlates with
■ Relationship satisfaction, trust, commitment, and longevity
■ Adults with insecure attachment are more likely to be depressed
● Adult attachment styles
○ Shaver and colleagues (1987; 2007)
■ Secure attachment (60%)
● Feel confident partner will be there when needed
 ● Open on depending on others and having others depend on them.
■ Avoidant attachment (20%)
● Hesitant about becoming “involved” in a relationship
● Distances self in a relationship
■ Anxious-resistant attachment
● Demand closeness
● Less trusting
● jealous , possessive
○ Attachment in late adulthood
■ Older adults: fewer attachment realtionships than younger adults
■ Attachemtn anxiety decreases with increasing age
■ Attachment security associated with psychological and physical
well-being
■ Insecure attachment linked to more perceived negative caregiver burden in
caring for patients with Alzheimer’s disease

What is love?
● What is love?
○ Difficult to define
○ Some agreements that love is a universal and biologically based emotion
■ But experiences and expressions of love may differ based on situation and
culture
○ Love main elements:
■ Infatuation
■ Caring
■ Intimacy
● Types of love: Sternberg Triarchic theory of love
○ These components interact with each other generating 8 possible kinds of love
● Romantic love
○ Romantic relationships change in emerging adulthood
■ Long-term relationships in adolescents are both supportive and turbulent
 ■ In emerging adulthood, they provide more support and decreased levels of
negative interactions, control, and jealousy
○ Culture has a strong influence.
■ In collectivist countries, intimacy is more diffused in love because of the
strong group emphasis.
■ In individualistic countries, intimacy is more often intensified
■ Cultures vary greatly in romance-related customs
○ Affectionate love
■ Affectionate love, or compassionate love, involves a desire to have the
other person near and a deep, caring affection for the person
■ There is a growing belief that as love matures, passion gives way to
affection
■ Communication and sexual intimacy more important in early adulthood;
feelings of emotional security and loyalty become more important in
later-life love relationships

Who am I? The self, identity and personality

● The self:
○ All characteristics of a person
■ Self-concept
● Perceptions about our unique attributes and traits
● Cognitive appraisal (who am I?)
■ Self-esteem
● Overall evaluation of our worth as a person
● Evaluate (How good am I)
■ Identity
● Synthesis and integration of self-perceptions
● Involves past, present, future
■ Personality
● Enduring personal characteristics or consistent patterns of thinking,
feeling, and acting
● Self-concept based on self- understanding