DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 082 415 EC 052 632

AUTHOR Walker, Virginia
TITLE Teaching Gifted Children Mathematics in Grades One
Through Three.
INSTITUTION California State Dept. of Education, Sacramento. Div.
of Special Education.
PUB DATE 73
NOTE 46p.

EARS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29

DESCRIPTORS Class Activities; Creative Development; *Exceptional
Child Education; *Gifted; Instructional Materials;
*Mathematics; *Primary Grades; *Teaching Guides;
Teaching Methods

ABSTRACT
Intended for teachers of the mentally gifted in
grades 1 through 3, the guide distinguishes between the verbally
gifted and the mathematically gifted and discusses subject matter
.content, development of intellectual skills and creativity, and gives
teaching suggestions. Discussed are a different emphasis for the
mathematically talented, the opportunities of unstructured programs,
and the need for sequence and continuity. Also considered for
determination of subject content are suggestions for the verbally
gifted and broad applications of mathematics. Stress is put on the
development of understanding, generalizations, and basic principles.
,Recommended for the improvement of mathematical skills are
quantitative questions, open-ended problems, and individualized
programs. The discovery method of teaching is encouraged for
development of higher intellectual skills such as analysis-evaluation
and synthesis-evaluation. A rich mathematical environment and a
teacher who enjoys mathematics is suggested to develop creativity in
aiathematics. Mathematics instruction is seen to encourage the full
development of the gifted child's human potential. Teaching
suggestions include ways to use the number line, primitive number
systems, nonmetric geometry with geoboards, and problem solving.
(DB)
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Teaching Gifted Children

Mathematics in Grades
One Through Three

Prepared for the

DIVISION OF SPECIAL EDUCATION
California State Department of Education

By VIRGINIA WALKER
This publication, funded under the provisions of the Elementary
and Secondary Education Act, Title V, was edited and prepared for
photo-offset production by the 13ureau of Publications, California
State Department of Education, and was published by the Depart-
ment, 721 Capitol Mall, Sacramento, California 95814.
l'rinted by the Office of State Printing and distributed
under the provisions of the Libra.; Distribution Aet
1973

School districts are encouraged to reproduce for their own use the
material contained in this publication. The reproduced material
must contain a statement at the front giving credit to the California
State Department of Education as the publisher. It' a Department
publication contains passages reproduced by permission of another
publisher, the school district should itself request permission from
that publisher to reproduce the passages.
FOREWORD
You who teach gifted children lave awesome. yet exciting,
responsibilities that lead you along uncharted paths. that defy
traditional approaches to teaching, that take you and those you lead
down Robert Frost's "other road. And you who help the .gifted find
avenues of learning represent the key to successful educational
programs for the intellectual leaders of yet another era.
The author of this publication says that the teacher is the "key to
whether the program (for gifted children) encourages creativity or
supresses individual initiative. She also says that the success of
programs in mathematics for the intellectually gifted is dependent on
three crucial factors: (1) the teacher's knowledge and understanding
of mathematics: (2) the teacher's understanding of the full range of
mathematical performance: and (3) the teacher's attitude and
understanding of the discovery approach. would add a fourth
I

factor, which 1 am certain the author would accept: the teacher's

love for children.
The illalhemaiis Framework for PHhhc Schools empha-
sizes the importance of the teacher as a "guide who conducts his
pupils into regions uncharted to them. The framework also calls for
the establishment of a climate that is "pupil-oriented, self-directed,
and nonauthoritarian.'' And the authors of the framework say that
the teacher is one who "frames questions, plans work that excites
curiosity, and encourages pupils to exploit what they know and
intuitively feel about the situation at hand.-
I agree with the authors of the framework and with the author of
this publication: the teacher is the key to our developing meaningful,
successful educational programs for all children regardless of their
abilities or handicaps.
We who are school administrators imist help establish climates of
open communication among teachers and children and parents. We
must encourage our teachers to create a spirit of discovery for
children, to accept parents as partners in the education of youth, to
be leaders unafraid of roads not yet taken, to be °poll to innovation
without closing the door to custom.

iii
 The intellectually gifted have been specially endowed with talents
that need--and desdrvenurturing by well-trained, sensitive teachers.
Let us do our best to give each child that teacher. I pledge my
energies to the task. I seek your help and cooperation.

SuperiuRqulent of Public Instruction

iv
PREFACE
This publication is one of the products of an education project
authorized and funded under provisions of the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act, Title V. It is intended for use by the
teachers of pupils whose mental ability is such that they are classified
as mentally gifted. It is also recommended for use by administrators,
consultants, and other professional personnel involved in helping
gifted children.
Teaching Gifted Children Mathematics in Grades One Through
Three is one of a group of curriculum materials designed for use by
teachers of the mentally gifted in grades one through three, four
through six, seven through nine, and ten through twelve. These
materials were prepared under the direction of Mary N. Meeker,
Associate Professor of Education,"'and James Magary, Associate
Professor of Educational Psychology, both of the University of
Southern California.
Also developed as part of the education project is a series of
curriculum guides for use in the teaching of mentally gifted minors in
elementary and secondary schools. The guides, which contain
practical suggestions that teachers can use to advantage in particular
subject areas, were prepared under the direction of John C. Gowan,
Professor of Education, and Joyce, Sonntag, Assistant Professor of
Education, both of California State University, Northridge.

LESLIE BRINEGAR ALLAN SIMMONS

Associate Superintendent of Chief, Bureau for Mentally
Public Instruction; and Chief, Exceptional Children
Division of Special Education
PAUL D. PLOWMAN
Consultant in Education
of the Mentally Gifted; and
Principal Project Coordinator
CONTENTS
Foreword .

Preface .. v
Introduction . . . I

Chu pier

1 Subject Matter Content ... 3

Different Emphasis for Mathematically Talented . . 3

Unstructured Program Opportunities . .. 4
Need for Sequence and Continuity . . . 4
Facts and Concepts . . . 4

2 Content of Mathematics Gifted Program . . . 7

Suggestions for the Verbally Gifted . . . 8
The Broad Application of Mathematics ... 8
Importance of Scientific Orientation ... 10
3 Understanding, Generalizations, and Principles . 11

4 Mathematics Skills . i2
Quantitative Questions ... 12
Open-Ended Problems ... 13
Need for Individualized Programs .. . 13

5 The Higher Intellectual Skills ... 15

The Knowledge-Memory Level .. 15
The Comprehension-Cognition Level ... 16
The Application-Convergent Product Level . , -. 16
The Analysis-Evaluation and Convergent Product Level . 16
The Synthesis-Evaluation and Divergent Product Level ... I7
Development of higher Level Skills . 17
Discovery Method of Teaching 20
Inservice Training of Teachers .. 21
6 Creativity . . . 22
A Rich Mathematical Environment . . . 22
A Teacher Who Enjoys Mathematics . 25
An Instructional Plan ... 26

vii
 Organization for Creativity ... 27
Interaction of Mathematically Talented Pupils ... 28
7 Full Development of Human Potential ... 29
8 Teaching Suggestions .. . 32
Number Line ... 32
Primitive Number Systems ... 33
Nonnietric Geometry with GeOboards ... 34
Problem Solving ... 36

Selected References .. . 37
Introduction
Those who enjoy mathematics commonly hold that young
children start out liking mathematics and enjoy it until someone
infects them with his own dislike for this abstract subject. In Fact, far
too many children, and particularly the gifted, come to regard
mathematics as a dull, hated subject in school. Today, educators hold
that this attitude should not prevail for c number of reasons. The
child who enjoys mathematics while he learns acquires knowledge
and a capacity. for viewing the modern world logically that should
serve him well. If properly instructed, the child should gain a respect
for accuracy and logic. Ile should acquire skills in problem solving
and with these skills acquire a feeling. of confidence that does not
exist in those who have learned to avoid mathematics.
The creative teacher of mathematics can help gifted pupils realize
their full potentialities. If taught with care and imagination, the
gifted child who is not talented in quantitative thinking can develop
a high degree of skill in computation, problem solving, and logical
thinking and can learn to appreciate the cultural aspects of
mathematics. The mathematically talented child can, in 'addition, be
stimulated to solve problems in a variety of ways and to explore the
world of numbers and space.
Gifted children vary significantly in their interest in, and talent
For, mathematics. Therefore, a basic theme running through the
various sections of this publication is an emphasis on the need for a
variety of approaches to meet the interests and skills of each child.
Too many times the program in primary mathematics for gifted
pupils has taken a course of either "more of the same," which is
deadly, or acceleration for all gifted pupils regardless of their
interests and abilities. The end product of both courses is large
numbers of children who dislike mathematics.
In each section of this document, along with a discussion of the
philosophical basis For the pertinent aspects of the mathematics
program, a number of teaching suggestions ale made. Since teachers,
as well as pupils, differ in their talents and interests, some of the
more imaginative and unstructured teaching suggestions should
appeal to mathematically talented teachers, while other suggestions
2

should interest teachers willing to try materials and ideas that are not
too adventurous and that can be structured to fit into other parts of
the program.
In summary, the premises on which the statements of goals,
content, teaching philosophy, and techniques are based in this
publication are the following:.
All gifted children can learn to enjoy mathematics, even though
their abilities, interests, and levels of attainment differ.
Gifted children differ in their abilities to think quantitatively
and to perceive spatial relations, so the mathematics program
should be designed to meet their differing needs.
Teachers also differ in their abilities and interests. Therefore, a
variety of approaches must be suggested.
Chapter I

Subject Matter Content

Facts, skills, concepts, principles, and generalizations selected for
the content of a mathematics program for gifted pupils in the
primary grades are, of . necessity, influenced by the following
considerations:
For the gifted child who is creative and highly motivated in
mathematics, a different emphasis in mathematical content is
required than for the gifted child who learns his mathematics
lessons well when properly guided but who is not particularly
interested in quantitative ideas.
The child in the primary grades is a very young child, full of
wonder and curiosity, but his need for the tangible; the
concrete, and the real must be considered when selecting
mathematical content for his program even if lie is gifted.
The structure of mathematics requires greater accommodation
to the demands of sequence and continuity than do the other
subjects.
The need for a well-rounded, balanced program that allows the
gifted pupil to explore all areas of the curriculum limits the
mathematical content that can be introduced to children in the
primary grades.

Different Emphasis for Mathematically Talented

Certain difficulties are inherent in selecting mathematical content
for the gifted program at the primary level. The young child who is
gifted in mathematics is fascinated by the world of numbers. He is
constantly considering how many, how big, how long, and how
small. He revels in quantitative and spatial ideas as other children at
this age revel in words. However, he is often deprived of opportuni-
ties to explore in this area seldom does the program at this level
capitalize upon this great interest by motivating th child's efforts in
various subjects. On the other hand, many gifted pupils have little
interest or particular ability in quantitative thinking, but when these
children show evidence of giftedness in the language arts area, they

3
4

are often judged, mistakenly, to be gilled in mathematics also. As a

result, they are given less careful sequential instruction than they
require, and they frequently retreat from mathematics because they
become afraid of it.
Unstructured Program Opportunities
Because of his immaturity, the child in the primary udes needs
mathematical content that does not draw him into too rigorous or
too structured a program at an age when he must be allowed the
opportunity to explore, to build, and to reflect. The young child,
even the gilled, needs careful instruction in the basic program, but he
also needs enough time for individual exploration and guided study.
A balance must be maintained, dependent upon the child's degree of
gi fled n ess.

Need for Sequence and Continuity

The third consideration for selecting appropriate mathematical
content is that demands are different in the subject area of
mathematics because of its sequential and cumulative nature. In no
other subject are the concepts and skills so interrelated with
previously learned concepts and skills. In mathematics the pupil
cannot venture very far unless he has grasped prerequisite concepts
and skills. The child who is highly gifted in quantitative thinking can
bridge most gaps himself, but the less able child cannot, even when
he has been identified as gifted.
It is important that the very young child be encouraged to explore
all aspects of the world about him. His skills and aptitudes are not
yet well defined. He is seldom formally identified as gifted this age
because so little is known about him. For these reasons it is unwise
to overemphasize any one subject area. However, in the case of
mathematics, such an overemphasis seldom occurs becau!' of the
language arts orientation of most teachers in the primary grades.

Facts and Concepts

Gifted children in the primary grades should be exposed to and
instructed according to that part of the second Strands Report
which is applicable to pupils at the primary level. The goals arc stated
in general terms for each cetegoiy of the report. Those goals applying
to pupils in the primary grades are the following:
1.Numbers and Operations
To use effectively the fundamental operations of arithmetic ... to
understand and utilize the properties of the operations (commutative
property and so forth) and he properties of order and absolute value .. .
 5

To read and understand mathematical sentences involving operations ...

and to formulate and use such sentences in the analysis of mathematical
problems

2. Geometry
To recognize and use common geometric concepts and configurations

3. Measurement
To make measurements, to understand the notion of unit of measurement,
and to use and interpret various units; to understand the degree of accuracy
of an approximate measurement; to estimate measurements and the results of
simple calculations involving measurements .

4. Applications
To analyze concrete problems by using an appropriate mathematical
model; to employ ... sentences, formulas, computations, and reasoning in
studying the mathematics of such a model; to interpret mathematical
consequences in concrete terms; and to examine the concrete results of such
an analysis in terms of reasonableness and accuracy

5. Statistics and Probability

To construct and read ordinary graphs
To collect and organize data by means of graphs and tables ...

6. Sets
To understand and use routinely the basic set concepts

7. Functions and Graphs

To use the coordinate plane to display relations and to organize data ...

8. Logical Thinking
To understand, to appreciate, and to use precise statements ...

9. Problem Solving
To devise and apply strategies for analysis and solution of problems, and
to use estimation and approximation to verify the reasonableness of the
outcome.'
In general the program for gifted pupils should have greater depth,
a different emphasis, and a higher content level than that which has
been set forth for all children in the Strands Report. However, it is
IMathernatics Fratnework for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade
Eight: The Second Strands Report. Prepared by the Statewide Mathematics Advisory
Committee. Sacramento: California State Department of Education, 1972, pp. 109-10.
6

not possible to say how deep, which emphasis, or what content the
program should have unless the individual pupil is considered. The
Strands Report is a frame of reference for a rich, creative
mathematics program for all children. In addition to such a program,
guidance to higher levels of understanding should be provided for the
gifted pupil. If he is highly talented and motivated in mathematics,
his program requires academic acceleration.
Chapter 2

Content of Mathematics
Gifted Program
The content of the gifted program might differ from the program
for most children, as shown in the following outline:

Group A All children

1. Content of the state program based upon the second Strands
Report
2. Quantitative aspects of science and social science

Group B Gifted children not particularly talented in mathematics

1. Same as item 1 for Group A, with emphasis upon structure,
logic, geometry, and problem solving
2. Same as item 2 for Group A
3. Cultural aspects of mathematics
a. Primitive number systems
b. Development of the abacus
c. Geometry in the world about us
d. Music and mathematics
e. Development of measurement systems

Group C Children highly gifted in quantitative thinking

1. Same as item 1 for Group A, with emphasis upon structure,
logic, geometry, problem solving, graphing, patterns, and
relationships
2. Same as item 2 for Group A, in greater depth
3. Same as item 3 for Group B, with less historical emphasis
4. Signed numbers
5. Acceleration of basic content when appropriate
6. Recreational mathematics (puzzles, brainteasers)
7. Probability

7
8

Suggestions for the Verbally Gifted

The verbally gifted pupil frequently enjoys making reports on the
development of our number system. Some suggested topics are the
following:
Early man's counting system
Egyptian numbers
The Indian time system
Tally systems
Early counting devices
The Japanese Sorobon
The Hindu-Arabic place value system
These topics are not mathematics as such, but their s'lidy may help
to put mathematics in perspective for the child who needs this
orientation. He needs to know why he is learning each phase of
mathematics. Some time spent in studying historical topics can help
the verbally gifted child get an overall view of mathematics and fit
the part he is learning into the broad scope of this subject. Such a
perspective can give him confidence as well as sharpen his apprecia-
tion for mathematics.
The Broad Application of Mathematics
Geometry is one of the major strands set forth in the Strands
Report. Children at many levels of ability like to study geometry in
the world about them. They can be guided to observe the profusion
of geometric shapes and concepts in nature and in the modern
technological world. TeacherS should offer for observation freeway
patterns, honeycombs, sunflowers, seashells, bridges, space shots,
butterfly wings, and many other examples of geometric shapes.
Enjoyment in this case can be artistic as well as mathematical. The
opportunities for art activities accompanying mathematic programs
are unlimited.
Much of the relationship between music and mathematics is above
the level of pupils in primary grades, but rhythm patterns are not. In
its most elementary phase, a pattern is a simple counting exercise,
but many. creative activities can be developed from this beginning.
Children enjoy plotting the beat with designs. First they establish the
count, as in a waltz, with the following pattern:
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 23
Then they make designs such as
or
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 23 1 2 3 1 2 3.
 9

From these they choose their favorite rhythm patterns and

develop them through the use of a variety of art media chalk,
paint, cut paper, or clay.
Although the mathematically talented child is interested in the
historical and cultural aspects of mathematics, he is impatient to get
to the numbers themselves. He is happiest when given tasks that
require investigation and the collection of data. Such a child enjoys
the study of number series, prime numbers, figurate numbers,
modular arithmetic, and signed numbers. He likes to consider vey
large numbers and infinity. Materials that encourage the discovery of
number relationships and patterns are particularly suited to this
pupil, who revels in them. A case can be made for using such
materials for an informal determination of the mathematical talent
of a given pupil. Wirtz' has suggested materials, fOr instance, that are
greeted with enthusiasm by young mathematicians.
On the other hand, gifted children who lack talent in quantitative
thinking usually shun suer specialized materials. With encouragement
those children not gifted in mathematics can acquire an interest and
some skills, but they will actually learn to hate mathematics if
thrown into a competitive situation with their mathematically
talented counterparts in this type of study. They feel threatened by
the swiftness with wilier' talented pupils grasp patterns. A differen-
tiated program is crucial to the development of each child's pleasure
and confidence in matiiematics.
If an individual pupil is found to be highly talented in math-
ematics, means should be found to allow him to work at a higher
level. This action should be taken with caution and not as an
automatic reaction to his giftedness, nor should it replace a rich,
exciting program at his age level with narrow acceleration in the basic
skills and concepts. On the other hand, the highly talented cannot
"go anywhere" in their discoveries without appropriate skill'', and
they are frequently frustrated for lack of these skills at their own
grade level. The special needs of those pupils who are highly talented
in mathematics might best be served by (1) advanced placement for
mathematics only; (2) guided study with access to advanced
textbooks; or (3) contact on a regular basis with a person who loves
mathematics (an older student, another teacher, or a volunteer from
the community or the local college).
The modern program for all children should emphasize the
relationships between mathematics and the sciences, including the
social sciences. The teacher can set up many open-ended situations in
Robert W. Wirtz and Others, Games and Enrichment Activities: Math Workshop.
Chicago: Encyclopacdt t Britannica Inc., 1964.
10

which this relationship is expressed and in which the class begins an

investigation and the mathematically talented student takes it much
further.
Importance of Scientific Orientation
A task of the scientist is to observe, to record his observations, and
to try to set up a mathematical model that facilitates prediction
about future events. Very young children can be led to observe
carefully. They can collect quantitative data to make their observa-
tions more precise, and they can record these observations in
systematic ways. They usually cannot develop sa mathematical model,
but they can make and check informal predictions based upon
recorded data
The American Association for the Advancement of Science has
developed a program that goes far in this direction. The program is
known as "ScienceA Process Approach." Children in this program
are guided through eight basic processes: (1) classifying; (2)
observing; (3) using numbers; (4) using space/time relationships; (5)
communicating; (6) measuring; (7) inferring; and (8) predicting.'
If children are encouraged early in both the science and social
science programs to observe carefully, to respect fact, to record data,
and to report accurately, then a major step will have been taken in
upgrading the mathematical content of these subject areas. This is an
aspect of early education that has long been neglected.

2 John R. Mayor, "Science and Mathematics 11 the Elementary School," The Arithmetic
Teacher, XIV (December, 1967), 629-35.
Chapter 3

Understanding, Generalizations,
and Principles
The development in pupils of the ability to generalize and to -tate
principles is an integral part of modern mathematics instructic
all children. For gifted pupils the degree to which this guidance
should be different must vary with each child.
As pupils work independently or with the teacher using some of
the modern materials, .they are constantly exploring, discovering,
generalizing, and stating principles. The gifted child learns these
processes easily. If the gifted child is mathematically talented, he
readily grasps concepts and finds subtleties and abstractions not seen
by children who are mathematically less able.
The degree to which generalizations and principles are verbalized
in teaching young children has met with differing opinions among
pioneers in modern mathematics education. In the earlier stages of
the "new math" revolution, precise vocabulary and much verbaliza-
tion were in favor, even for very young children. More recently, some
educators, including Dienes,' Wirtz,' and others have urged a much
less verbal approach. They argue that much verbalization with precise
mathematical vocabulary limits the young child's development. Such
verbalization places too much restriction on his thinking and
encourages him to lean too heavily on. the "rule" once it has been
stated. These educators go so far as to urge a completely nonverbal
approach for part of the instruction.
It would appear that a balance must be maintained. The
"nonverbal" advocates emphasize creativity and enjoyment of
mathematics. They remember that the child is young and that
mathematics can he an exciting adventure. However, not all children
are "freewheeling," and even when they are gifted, they want to
know the rules and to talk abort them. A balanced program offers
much oppprtunity to explore nonverbally, but it also leads pupils to
statements of basic mathematical principles.
iZoltan P. Dienes, Building Up Mathematics. London: Hutchinson Educational, Ltd.,
1960, pp. 7 -4.
2
Robert W. Wirtz and Others, -Games and Enrichment Activities: Math Workshop.
Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica Ins., 1964.

11
Chapter 4

Mathematics Skills
What are the mathematical skills we wish to develop in young
gifted children? They are skills that mathematically talented children
appear to possess inherently. Weaver and Brawley have listed ten
traits that are typical of the mathematically gifted child. This list can
be used by the teacher to identify such a child and can also be used
as a roster of skills that all children can be encouraged to develop to
varying degrees. The ten traits include the following:
1. Sensitivity to, awareness of, and curiosity regarding quantity and the
quantitative aspects of things within-the environment
2. Quic'tness in perceiving, comprehending, understanding, and dealing
effer;tively with quantity and the quantitative aspects of things within
the environment
3. Ability to think and work abstractly and symbolically when dealing with
quantity and quantitative ideas
4. Ability to communicate quantitative ideas effectively to others; both
orally and in writing, and to receive and assimilate quantitative ideas in
the same ways
5. Ability to perceive mathematical patterns, structures, relationships, and
interrelationships
6. Ability to think an'd perform in quantitative situations with creativity,
originality, self-direction, independence, eagerness, concentration, and
persistence
7. Ability to think and reason analytically and deductively, to think and
reason inductively, and to generalize
8. Ability to transfer learning to new, unusual, and "untaught" quantitative
situations
9. Ability to apply mathematical learning-to social situations and to other
curriculum areas
10. Ability to remember and retain that which has been learned'

Quantitative Questions
If the teacher makes a point of asking a number of quantitative
questions during the discussion periods, the skills listed can emerge
'J. Fred Weaver and Cleo Fisher Brawley, "Enriching the Elementary School
Mathematics Program for More Capable Children," Journal of Education, CXVII (October,
1959), 1-40.

12
 13

quickly. For instance, if some pupils in the first grade are talking
about the school, and the teacher asks such questions as "Who is our
principal?" "What does he do?" and "Who are our helpers?" she
might also ask the class, "How many rooms are there in our school?"
"How many helpers does the principal have?" and "How many
bathrooms are there in our building?" The verbal child will answer,
"Lots!" But there is a child in the first grade who will, a week later,
report just how many there are. He will have counted them! He will
also have acquainted himself with the school plant and personnel in
the process.

Open-Ended Problems
During the mathematics period the alert teacher can discover other
abilities children have by leaving problems open to a variety of
solutions. It is interesting to observe a typical classroom situation
with the teacher at the chalkboard working with the subtraction
algorithm.
An example she might use is the following:

25
13
The class repeats with the teacher: "Five minus three equals two,
two minus one equals one. The answer is 12."
One boy whose reputation for divergence has already gained him a
reputation will blurt out, "You can do it by adding." The teacher
says, "Oh, Jimmy, you know this is subtraction. Now keep your
mind on the work at the board!"
Had the teacher's response been, "How, Jimmy?" he would have
shown that he understood inverse operations and missing addends
intuitively before they were presented to the class. He would have
said, "Add up two plus three, that equals five; one plus one equals
two."

Need for Individualized Programs

Since the mathematically talented child does possess mathematical
skills quite extensively, he needs a somewhat different teaching
approach from that used with the highly verbal child who does not
exhibit such skills. The mathematically talented child needs to have
his abilities recognized early and to be encouraged to use them. This
means that the primary teacher must have a flexible, individualized
program that allows this pupil time to explore the mathematical
14

world about him, that guides him in these explorations, and that
gives him recognition for his endeavors.
The verbal child who is gifted but not mathematically talented, on
the .other hand, should be protected from early competition with the
talented child whose ..ery quickness in the mathematical skills is a
threat to him. What ne needs is not a "diet of deadly drill and
practice" but consistent guidance in the discovery approach and
consistent verbalizing of generalizations. This nonmathematically
gifted child needs stated rules and principles once he understands the
concepts underlying them. He needs the security of much more talk
about mathematics, while his talented counterpart is impatient to
work with the number ideas and appears to absorb.' rules and
principles somewhat instinctively and nonverbally.
It would be unfair to the verbally gifted child to expect from him
the degree of skill or interest in mathematics that the mathematically
talented child has. However, the verbally gifted child can be taught
thoroughly and imaginatively so that mathematical ideas do not
become something to be avoided throughout his life.
It would be equally unfair to impose highly verbalized, repetitive
instruction on the mathematically talented child. He, too, can learn
to hate the mathematics period, but for a very different reason. Its
very slowness and (for him) dullness can leave him frustrated and
unhappy.
Chapter 5

The Higher Intellectual Skills

Modern creative instruction in mathematics encourages the use of
the higher intellectual skills. The effective teacher leads pupils
continuously from the concrete to the abstract, from a low level of
understanding to the subtleties and logic of a nigher degree of
understanding, and from specific learning to generalizations stated
with precision. Children who arc gifted in quantitative thinking do
this easily; others become proficient when given careful instruction.
To help teachers set appropriate objectives so they can guide their
pupils effectively, Avital and Shettleworth in Objectives ftn. Math-
ematics Learning' have set forth a model based on the Taxonomy of
Lducational Objectives.' They outline three levels of thinking and
five corresponding categories of mathematical performance, as shown
in the following chart:

Thinking pmces.s. TaX0110inie level Girilford

I. Recognition, recall I. Knowledge . Memory
2. Algorithmic think- Comprehensithi 2. Cognition
ing, generalization
3. Open search 3. Application 3. Convergent product
4. Analysis 4. Evaluation and
convergent product
5. Synthesis 5. Evaluation and
divergent product

The KnowledgeMemory Level

At the knowledge level the pupil is involved in memorization and
recall of facts, definitions, and rules. He is expected to recognize a
iShinuel Avila' and Sara .1. Shettleworth, Obfeetives for Mathematics Learning.
Bulletin
No. 3. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 1968, pp. 1-33.
2T
axonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals
Handbook Cognitive Domain. Edited by Benjamin S. Bloom. New York: David McKay
Co., Inc 1956.

15
16

rule stated in the way it has been presented. At this level the pupil in
the primary grades would be asked to do the following:
I. State the basic combinations.
2. Recognize various sets and identify them with appropriate
symbols.
3. Write the numerals for given numbers.
4. State the principles of commutativity and associativity.
The inclusion of the fourth activity leads to an interesting
problem. Much of modern mathematics instruction at the elementary
level is inductive rather than deductive. Children do not learn rules
and basic principles until the have been led from many specific
examples to state the generalization and from this to state the
mathematical law or principle. Therefore, hem four in the preceding
list is typical of a knowledge-level activity only when this process is
complete and the basic laws are part of the pupil's knowledge.

The ComprehensionCognition Level

At the level of comprehension, the process of generalization or
simple transfer is used. The child is asked to produce examples that
illustrate given definitions or statements and to be able to change
from words to symbols and vice versa, provided the items are part of
the pupil's knowledge.

The ApplicationConvergent Product Level

Generalization and transfer underlie application as well as compre-
hension. The difference lies in the amount of novelty in the
situation. Problems that require more than one step, problems from
real life, and problems from scientific phenomena are usually
considered application problems. It is foolish for the teacher to
spend an exorbitant amount of time deciding which category of
objectives is pertinent. A good rule of thumb is to set up many
problem situations in science, mathematics, and social science that
require recognition of a basic principle, transfer of the basic principle
to mathematical symbOls, and selection of the proper algorithm for
solution. When this is done, some of these steps will lie in the
category of application and some in the category of comprehension.

The Analysis7Evaluation and Convergent Product Level

At the levels of analysis and synthesis, no straightforward
procedure or algorithm provides a complete solution. In these
categories the open search level of thinking is called upon.
 17

Nonroutine manipulation of previously learned material and the

discovery of relationships are expected.
In analysis the pupil breaks clown the problem into its parts to
discover the internal relationships between the parts. A child at the
primary level might be asked, after being given limited information,
to decide the numerical value of sonic imaginary numerals. 1-k must
analyze the relationships among tne various symbols (see Table I).
The use of imaginary symbols requires him to employ open search
thinking because it thrusts him out of the familiar structure. A
creative alternative to this type of problem is to ask the math-
ematically gifted child to design a similar problem using his own
symbols.

Synthesis Evaluation and Divergent Product Level

Synthesis is a higher level of open search thinking than the applica-
tion and analysis levels. Synthesis enables the pupil to put given
elements together in a .new way. The new way will not, in all
probability, be new for a specialist in the field, but it will be a
genuine invention for the child. It is at this level that the gifted child
begins to appreciate the "man-madeness" of mathematics. As he
realizes that mathematics is entirely invention, he can appreciate
man's greatness in its creation and realize that he, too, can add 'to its
invention.
Development of Higher Level Skills
Higher level mathematical thinking depends on: (I) accumulation
of a well-known and practical body of knowledge; (2) ability to draw
together seemingly unrelated concepts; and (3) ability to see
solutions to a problem or to sec the geheralization of an idea by
means of a new method.
The child must have a body of information and skills upon which
to draw when he is attempting higher level thinking. This points up
the difficulties a teacher faces when deciding upon a method of
instruction in a particular situation. At what point should the teacher
encourage work at the open search level? Should it begin after
thorough instruction at the lower levels? Should it be encouraged in
all cases? This approach would appear to be at variance with the
exhortations to "discovery" teaching proffered by most advocates
of the "new math."
At this point the primary teacher probably needs help in sorting
out what appears to be conflicting advice in order to plot a
consistent, thorough, yet exciting mathematical program for all
pupils.
 TABLE
Higher Intellectual Skills
Category Thinking process Types of classroom activities for gifted pupils
Mathematically talented Nonmatbematicaily talented

Knowledge Recognition, Write and read numerals for given numbers: Same. Limit to numbers expected of all pupils.
(memory) recall 0 infinity.
(Guilford) State the principles of commutativity and Same.
associativity.
Recognize and write the symbols for simple Recognition only.
fractions.
Construct number lines with whole numbers, Construct number lines with whole numbers
fractions, and signed numbers. only.
Recognize and construct basic geometric Recognition only, unless interested. (Emphasize
shapes, angles, and line segments. informal activities.)

Comprehension Algorithmic Translate a word problem into a number Same, with less complex problems.
(cognition) thinking, gener- sentence.
alization Use the proper algorithm to add (or subtract) a Same.
series of numbers.
Give examples of the basic laws, using numbers Same.
or other symbols.
Demonstrate understanding of base ten n .1rnera- Same, with numbers to 10,000.
tion system with whole numbers of any size.
Use expanded notation or abaci.

Application Open search Take care of class monies. Keep records and Pair with a mathematically talented pupil in
(convergent make change (as maturity allows). application activity. (Thc nonmathematically
product) talented often makes a good partner with the
Measure growth of plants. mathematically talented. The former often
Be the class weatherman and keep records. reads and records better; he enjoys and learns
Graph the results. much in the process while his talented
Make a device to "teach" place value for partner is testing, his awn prowess with
classmates. quantitative challenges.)
Analysis (evaluation Open search Analyze two- and three-step word problems to Samc.
and convergent determine what is given and what is asked.
product) Then translate into proper number sentences.
If a = 7 and b = 10, show the value of y and z Not usually interested in this type of activity.
in:
y+z=a
yxz=b .

y+y=b
(By analysis one may determine thaty and z
are 2 and 5. But the third equation shows
thaty = 5; therefore z = 2.)
Design similar problems using any symbols. Of little interest.
._.
Synthesis (evaluation Open search Work with simple equations requiring discovery Develop a tally system for a tribe of Indians
and divergent of negative numbers such as, "Is there a with six fingers on each hand.
product) solution to 2 3+ ?

Play "What's my rule" games. (See Wirtz and Work with a mixed class in playing, "What's my
Sawyer.) Jule." (The teacher should vary the diffi-
culty so that all children can meet success
part of the time.)
Explore other activities related to attribute Explore other activities related to attribute
games and blocks. (See list of suggested games and blocks (insofar as interested).
materials. .

Demonstrate how much five (or any number)

halves is. Use Cuisennaire rods or ruler.

Source: Compiled by Virginia Walker.

20

Discovery Method of Teaching

Glennon has clarified the notion of discovery teaching when he
points out that there must first be a balance between telling
(authoritative identification) g one end of a continuum and
unguided discovery at the other end. Most of the pupils of the
teaching-learning process favor guided discovery through which the
learner is led to discover cognitive material that is new to him.
Glennon, further points out that cognitive material is not all one of a
kind. He categorizes cognitive material as follows:
1. Arbitrary association (2 + 3 = 5; 5 is the numeral for the set:

2. Concepts (A numeral is a symbol for a number. Division can be

viewed as repeated subtractions.)
3. Understr.:1 -ling (Numbers are inventions of man.)3
Pure discovery for learning arbitrary associations, used alone as a
teaching technique, would be a waste of time. Concepts and
understandings, however, fit easily into the discovery method of
teaching.
The relationship between guided study and personality traits
should be considered. Some children cannot tolerate the anxiety
inherent in the 'discovery approach. Others are too quick in their
group and are slowed down when they must wait to discover. These
are eager learners who want to know now so they can get more
accomplished. To deny this experience to such learners is to kill their
motivation.
A balance should be maintained between telling and guiding. At
the recognition, recall lewl, telling is an efficient and usually the most
productive method to use. In algorithmic thinking and generaliza-
tion, a balance between guided discovery and telling would be a
better approach. In open search the pupil is thrust into unguided
discovery. He is asked to use all of his knowledge to analyze a
problem, put together ideas, and then arrive at a solution. A certain
beauty can be seen in mathematics at this higher level when the pupil
joyously realizes he has reached a solution. The "aha!" experience is
manifest, the pieces fit together, and the pupil "knows he knows!"

3Vincent J. Glennon, Some Perspectives in Education. Twenty - Seventh Yearbook of the

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Washington, D.C.: National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics, 1963, pp. 17-40.
 21

Inservice Training of Teachers

Another conflict that lies in the development of the higher
iht?llectual skills in a primary mathematics program is the extremely
limited nature of the usual primary teacher's mathematical know-
ledge and insights. The primary teacher is most frequently a verbally
oriented teacher who fears and dislikes quantitative ideas and who, as
well, is 2 product of the lock-step-drill approach to mathematics.
This type of teacher fails to recognize the mathematically talented
child al-16 to nurture him. She fails, also, to bring an appreciation of
the world of numbers and facility in number manipulation to the
other pupils. It is here that inservice training of teachers, in which a
modified discovery approach is used, is essential. With such training,
negative attitudes can change to positive ones. The teacher who
enjoys mathematics and feels confident teaching the subject can stop
following the basic textbook as if it were a bible and can stop giving
pages and pages of drill material as punishment, seatwork, or
"enrichment" homework for the gifted.
The crucial factors determining success in developing higher
intellectual skills in children enrolled in mathematics prograins in the
primary grades are (1) the primary teacher's knowledge and
understanding of mathematics; (2) the primary teacher's understand-
ing of the full range of mathematical performance; and (3) the
primary teacher's attitude and understanding of the discovery
approach. Any programs that do not take these issues into account
are unrealistic in their expectations and can have little effect upon
the gifted program.
Chapter 6

Creativity
Mathematics can inspire creativity and encourage individual dis-
covery as can few other subjects. If the young child is allowed to enjoy
and manipulate a rich mathematical environment, if he is guided into
the a "rad world of symbols as an adventure, and if he is
encouraged to explore many approaches to a problem, he can learn
to find deep satisfaction in trying and testing his own mathematical
ideas. The sensitive teacher must pause here and reflect on these
"ifs." By using timed drills and tests that add a dimension 9f anxiety
to mathematics, the teacher is likely to block creative approaches
and preclude achieving any of these "if" qualifications.
Matheniatim is an invention. Primary teachers need to understand
this very basic notion. Man invented, and continues to invent,
numbers and number ideas so that he can understand the rhythm in
his environment, suit his growing needs, and fulfill his soaring
imagination. As a child realizes this, he sees mathematics as an
abstract but useful game to which he may add some variations if he is
clever.
How can mathematics in the primary grades be taught so that its
intrinsic creativity is not lost in the process? A number of approaches
that might be taken simultaneously are the following:
1. Provide a rich mathematical environment.
2. Select a teacher who enjoys mathematics and young children.
3. Develop an instructional plan that encourages and nurtures
numerical exploration.
4. Organize for creativity.
5. Provide regularly scheduled opportunities for interaction of
interested mathematically talented pupils of various achieve-
ment levels.
A Rich Mathematical Environment
A rich environment can be provided in a classroom, in an
instructional materials center, or in a separate mathematics labora-
tory; in each, a variety of manipulative materials, games, puzzles,
filmstrips, tapes, kits, books, and worksheets can be made available.
In the classroom or instructional materials center, one part of the

22
 23

room can be set up as a mathematics learning center. The

mathematics laboratory differs only in scope and space.
Whether the center is elaborate or modest, it is essential that
ongoing activities be arranged in such a way that pupils can receive
"feedback" from their participation. The center should offer .many
opportunities for random, casual exploration, but it should offer
more than this. The teacher should provide guided study as needed.
Many teachers find job cards useful for setting up independent
learning activities in the mathematics learning center. The teacher
highlights a few materials at a time and makes cards with simple
instructions available for pupil selection. The cards are designed to
cover a wide range of abilities in order to meet the needs of all
children. For feedback, procedures may be established as necessary,
such as providing answer forms for self-checking, designating a place
to leave worksheets or answers for correction, or having an aide
available to check results with the pupils.
A variety of materials can be used to enrich the mathematical
environment. Some suggested materials are the following:
Games and puzzles (Most are available at department stores and toy shops.)
Dominoes (double twelves)
Tri-Omi noes (Pressman Company)
Tryptic, Three-Dimensional Tic-Tac-Toe (invento Products)
Ka doodle (Miller)
Flash cards
Number Lotto
Multiplications (eight crystalline cubes Museum of Modern Art,
New York)
Rondo (Invento Products)
Twixt (3M Company)
Towers of Hanoi (teacher-made)
Measuring devices (Creative Playthings manufactures many of these items for
the use of very young children..)
Tape measures
Yardsticks
Rulers
Metric weights
Liquid containers of various sizes
Calipers
Protractors
Child-sized trundle wheel
Pan balance scale
Thermometers
Clock
Stopwatch
24

Manipulative materials
Dienes Logical Blocks (Creative Play things)
Cuisenaire rods (Cuisenaire)
Developing Number Experiences, Kit A (Holt, Rinehart & Winston)
Stern kits (Houghton Mifflin Company)
Attribute Games and Problems (McGraw-Hill, Webster Div.)
Fraction blocks, pies, and so forth
Abaci (a variety)
Counters (a variety, including beans, play money, and macaroni)
Cubes, blocks
Hand calculators
Hundred boards
Kaleidoscopes
Flash cards, Number Lotto
"Treasure chest" an old, decorated box full of discarded
clocks, egg beaters (gears), speedometers, watches, and
other things to take apart

Geometry
Moby Lynx (Kendry Company)
Rubber Parquetry (Creative Plaything)
Flexagons (Creative Playthings)
Geoboards
Geometric solids
Compasses

Audiovisual aids
Film loops
Filmstrips
Tapes
Pictures

Books
A variety of reference and picture books on historical and cultural aspects
of mathematics; and collections of brainteasers and riddles

Science
Pulleys
Levers
Gears
Prisms
Magnets
Magnifying glasses
Microscopes
 25

Construction materials:
Scissors Felt pens
Paste Colored pencils
Paper String
Graph paper

Equipment
Shelves Filmstrip viewer
Display space Film loop projector
Work table(s) Listening center

How can the teacher encourage creativity in the mathematics

center? Mary Meeker's suggestions for "teaching" creativity to the
preschool child apply equally to the gifted child in the primary
grades. Some of her suggestions are as follows:
The major difference between a divergent curriculum and a convergent one
lies in the experiences afforded the child. In the convergent curriculum, we
are telling-teaching and the learning is controlled; in the divergent curriculum,
we are allowing intellectual and tactile privileges of exploration within an
environment organized to that purpose.'
According to Mary Meeker, the environment of a mathematics
center should provide an atmosphere conducive, to creativity, with
some of the following conditions:
1. "Un limits" are set.
2. Each child is allowed to be alone with the materials regardless
of what other children.zre doing.
3. The child can have an uninterrupted one-to-one relationship
with the teacher when needed, with the resulting'feeling that
what he is doing is important. The desire to want to work is
thus established.
4. Many models are set around the room which the child may
emulate, or he may take off on his own.
5. The child is allowed to use the materials as lie wishes, with the
exception of destroying them, since the materials'are not his.
6. There is much time provided for each child to be listened to.'
A Teacher Who Enjoys Mathematics
The teacher is the real key to whether the program encourages
creativity or suppresses individual initiative. Few teachers of primary

'Mary Meeker, "What About Creativity for the Pre-School Child ?" The Gifted Child
Quarterly. IX (Autumn, 1965), 144.
2
lbid.
26

wades have sufficient mathematics backgrounds to guide the creative

efforts of highly gifted children.
Ideally, the teacher :Mould be organized, flexible, and imaginative
and know and enjoy mathematics thoroughly, but also be equally
knowledgeable concerning the teaching-learning process with young
children. Since these "ideal" qualities are not always to be found in
every person in primary education, a realistic approach is to select an
excellent primary teacher who enjoys teaching arithmetic and who is
willing to participate in inservice training in which "new math"
materials and approaches are used. Such training can help in the
teacher's efforts to encourage divergent thinking in a child. This
teacher must be sufficiently aware of other solutions and other ways
of computing in order to refrain from holding back the child who
sees a problem differently. Such a teacher would not feel threatened
by the adventurous student or by the materials that should be used
with him but will be constantly asking, "Is there another way? How
did rote do it?"
An instructional Plan
An instructional plan goes beyond the daily lesson plan, unit of
work, or even projected plans for a school year. It consists of
selecting an approach to teaching and then developing ways to use
that approach consistently in the presentation of subject matter
content.
In mathematics the instructional plan might require the use of the
three levels of thinking (recognition, generalization, and open search)
described at length in Chapter 5. At the level of open search
thinking, the teacher would devise questions and plan activities that
encourage analysis and synthesis and that call upon individual
originality and inventiveness.
If Guilford's intellectual operations are followed, the teacher
would lead the students from memory to cognition to convergent
and divergent thinking, and finally to evaluation skills. Gallagher
offers a good system of mathematics instruction for teachers who are
attempting this strategy for the first time.' At the divergent
production level, the teacher would be asking such questions as the
following:
1. How did you solve it?
2. Is there another way?
3. Can you think of a number that does the same thing?
4. If we put another number in that position, what would happen?
3
James J. Gallagher, Teaching the Gifted Child. Boston: Allyn & 13acon. Inc., 1964., pp.
177-96.
 17

In evaluative thinking students would be guided to check their

"other ways" with more traditional methods or by another process.
Many of the modern textbooks provide ideas for working at the
divergent evaluative levels verbally and nonverbally.
Guided discovery is another plan that leads to creative flunking in
mathematics. It is an inductive approach in which students are
guided to generalize from a number of specific instances. They are
then asked to check their generalizations by applying them to other
situations.
Whatever plan is selected, it should be followed consistently, yet
leave room for flexibility. The teacher should also stimulate idea
fluency and originality. For this the popular "brainstorming"
technique is very useful in mathematics. The teacher calls for every
possible solution to a problem, writing them all on the chalkboard
without comment. Then, teacher and pupils together evaluate the
solutions and decide which ones are usable. At other times the
teacher may not go this far, but she should consistently invite
alternative approaches and listen to them when they are offered. She
should keep out of her own mind, and the child's mind, too, the
notion that there is one correct approach to a problem.
Organization for Creativity
To organize for creativity would appear to be a contradiction in
terms. It cannot be stated too strongly, however, that good teaching
for creativity is the antithesis of the laissez-faire, disorganized
situations that sometimes are erroneously regarded as creative learning
environments. The classroom or school that is badly organized, that
lacks properly working equipment, and in which procedures are
poorly developed will not foster creativity. The teacher who is ill
prepared in subject matter content and who does not take time to
prepare for each day with the children is consistently caught off
guard when moments that invite creativity arise.
A case in point is the use of a mathematics center, which is .

discussed in this chapter. Children in wades one through three must

be given help in learning how to use the center effectively. Teachers
should introduce a few items at a time; as each set of items is
introduced, it becomes the focus of instruction for a given period of
time. Then another set of items is introduced. If job cards or
worksheets are used, children must know what to do with them;
where to put them, and how to find out if their work is correct.
Teachers should discuss the proper care of the items. Children enjoy
taking care of things if they feel they are valuable.
A plea for organization in the classroom has frequently been
misinterpreted as an appeal for a strict, rigid classroom atmosphere.
18

This can happen when it becomes an end in itself, but the opposite
has been the intent of this discussion. Teachers who "set the stage"
can be relaxed, accepting, and challenging leaders. This calls for good
organization. When the teacher and tho plans a,re well prepared,
divergent thinking and creative ideas from gifted pupils will not upset
flexible long-range objectives but should enhanck' them.

Interaction of Mathematically Talented Pupils

The opportunity the highly talented child has for interaction with
his mathematical peers needs to be considered. The gifted child needs
contact with others who enjoy mahematics. This contact could take
the form of a schoolwide mathematics club. It could be a one-to-one
contact between a younger pupil and an older one, arranged so that
they meet at regularly scheduled intervals. Whatever form it takes,
the contact should help to relieve the young, talented child of some
of the frustration lie meets in his classroom and should encourage
him to be creative in mathematics.
In summary, the gifted child can be stimulated to be creative in
mathematics if he receives regular instruction in a rich mathematical
environment according to a system which encourages divergent
thinking and if he has access to people who enjoy mathematics. He is
particularly likely to develop his creative abilities if he has a
well-organized, hard- working, creative teacher who enjoys math-
ematics and young children.
Chapter 7

Full Development of
Human Potential
The put-pose of this publication is to outline ways in which good
mathematics instruction can help gifted children become fully
functioning human beings. A consistent effort has been made to
differentiate the nnds of the mathematically talented child from the
needs of the gifted child who is not particularly interested or capable
in mathematics.
Certainly, there are gifted children who have other kinds of needs.
There are, for example, the underachieving, the autistic, the
emotionally handicapped, the neurologically handicapped, and the
blind. In most cases the comments that apply to verbal, nonmath-
ematical gifted children apply also to the other groups of gifted
children. For some children there are also underlying emotional
problems that must be dealt with before appreciable learning can
take place. For the handicapped many special techniques can be
used. These techniques have not been discussed here, b,:t the general
content and techniques described for gifted normal children apply
equally to gifted handicapped children after their special learning
needs have been met.
In Chapter 2 it is suggested that the goals, content, and teaching
pedagogy set forth in the second Strands Report can form the basis
of an exciting program for gifted children. Indeed, a basic effort in
many classrooms can very well be an attempt to establish a program
like that in the report. The second Strands Report itself would
provide a far better gifted mathematics program than in many cases
is provided for gifted children. If a program based on the second
Strands Report were established, with particular attention being
given to the needs of a variety of gifted children, such a program
would help gifted children realize their potential. The importance of
the realization of gifted children's potential cannot be emphasized
enough. Good mathematics instruction is exciting, creative, and
satisfying. A gifted program is not "frosting on a dull cake." It is an
elaboration of an essentially interesting Program worked out in
greater depth and guided to higher levels of abstraction.

19
30

If young gifted children are to realize the full development of their

potential, then their common immaturity as well as their differences
must not be forgotten. Since these children are young and have short
attention spans, they have a need for the spiral approach to learning.
In concept development it is better to stop when attention lags and
to return a few days later with a different approach.
The young child needs to manipulate the world of numbers. This
need varies with each gifted child, but even the most talented can
profit from opportunities to explore with concrete objects if the
materials and activities suit his needs.
For the mathematically talented child, a creative mathematics
program opens up to him the world of abstraction, the beauty of
mathematical structure, and the fun of mathematical invention, if his
social science and science prograins include the quantitative aspects
of those subjects, he is motivated to broaden his interests and to
make his unique contributions to these programs.
A number of these mathematically talented children (certainly not
all) do not perform well in the language arts and appear to lack
auditory and visual memory for words. The same child (highly
developed in memory and a knowledge of symbols) who can
remember the first 15 prime numbers in order and can visualize the
freeway system of a large city frequently forgets names and places he
reads about and has difficulty in language usage unless he is
commensurately able in semantics. If the mathematics program is
satisfying for him, he may be intrigued into being helped through a
mathematics program in which word usage or reading is taught. A
child of this type often responds best to a businesslike, discussion of
his difficulties and is able to make plans to correct them. He needs
the teacher's patience and help in this area so that he can realize his
potential. He should not be expected to perform as well as his
verbally gifted counterpart.
The verbally gifted child will need proficiency in calculus as an
adult if he is to become a graduate student in most subjects,
including linguistics. If he is highly artistic, his interests and abilities
may not be in academic achievements. In that case less proficiency
will be needed. For all of these children and their less able peers,
however, the world in which they will live will be highly technical. A
rich, happy mathematics experience, not overly competitive, can give
gifted children an appreciation for the inner workings of that world
and more confidence in living in it.
The ideas and suggestions presented here are not intended as a plea
for a mathematics program that outshines all other aspects of the
young gifted child's program. It is hoped that his differing needs are
 31

studied and met in an imaginative way. 1-le is young and must taste,
feel, touch, smell, and think about the world around him. This plea
has been to make his early mathematics instruction as challenging
and creative as the other subject areas. Then he should be on his way
to realizing his full potential.
Chapter 8

Teaching Suggestions
So ninny outstanding supplementary textbooks and teaching
guides have been developed in the past few years that'it would be a
waste of time for most teachers to develop special written materials
of their own. The equivalent time would be better spent learning to
make use of the unusual materials listed in Chapter 6.
A few teaching suggestions that illustrate content and methods are
the following:

Number Line
Activities and questions which illustrate the levels of thinking
discussed in Chapter 5, Higher Intellectual Skills, are as follows:

1. Recognition, recall (Bloom: knowledge)

a. Write the counting numbers on a number line, I through 75.
b. Find certain numbers on the number line.
c. Draw a red circle around each even number on the number
line segment, 25 through 35.
d. Draw a blue circle around each odd number on the same line
segment. Are there more odd numbers or more even
numbers?

2. Algorithmic thinking, generalization (Bloom: comprehension,

application)
a. With arrows, show that 7 ± 3 =

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1I 12 13

b. On a number line, show how many 2s there are in 12.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

32
 33

c. Show that 3 + 5 = 5 + 3, using the number line.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

d. In 1(a), why are there more odds than evens?

3. Open search (Bloom: analysis, synthesis)

a. On a number line, 0, 1, . , 100, circle the 0, skip one; circle

the 2, skip two; circle the 5, skip three; circle the 9, skip
four. (Write this on the chalkboard without talking.) Ask that
the sequence be continued.
b. In 1(a), what could you do to the line so that there would be
the same number of odds and evens?'
c. Are there numbers on the other side of 0?
What is 2 6 = 0?

Primitive Number Systems

The teacher should have the younger children make tally systems
using knotted ropes, hash marks, or a bag of pebbles. Other children
will enjoy collecting samples of tally symbols designating groups or
objects.
The children may make abaci of sand and pebbles, of clay and
pebbles, or of beads strung on wire. Simple bead frames can be made
by stringing ten beads commercial or salt-and-flour variety each
on three wires and fastening them to a wooden frame.

Finger
impres-
sions

0 Ten beads each

000
° ,080
Pebbles-'D Pebbles or beads-0
Sand abacus Clay abacus Wire-and-bead abacus

Children in the third grade may be introduced to the early

Egyptian and Roman numeration systems. An interesting project is
to make a frieze showing early measuring systems. Pupils may also
34

make individual bas-relief clay plaques using various numerals and

mathematical symbols for designs.

Nonmetric Geometry with Geoboards

A lesson suggested by Wirtz in Games and Enrichment Activities:
Math Workshop' has been adapted to illustrate the development of a
concept using Guilford's intellectual operations (memory, cognition,
convergent and divergent thinking, and evaluation) .." .ch pupil is
given a geoboard, various colored rubber bands, am ng. When
;.

distributing. these supplies, the teacher may discuss with the children
the ways in which they find that string differs from rubber bands.
Memory, Cognition
Children are allowed free play at one or two sessions, using
geoboards and one rubber band. They may construct patterns such as
the following:?

L
The children can enjoy sharing these activities while the alert
teacher begins the process of naming and describing the construc-
tions: point, line, triangle, square, diamond, flat, five-sided, and angle
vertex. The teacher may ask questionS such as, "Who can show us a
point? Can you touch a point with your finger? Who can show us a
line? Can you make a line on your geoboard?"
Convergent Thinking
The children may compare with each other the ways in which they
made their figures or constructions. The teacher might ask, "How did
you make a line? What is a line? What is a isiangle? is this (points to
a child's geoboard) a triangle?"
Divergent Thinking
The teacher asks the children to use three rubber bands, each a
different color, and allows free play for a while. Then the teacher
asks, "1216w many triangles can you make?" Some children may find
many triangles in their patterns; others may find only One or two.
The teacher continues, asking, "What would happen if we used string
instead of rubber bands? Would string work as well for. making
1Robert W. Wirtz and Others, Games and Enrichment Actipities: Math Workshop.
,Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica-Inc., 1964:
 35

Nails or brads

Plywood board

Illustration of a geoboard

triangles as rubber bands? Would the edges of the shapes be straight?

Would the vertices be sharp?" Various patterns may evolveifrom this
discussion, such as the following:

Evaluation
In mathematics, values and moral judgments are not part of
evaluation, which is rather the level at which ideas developed at the
divergent and convergent thinking levels are checked. For example,
here the teacher distributes the pieces of string, and the conjectures
regarding string are checked by manipulation and discussion.
This lesson could be followed at a later time by another lesson
with the string in which open and closed curves-are developed.
Other Recommendations
Geometry for Primary Grades by Hawley and Suppes2 and
Experience with Geometry by Eicholz and O'Daffer3 offer follow-up
to discovery techniques for nonmetric geometry. Suppes's materials
are particularly good for the less mathematically talented child who
is happier in a structured situation. The lessons encourage precision,
2
Newtdn Hawley and Patrick Suppes. Geometry Jbr Primary Grades. San Francisco:
Holden-Day,:Inc., 1961.
3Robert E, Eicholz and Pharos G. O'DalIcr. Experiences with Gem, chip. Reading, Mass.:
Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Ine.,1966.
36

logic, and The opportunity to develop fine motor skills. The Eicholz
materials are less formal and more adventurous. They provide many
opportunities to construct geometric shapes, both plane and solid.
Problem Solving
Much improvement in problem solving can be achieved if the
emphasis is on translation. Once children see mathematics as another
language and realize that it is possible to translate from English to
mathematical symbols and from the symbols to English, they can
develop a powerful tool for word problem attack.
To help gifted children gain this insight, the teacher may introduce
simple games, such as the following:
1. Ask a child to make up "stories" about a given open sentence,
such as 2 + 4 + = 10. Encourage elaboration and embedding
of the story because the child will be more able, at a later time,
to detect the extraneous material in textbook problems. He
might say, "My mother came home from the store with four
bags of groceries and gave my younger brother and me a little
bag. It had two bubble gums, four Tootsie-rolls, and some
jawbreakers. There were ten things. How many jawbreakers did
we get?" Let young children dictate their stories to the teacher
as she types them on a primary typewriter. Ask each child to
read his story to the class. Older children can write their own
stories.
2. Ask the children to translate word problems to number
sentences. Encourage them to write the symbols in the same
order as they are presented in the problems. For example: John
had some matchbook cars. His mother gave him three more.
Then he had six. How many did he have in he beginr.ing? The
child should write: + 3 = 6. rather than 3 + = 6. The latter
is not incorrect, but the logic is clearer in the first example.
Selected References
Attribute Games and Problems: A Teacher's Guide. Newton, Mass.: Education
Development Center, Inc., 1964. (This book and the accompanying series are
now published in New York by McGraw-Hill Book Co., Webster Division.)
Avital, Shmuel, and Sara J. Shettleworth. Objectives for Mathematics Learning.
Bulletin No. 3. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, 1968.
Chambers, W. R., and John Murray. Pictorial Representation: Nuffield Math-
ematics Project. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1967.
Davis, Robert B. Discovery in Mathematics: The Madison Project. Reading,
Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1966.
Dienes, Zoltan P. Building Up Mathematics. London: Hutchinson Educational,
Ltd., 1960.
Eicholz, Robert E., and Phares G. O'Daffer. Experiences with Geometry.
Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1966.
Enrichment Mathematics for the Grades, Twenty-Seventh Yearbook. Washing-
ton, D.C.: National Council of Teachersof Mathematics, 1963.
Gallagher, James J. Teaching the Gifted Child. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, Inc.,
1964, Chapter 5.
Growth of Mathematical Ideas, Grades K-12, Twenty-Fourth Yearbook. Edited
by Phillip S. Jones. Washington, D.C.: National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics, 1959.
Guilford, J. P. "Three Faces of Intellect," American Psychologist, XIV (August,
1959), 469-79.
Hawley, Newton, and Patrick Suppes. Geometry for Primary Grades. San
Francisco: Holden-Day, Inc., 1961.
Instruction in Arithmetic, Twenty-Fifth Yearbook. Edited by Foster E.
Grossnickle. Washington, D.C.: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics,
1960.
Lucas, James S., and Evelyn Neufeld. Developing Number Experiences, Kit A.
New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1966.
Mathematics Framework for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through
Grade Eight: The Second Strands Report. Prepared by the Statewide
Mathematics Advisory Committee. Sacramento: California State Department
of. Education, 1972.
Meeker, Mary. "What About Creativity for the. Pre-School Child?" The. Gifted
Child Quarterly, IX (Autumn, 1965), 144.
Pearcy, J. F. F., and 'K. Lewis. Experiments in Mathematics, Stage One Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Co:, 1966.
Probability. for Primary Grades. Prepared by the School. Mathematics Study
Group. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1965.
O
38

Sea ley, L. G. W. Using the "lnpicta" Plastics' Mathematical Balance. Oadhy

Leicester, England: Invicta Plastics, Ltd.
Taxonomy of Educational ObjectiPes: The Classification of Educational
Goals Handbook I: Cognitipe Domain. Edited by Benjamin S. Bloom. New
York: David McKay Co., Inc., 1956.
Weaver, J. Fred, and Cleo Fisher Brawley. "Enriching the Elementary School
Mathematics Program for More Capable Child len," Journal of Education.
CXVII (October, 1959). 1-40.
Westcott, Alvin M., and James A. Smith. Creatipe Teaching of Mathematics in
the Elementary School. Boston: Allyn .& Bacon, Ine., 1967.
Robert W., and Others. Gaines and Enrichment Activities: Math
Workshop. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc., 1964.

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