Effective

Questioning
A stimulus for professional discussion
Effective Questioning
Professional Learning Module

Contents
Overview of the resource 1
Using the resource 2
Questioning 3
Why is questioning so important when it comes
to inquiry-based teaching? 3
What learning opportunities do open questions
offer that closed questions do not? 4
How can asking questions help students who
are conducting an investigation? 6
Waiting 8
What can happen when students are given
adequate time to think? 8
Responding 10
What are the characteristics of effective praise? 10
How can we show our students that we are
listening and value their ideas? 11
How do the Three P’s provide responses with purpose? 12
What else can we do to foster a rich, responsive
and thoughtful environment for questioning? 13
Classroom Observation 15
Art of Questioning 16
References 17

i
 Overview of the resource
Questioning is a skill that anyone can learn to use well. Through a focus on
types of questions and strategies for making them effective, this resource
provides an opportunity to reflect and build on your questioning practice.
Science by
Doing

GUIDE: Effective Questioning

Effective Questi

Effective This written guide provides background information

Questioning
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which supports the ideas and topics explored in the digital

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DVD: Describing and Modelling

Effective Questioning
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ess

The DVD describes and demonstrates the key ideas related

ion
a l Le a

Describing
and Modelling

to using questioning effectively to enhance student learning

Effective
rn i n g Re

Questioning
DVD
so u

Acknowledgement:

outcomes. This is achieved via interviews with two leading

rce

Science by Doing is supported

by the Australian Government.
Disclaimer: The views expressed
herein do not necessarily represent
the views of the Australian
Government Department of
Education, Employment and
Workplace Relations.

researchers from the field, practicing classroom teachers,

and classroom footage of teachers and students in action.

CD-ROM: Exploring and Practising Effective

Questioning Skills
ce
ur
so
Re
ing

The interactive CD-ROM provides an opportunity to engage

essional Learn

Exploring
and Practising
Effective
Questioning
Skills
CD-ROM with and practice the teaching skills associated with using
Pr o f

questioning effectively. Activities are divided into the

Acknowledgement:
Science by Doing is supported
by the Australian Government.
Disclaimer: The views expressed herein
do not necessarily represent the
views of the Australian Government
Department of Education,
Employment and
Workplace Relations.

sections of Questioning, Waiting and Responding. Teachers

are prompted to reflect on their own skills to identify areas
of strength and weakness.

1
Using the resource
The components of the resource have been prepared for use in the
following sequence:

 iew the DVD: Describing and Modelling

V
Effective Questioning

Interact with the CD-ROM: Exploring and

Practising Effective Questioning Skills

Read the book: Effective Questioning

Share reflections with colleagues

While this resource can be explored by an individual teacher, it is highly

recommended that the experience be shared among colleagues.
This could be achieved by exploring the resource
with a buddy, designing/participating in
a workshop based on the resource for
a group/faculty/department, or using
it as a focus for discussion within
a professional learning community.
The act of reflecting and sharing
experiences is considered essential
to ensuring the effectiveness
of this resource.

2
Questioning

Why is questioning so important

when it comes to inquiry-based
teaching?
The interaction between the teacher and students
is a very important feature of any classroom, but
takes on a special significance in an inquiry-based
setting. In such a context current student knowledge
provides the basis on which new learning and
ideas are built. Effective questioning, therefore,
becomes the tool by which teachers come to
understand where student thinking is at any point in
the learning journey.
Through the inquiry-based approach
there is a move away from traditional
forms of teaching, such as telling
and explaining, to more
subtle strategies which
help students construct
their own meaning of
ideas. The ideal pattern
of interaction is one
where teachers are the
agents and facilitators
of thinking, rather than
inquisitors in control
of all knowledge.
Questions, and the art
of questioning, become
crucial.
Fundamental to using
questioning in the way
described here is an understanding
of the differences between closed and
open questions.

3
 Closed questions
have one clear answer
and are useful when
a quick check of
knowledge is required.
For example:
Where are the kidneys
located in the human
body?

Open questions
are more open-ended and allow
students to give a variety of
acceptable answers.
For example:
How are the kidneys structured
to help them work effectively?

If we want our students to move beyond simple recall and memorisation

of facts, then we need to foster the thinking skills required for reasoning,
problem solving, evaluation and the formulation of hypotheses. The
vehicle for doing this is through asking questions of an open nature.

What learning opportunities do open questions

offer that closed questions do not?
This question is best answered by reflecting on the difference between
low-order and high-order thinking. Although much reference is made to
these different levels of thinking, it is useful to be reminded of the skills
associated with each. Bloom’s Taxonomy provides a useful framework for
drawing a distinction between low- and high-order thinking.

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High-order
thinking Type of Useful Question
open mental verbs example
questions operations

Which of your
classmates
Making Judge, argue, do you think
judgments decide, had the best
based on assess, attach, method to
Evaluation internal estimate, find out how
evidence discriminate, many frogs
or external defend live around a
criteria lake? Why do
you think so?
What could
Predict, you do to
Rearranging produce, find out how
component design,
Synthesis ideas into a develop, many frogs
live around
new whole arrange, a particular
devise lake?
Identify
Breaking
down objects causes, draw
conclusions,
or ideas into How are frogs
determine
similar parts and fish alike?
Analysis and seeing evidence, How are they
how the parts analyse, different?
relate and are appraise,
contrast,
organised relate
How
Applying Classify, would you
knowledge use, choose,
Application to actual solve, apply, prepare an
environment
situation interpret to grow frogs?
How are frogs
(Bloom 1984; Colburn 2003)

Describe, able to live in

Grasping the compare, water
Comprehension meaning of contrast, (as tadpoles)
information convert, and on the
estimate land
(as adults)?
Remembering Define, recall, To which
kingdom,
previously recognise,
Knowledge learned remember, phylum and
class do frogs
information label, list belong?
Low-order
thinking
closed Note: S
 ee the Science by Doing Assessment professional learning
questions resource for further information on Bloom’s Taxonomy.

5
While the act of questioning comes intuitively to most teachers,
research suggests that most of the questions we ask of our students are
closed (DfES 2004). That is, they only require the low-order-thinking skills
of knowledge and comprehension to answer. To foster the development
of higher-order thinking skills we need to ask more open questions that
allow students to give a variety of possible answers. It is when students
are thinking at this level that they are meaningfully drawn into the learning
process, begin to take ownership of their learning, and construct their
own meaning of ideas. For the teacher, listening to students’ answers
to open questions provides a most reliable indication of where
current student thinking is at, the existence of any prevailing
misconceptions, and how students are piecing together
their acquired knowledge.

Science education is
presented with a rather
unique opportunity to
enhance high-order
thinking skills as the
scientific method, by its
very nature, requires the
skills associated with
analysis, synthesis
and evaluation.

How can asking questions

help students who are
conducting an investigation?
In the inquiry context, when students
are so often engaged in investigation, it
is worthwhile giving consideration to the type
of questions that may help them investigate
more effectively. Typically, students ask
numerous questions of the teacher during
investigations. One of the most effective
ways of responding to these questions
is by posing another related, but
different, question back to the student.
In doing so the teacher acts to scaffold
the process which enables students to
answer their own questions.

6
The table below offers numerous questions to ask during the
investigation process.

Student’s target Suggested

skill/need question

Make a prediction What would happen if...?

What is this...?
How would you describe that...?
Make observations How does it do...?
How can you tell...?
How does your idea solve the challenge?
Stay focused on the What do you need to answer the question?
prediction/activity What do you need to do next?
How can we find out the answer to that?
Answer his/her own What do you think?
questions I’m not sure, but I do know that...
What happened?
Why do you think this happened?
Learn from mistakes What did you learn when it did that?
How could you change...?
Can you find a way to...?
Problem solve or try Is there another way to look at this?
another approach Why do you think this is happening?
What led you to this idea/thinking?
Verify his/her thinking How do you know this?
or conclusions Where else could you check what you have
discovered/found out?
How did you come up with this idea?
Explain his/her thinking What do you want to have happen?
Tell me more about what you’re thinking.
Make connections to What does this remind you of?
the real world What are other examples of this occurring?
What did you find out?
Share results Can you show me how this works?
How did you come up with that idea?
What did you learn that you didn’t
Assess what he/she know before?
has learned If you could do this again, what would
you change?
What other questions do you have?
Experiment further What else would you like to know?
Consider and respond What would you do in response to...?
to implicit social or What could you do in response to...?
ethical issues What actions would you take if...?

7
 Waiting

What can happen when Wait time 1:

students are given adequate After the teacher
asks a question
time to think?
In the late 1960s, the noted science Wait time 2:
educator Mary Budd Rowe recognised After a student
that some teachers used deliberate pauses responds
during questioning sessions and classroom
discussions. She noted that this practice
had significant positive effects on student
performance and so the concept of ‘wait
time’ was developed.

It seems that when students are given

adequate time to think in response to
questions there is a ripple effect that leads
to a more positive classroom environment,
more quality teacher-student and student- The ideal length
student interactions, more higher-order for wait time 1 and
thinking, an improvement in academic 2 is three to five
achievement and a decrease in behaviour seconds, longer is
problems (Rowe, 1996). even better!
8
 Classroom changes with increased wait time

7 T eacher questions change

in number and in kind
a. the number of open
1 300-700% increase in the questions prompting
length of student responses higher-order thinking
increases
b. there is more probing
for clarification

2 T he number of unsolicited 8 S tudents make inferences

but appropriate responses and support these with
increases data

3 F ailures to 9 S tudents ask more

respond decrease questions

4 C onfidence 10 C ontributions by low-

increases ability students increase

5 S peculative responses 11 Disruptive behaviour

decreases through more
increase
students being on-task

6 T eacher-centred show-and-
tell decreases – student- 12 A chievement on logic
to-student interaction tests improves
increases

Adapted from Lipton, L. & Wellman, B. (2004) Pathways to Understanding:

patterns and practices in the learning-focused classroom. MiraVia, Sherman CT

9
 Responding

What are the nature, which does not alert

students to the aspect of their
characteristics of work which met expectations or
effective praise? standards. They define effective
praise as being:
Teachers know that students benefit
from working in a supportive, safe, 1
friendly environment. While it is
generally accepted that praise plays Specific
an important role in fostering such providing focused
an environment, research over the and accurate 4
past 30 years has indicated that we comments
about work and Congruent
need to be careful about how and actions offered as close
when we use praise (Brophy 1981). as possible
to the actual
Research shows that praise can 2 praiseworthy
have different effects on different event or
accomplishment
kinds of students. For a variety of
reasons, students from different Contingent
socioeconomic backgrounds, based upon 5
actual
genders and ability levels may accomplishment
not respond to praise in the same Appropriate
way. The use of praise is further geared to
the level of
complicated by the fact that it may 3 accomplishment
have different effects depending and matched to
on the type of achievement being Genuine the personality
of the
measured (Hitz & Driscoll 1988). showing a student
For example, praise may be useful variety of
responses rather
in motivating students to learn by than drawing
rote, but it may discourage problem from a few ‘pet’
solving. This, obviously, has a phrases
negative implication in the inquiry
context where students are
When using praise it is wise to
so often engaged in problem-
continually monitor students for
solving activities.
their reaction to it. If it appears to
Lipton and Wellam (2004) suggest have the desired effect then you
that for praise to be effective it know you are on to a good thing.
must provide detailed feedback If the opposite is true then there
about products and performances, would be value in reconsidering, or
as opposed to being global in modifying your practice.

10
How can we show our students that we are
listening and value their ideas?
The importance of non-verbal behaviours that communicate that we are
listening cannot be underestimated. Be aware of the influence your body
language has on your students as they share their thoughts and answers.
Consider the messages your body is conveying to your students. Egan
(2002) proposes the SOLER framework for using non-verbal listening skills.

S Face the student SQUARELY - adopt a position that

indicates involvement.

Adopt an OPEN POSTURE - generally seen as a non-

O defensive posture (crossed arms and legs can
be seen as defensive).

L LEAN towards the direction of the student at times.

This is an indication of interest in the student’s response.

E Maintain good EYE CONTACT.

R Try to be relatively RELAXED or natural in these behaviours.

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Encouraging Probing involves asking,
Your voice tones are important clarifying who, what,
indicators of your interest, or that why, where, when or how
you are wanting the student to questions. It is useful when
keep talking. Encouragers need you don’t understand a
to be expressive, but as they are student’s ideas or answer, or
a form of praise should not be when you would like them
overused. One-word encouragers to elaborate on their original
can prompt students to elaborate response.
on their ideas. Encouragers
can also be powerful ways of
Paraphrasing involves
engaging with students who
restating and feeding back to
are not initially motivated.
your student their own words
in a shortened and clarified
Encouragers include:
form. The words you use
• nods of the head should:
• open gestures • include some of the same
ones the student used
• positive facial expressions,
e.g. smiling • capture the essence of
what your student is saying,
• minimal verbal utterances such as
feeling, experiencing
‘umm’, ‘uh-uh’, ‘I see’
It is important to check out
• repeating back one word or short
your paraphrase with the
phrase of the student’s
student for accuracy.
• repeating back a word or phrase
as an implied question The use of prompting is helpful
when students appear reluctant to
• leaving a silence for the student
answer a question.
to fill, i.e. wait time 1 and 2.
Prompting involves assisting
How do the Three P’s a student having difficulty
answering a question by
provide responses with providing scaffolding by way
purpose? of re-phrasing or re-framing
the question, making the
The practices of prompting
question simpler, providing
and paraphrasing both help to
hints, allowing time for
demonstrate to your students that
discussion before answering
you are listening to them. In each
etc.
case the students’ ideas are built
on or summarised in the teacher’s
response for a specific purpose.
12
What else can
we do to foster a
rich, responsive
and thoughtful 2
 elect words which
S
environment for express tentativeness and
suggest to students that
questioning? there is not one, single
correct response.
There are several simple
strategies that, when used
during questioning, act to What conclusions might
increase student participation you draw?
and comfort level.
These include:
What may indicate that
effect?

1 What hunches do you

 ake questions invitational
M
have to explain your
by using an approachable
results?
voice, with melody and a
positive inflection, rather
3
than a flat, even tone. Use  se invitational stems
U
plurals to invite multiple to enable a behaviour or
rather than single ideas. activity to be carried out.

What are some of

As you think about…
your goals?

What ideas do you

As you consider…
have?

What observations did

As you reflect on…
you make?

What alternatives are

As you carry out…
you considering?

13
4 6
 se positive
U  xtend student responses
E
presuppositions which and participation via
assume capability and paraphrasing. Invite
empowerment. students to elaborate on
their responses.

What are some of the

benefits you will derive
You’re noticing…
from carrying out this
investigation?

As you plan your As you consider…

presentation, what will
be some indicators that
you are on track and
succeeding? You’re suggesting…

5
 ork with student answers
W
when they are incorrect You’re thinking…
or not fully formed. Help
students to refine and
develop their response
rather than filling in the You’re wondering…
gaps for them.

Why do you think that...? You’re excited about…

So, you are speculating

Tell me more about...?
that…

What do you mean by...? So, your hunch is…

Could you clarify that

You’ve observed that…
further?

(Costa & Kallick 2000)

14
Classroom A couple of tips to be
Observation mindful of when observing
one another’s teaching:
Observing classroom questioning
provides an ideal opportunity Before the observation
for members of professional meet as a pair to make
learning communities to open their decisions about:
classroom doors to one another.
• when and where to observe
Pairs of teachers can work together
• what features of questioning
to observe each other’s questioning
to focus on
practice. The data collected could
• what methods to use in
include the number of open vs
collecting data
closed questions asked during a
• how to introduce the
lesson, or whether long or short
observer to the students
wait times were used. Such data
• how the data will
provides an excellent start for any
be analysed
teacher who wishes to inquire into
• who will have access to
their questioning practice.
the data.
The observation could be for a During the lesson the
whole lesson or as short as 15 observer should focus on
minutes. Work with your partner to collecting descriptive data
determine what is a suitable time only and avoid making
frame and, more importantly, what judgements such as good or
data or observations should be bad, right or wrong, effective
made during that time. If question or ineffective.
type and wait time are to be
After the observation work
investigated, a simple template like
together to analyse the
the one below may be useful.
results. Allow the teacher
Date: 12 Fe brua ry
who was observed
2011 to guide the
Class: Y ea r 7F Li conversation and
ne 2
Time: 9.40-10. 20 focus on the aspects
of the data that
most interest them.
Nature of lesson:
A sim The purpose of this
scientif ic m eth od, stu de ple int rod uctio n to th e session should be to
at wo rk ta bles. nt s sit tin g in sm all group s
reach a collaborative
judgement about
Type of question what action might be
Wait time
Open Closed taken in response to
Short Long the data.

15
The Art of Questioning
This module describes the research and strategies related to questioning.
In one sense you could describe this information as the science of
questioning. But while the ideas in this module are well founded in solid
research, it is important to understand there is an art to questioning. The
nature of that art depends very much on you.

When you first start using some of the techniques outlined (for example,
using more open questions or longer wait time or more varied responses),
it will seem strange or even awkward and uncomfortable. As you become
more confident and familiar with the particular techniques you adopt a
more natural manner. And therein lies the art of questioning. It must feel
right for you and for your students.

Our questions should help the student learn more effectively. There are
times when you focus your questioning and times when your questions are
more divergent. The circumstance determines the nature of the questions
and the art of questioning is knowing what is appropriate when.

This art depends heavily on your ability to listen to and know your
students. By sensitive and careful listening you better appreciate where
your students are at with their learning. With this insight you are more
able to pose simple but thoughtful questions that more effectively help
students construct understanding.

The purpose of this short reflection is to reinforce the obvious truth that
you must trust yourself in what you think is right for your students. Your
questioning should be a natural part of the way you interact with students.

16
References
Bloom, B.S. (1984)
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.
Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA.

Rowe, M. B. (1996)
Silence, silence, and sanctions.
Science and Children, 44(1), 35-37.

Brophy, J.E. (1981)

Teacher Praise: a functional analysis.
Review of Educational Research, 51(1), 5-32.

Colburn, A. (2003)
The Lingo of Learning.
NSTA Press, Arlington, Virginia.

Costa, A.L. & Kallick, B. (2000)

Habits of Mind: activating and engaging.
ASCD, Alexandria, VA.

DfES. (2004)
Strengthening Teaching and Learning in Science
Through Using Different Pedagogies.
DfES Publications, Norwich, UK.

Egan, G. (2002)
The Skilled Helper: A Problem-Management and Opportunity-
Development Approach to Helping.
Brooks Cole: CA.

Hitz, R. & Driscoll, A. (1988)

Praise or Encouragement: new insights into praise.
Young Children, 43(5), 6-13.

Lipton, L. & Wellam, B. (2004)

Pathways to Understanding: patterns and practices in
the learning-focused classroom.
MiraVia, Sherman CT.

17
 Science by Doing would like to thank the following
Project Management for their contribution to the development of this
Project Director: Professor Denis Goodrum, FACE resource: Mona Akbari; Ian Hart; Prof. David
(Australian Academy of Science) Lindenmayer; Julia Munro; Louise Rostron; James
Project Deputy Director: Amelia Druhan Steele; Debra Talbot; Beau Williams; CSIRO
(Australian Academy of Science) Publishing, Fuel Creative Pty Ltd; Hartbeat
Multimedia; Interactive Multimedia Pty Ltd
This resource was written by: Amelia Druhan,
Denis Goodrum and Louise Fogg.
Acknowledgement
Steering Committee Science by Doing is supported by the
Australian Government
Professor Jennifer A. Marshall Graves AO FAA
(Australian Academy of Science) [Chair]
Professor Denis Goodrum
Disclaimer
(Australian Academy of Science) The views expressed herein do not necessarily
Mr Scott Lambert represent the views of the Australian Government
(Department of Education Employment and Department of Education, Employment and
Workplace Relations) Workplace Relations.
Dr Sue Meek
(Australian Academy of Science) These materials are intended for education and
training only. Every effort is made to ensure the
accuracy of the information presented in these
Reference Group materials. We do not assume any liability for the
Professor Jennifer A. Marshall Graves AO FAA accuracy or completeness of the information
(Australian Academy of Science) [Chair] contained within. The Australian Academy of
Australian Council of Deans of Science Science accepts no responsibility for any loss or
Australian Curriculum, Assessment and damage whatsoever suffered as a result of direct
Reporting Authority or indirect use or application of any of these
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