600 0 OP Ke : ? : ¢ % ‘ % eoeccecececesdeseocece wok 2 on fy IP po ae Oe He CISCO CERTIFIED NETWORK ASSOCIATES(CCNA) Network Evolution Computer Networking: Computer networking is continuously evolving more than 30years, * Provides companies with the ability to share data between systems. + Allow companies to centralizes and manage applications Email Database Web Types of networks: * local Area Network - LAN are designed to create within ‘a limited geographical area. Control the network privately under local ‘administration. Provide full time connectivity to local services. Connect physically adjacent services Metropolitan Area Network + Wide Area Network - A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad geographic area and that often uses transmission facilities provided by common camfers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers Of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer. Enterprise: + Extranet or Virtual Private Network — utilizes public medium such as internet to connect external devices to an extranet. VPN - Remote Access employees Extranet ~ Partners or affiliate companies Storage Area: * Storage Area Network(SAN): High speed special purpose network that interconnects various kinds of data storage devices with associated data servers on behalf of a larger network of users Supports disk mirroring, backup and restore, archival and retrieval of the archived.data, data migration and sharing data among different servers in anetwork. Network Attached Storage (SAN) device: stores data for various systems. * Astorage area network (SAN) is an architecture to attach remote computer storage devices such as disk array controllers, tape libraries and Cisco Certified Network Associateeeeeanamaeneoeewonoeoesvee e e e ° e g 3 8 8 e e e e e ° ° CD arrays to servers in such a way that to the operating system the devices appear as locally attached devices. (By contrast to a SAN, network attached storage (NAS), uses file-based Protocols such as NFS or SMB/CIFS where itis clear that the storage is remote, and computers request a portion of an abstract file rather than a disk block.) Content Delivery Networks: Service of copying pages of a website to geographically dispersed servers. Dynamically identifies and serves pages content from the closest server to the user, enabling faster delivery. Typically, high traffic website owners and internet service providers (ISPs) hire service of companies that provide content delivery. Internetworking: The process of interconnecting two or more individual networks to facilitate communications among their respective parts. May be of different types, each having its own address, intemal protocols, access methods, and administration. The focus is the ability 1 communicate between dissimilar media types. No one solution is right for everyone. No company has only one solution. Internetworking must provide: Reliable communications Scalability/expandability Manageability Security Cisco provides a complete internetworking solution: They provide internetworking hardware. They provide internetworking connectivity. Software for internetworking Security . Management products and so on. TCP/IP Connectivity: 'n 1969 Department of Defense commissioned Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) network. ARPAnet used Network Connection Protocol (NCP). TCP/IP research began in Stanford university funded by Department of Defense and developed four-layered networking layer Research published in Request for Comments (RFCs) Cisco Certified Network Associate ((o) 10:10:10© COSOERENMOOCC OCC CHE HERRES OC OO. Dejure standard - Dejure means by law you have to use this or otherwise we will not buy equipment from the mainframe vendors. Intemetworking as we know, it was born Defacto Standard - Defacto means the more accepted by everyone. ‘OSI Model: In 1970, International Organization for Standardization (ISO) began work ‘on 7-layered model. * Open system Interconnection (OSI) model was born * Created full standard set for all internetworking communications. * 1979 OSI was completed. = Implemented in 1984, Creation of the distribution processing networking model. LAN and WAN definition were born. Ethernet: In 1970's Digital, Intel and Xerox (DIX) consortium created the original Ethemet Ethemet Il standard was subsequently defined and released. Ethemet Ilis known as ARPA Ethemet. 802. X: In February 1980, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers inc., (IEEE) took on the project 802. 802.1 - Committee was responsible for high level internetworking protocols and management thereof. 802.2 - Logical Link Control (LLC) focused on end-to-end link connectivity and the interface between the higher layers and the medium access | dependent layers. 802.3 - Became the Ethernet standards (pushed by DIX). 802.4 - Token Bus (Burroughs, concord data system, Honeywell, western digital and later, general motors and Boeing) 802.5 - Token ring (published by IBM). Cisco Certified Network AssociateOPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECT REFERENCE MODEL OSI Reference Model: * OSI model is not a protocol. * Itis not a protocol stack something used to allow.communication. «Infact, itis a layered model, a reference model something to used vendors to develop these products. They can develop their products to meet the standards. The OSI model is a 7-layered model which is designed to facilitate standardization of various components that make internetworking function. * OSI was developed by the Intemational Organization for Standardization (ISO) and introduced in 1984. * Each layer defines a set of functions which takes part in data communication. Layer? Network processes Sotware Layer to application Applicaton Layer Away or Layer Data Upper Layer Representation. Pregentaion Layer pizza : Layers ier host 7" communicabon eezion Laver Sausege Layer4 End to end — pat connection. Throw Layer3 Address best path Nefvots Layer Not Netork suppor Layer Layer2 Access to media Dats rk Layer Do or Hardware Layer Layert Binary ransmission Physical Layer Please Benefits of OSI: The layered approach to network communications provides the following benefits: Improved teaching and learning * - Accelerated evolution + Inferoperable technology + Standard interfaces Allows different vendors network to work with each other. Breaks the complexities of networking into smaller pieces. Modularity enables changes at one layer without affecting other layers. Cisco Certified Network Associate COCO OCHPPSHPH LOSS OOO OOO OONMHHOCE CHOC OMEe* Facilitates standardization. * Eases the process of troubleshooting, Application Layer (Layer 7): Network processes to applications * Itis responsible for providing an interface for the users fo interact with application services or networking services. * Provides network services to application process such as e-mail, file transfer, terminal emulation. Developers can write programs that allow application that are not network aware to access components of layer 7 Identifies communication partners. Identification of services is done using port numbers (service port address). Port is a logical communication channel. Port number is a 16 bit identifier. * The total no. of ports are 0 - 65535. + Server ports are 1 - 1023. * Client ports are 1024 - 65535. * Email client / email server Protocol Data Unit (PDUs) HTTP port no. is 80 FIP port no. is 21 SMIP port no. is 25 Telnet port no. is 23 TFIP port no. is 69 DNS port no. is 53 DHCP port no. is 67 Determines resource availability. + Email folder Synchronize communication between systems + Make’sure that server and client are work together. Layer 7 services File and print * Email * Database * Name resolution Internet access Terminal emulation Management services Presentation Layer (Layer 6): Data Reptesentation. + Itis responsible for defining a standard format to the data. It deals with data representation. Ensures data is readable by receiving system. Format data. Data structures. Cisco Certified Network Associate SCHOSSHSHHEHSSHSHSHSHSHHCOHOHSHOOHOAOKCHOHOHKKCFEHL LEVEESCHOHSOHSSG FERS SC LH HHH OC HMOHOOHLESE CS OC 00% + Negotiates data transfer syntax for application layer. * Layer 6 is responsible for: * Data encoding / decoding and conversion. © ASCII to EBCDIC (Text). JPEG, GIF, TIFF (Graphics). © MPEG, DAT, AVI (Video). * Encryption / Decryption o. DES (Data Encrypt Standard) 3- DES AES (Advanced Encrypt Standard) SSL/TLS. ° Certificates. + Compression / Decompression © Predictor. © Stacker. © MPPC (Microsoft Point to Point Compression). ooo Session Layer (Layer 5): Inter host communication. It deals with sessions or interaction between the applications. « Itis responsible for establishing, maintaining and terminating the sessions between applications. * Session ID is used to identify the session or interaction. * Establish connection * Session setup - Dialog * Manage connection * Dialog control * Simplex - one way traffic eg., Radio * Half Duplex - Two way traffic one at a time eg., Walkie-talkie * Full Duplex - Two way traffic simultaneously eg., Telephone * Terminate connection + Examples: * "Remote Procedural Call (RPC) * Structural Query Language (SQL) + Apple Talk Session Protocol. Transport Layer (Layer 4): End-to-end connections * Identification of services. Multiplexing and de-multiplexing * Itis responsible for end-to-end transportation of data between the applications. Transportation issues between host Data transport reliability Establish, maintain and terminate virtual circuits Fault detection and recovery Information flow control Cisco Certified Network Associate* Data transports: * Reliable data transfer * Connection-oriented protocols © Guaranteed reliable © Acknowledged © Higher overload {is a disadvantage) * Connectionless protocol © Best effort delivery © Non-acknowledged Lower overhead because there is no acknowledgement. * Flow control * Designed to ease overhead. * Allows data buffering * Sliding windows * Buffering with source quench messages * Ports - defined and assigned by the internet assigned numbers authority (IANA) * Public applications (Well Known) 1 ~ 255. © HTTP (80) or FIP (21). Private Applications 256 - 1023 © Application specific + Dynamic client (High Order) 256 - 65535. © Dynamically assigned by the client. * Identify applications «TCP/IP © Port value depends on the following: > Type of applications > What application is? * Common ports are o TCP 21 -FIP Control TCP 20- FIP Data ICP 23-Teinet TCP 25 - SMTP (simple mail transfer protocol) TCP/UDP 53 - DNS UDP 69 -TFIP TCP 80 - HTTP UDP 161 - SNMP (simple new management protocol) UDP 162- SNMP Trap (A Trap is a line of communication that come from SNMP Client). * The major functions described at the transport layer are as follows: + Idenfitying services + Multiplexing and De-Multiplexing * Segmentation * Sequencing and Re-assembling 00000000 Cisco Certified Network Associate CHOCO HCHESSEHSSHCH HSS OOCHMOHO CHC E HK 00 CORSESCOTCH HCHSHSHSHOHHSC LLCS HoLHOLRBMBMBEEBicceS * Error correction with the help of checksum + Flow control * The size of protocol is 46 to 1500 bytes and beyond this itis called as joint frame and below its called as Runt frame. Between 46 and 1500s called as good frame. } { ane | { su | [ ons | [ DNS I[ TP | } Layer 4 Connectionless Connection orier Oriented Network Layer (Layer 3): The network layer manages devices addressing, tracks the locations of devices on the network and determines the best way to move data which means that the network layer must transport traffic between devices that are not locally attached. Routers are specified at the network layer and provide the routing services within an internetwork. Handles most of the protocol communication and is responsible for identifying the best path to move data from across the network. * Provides connectivity and path selection between two end systems * Domain of routing. * Routing: * Routed protocols © IP, IPX, Apple Talk * Routing protocols o RIP © IGRP o OSPF co EIGRP * Route selection Cisco Certified Network AssociateCHOCOCHHOOSHHHO CHOCO OCROVSO HOE LC OHK 000 ORS | | | | CS A2ChYUO RVI FEA Addressing and switching * Addressing is used to identify source and destination logical or software IP addresses * Switching methods © Circuit switching - telephony © Message switching - Store and forward © Packet switching - Frame relay and T1. Protocols + Routed protocols - carry data through the network o Runat the network layer © Make path determination based on content of route table © Eg.,IP, IPX, Apple Talk + Routing protocols . © Programs that run exclusively on routers © Communicate known netw8rks with other routers | Keep track of all network addresses and routes so as routable protocols can make its way through the networks. © Populates the route table ©. RIP, OSPF, IGRP, EIGRP, IS-IS, BGP 4. Data Link Layer (Layer 2): It is responsible for end-to-end delivery of data between the devices on a network segment. The primary responsibility of layer 2is framing (Encapsulation). Takes all the data from all the layers of the host and putting them all in a format that are understand by the other side. Layer 2 primary responsibilty is access to the media. Its actually provides the reliable transfer of data through media lis job is to take care of the physical addressing, network topology. Responsibilities of Layer 2 are: + Framing (CISCO use the word encapsulation) © MAC sub layer © LLC sub layer * Physical addressing ‘© MAC Address (Hardware address) = Access to the physical topology. Ethemet Il Frame PRE | Destination | Source | Type | Layer 3-7 data FCS| Address _| Address Ethernet 802.3 Frame PRE_| Destination | Source [Length | Layer 3-7 data FCS ied Network AssociateAddress Address _] * Token ting Frame Start | AC | FC | Destination | Source [Layer 3-7 fos end Stat Address Address | data Note: The source and déstination address must use the same frame type for data communications Data link layer comprises of two sub layers: Media Access Control (MAC) and Logical Link Control (LLC). Provide a layer of abstraction between upper layer protocols and underlying interface hardware. Allow multiple protocols binding to exist * MAC deals with hardware addresses (MAC Addresses). MAC addresses are 12 digit Hexa decimal identifiers used to identify the devices uniquely on the network segment. It also provides error detection using CRC and framing (Encapsulation - control information). Eg: Ethemet, token ring, etc. Itis a 6-byte hexa-decimal address (6 octets). MAC address is globally unique to each network interface. Three bytes are assigned to the manufacturer. Three bytes used for node ID. Eg: 00-aa-00-34-25-f1 Where, 00-aa-00 = 3 com and 34-e5-f1 = node ID * Node ID is always unique. * LLC (Logical Link Control) deals with layer 3 negotiation. Eg: SAP, SNAP, etc Framing is done on data link layer. Switches and NIC are under data link layer. Layer 3 devices are router / operating system SAP identify IP is IPX-Ox06 IPX-Ox0E * Protocols . * High Level Data Link Control (HDLC) - designed to support point to point or multipoint serial connections. © Default for all CISCO serial connections. © CISCO version is proprietary. * Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) : © Created by IBM to facilitate connections to mainframe hosts. * X.25 - Standard for packet switched network. © Built in error detection © Predecessor to frame relay © Defined to DTE or DCE devices un Cisco Certified Network Associate ©0CCCODHHOHLEHHHO LHS OHOMEOH HEE HEC C OC 00000SCHOSSSHSHROMHTOC OSHS HOSPSHSSAASKTL OSHC ELC ORBEO © CISCO routers are DTE devices * Link Access Procedure Balanced (LAPB) ~ Designed for use over X.25 © Provides services like sequencing and retransmits for X.25 * Frame Relay © Faster up to 45 Mbps © High quality digital technology. Dial Protocols : * Serial Line Intemet Protocol (SLIP) © Original standard for TCP/IP transmission:over low speed serial links © Predecessor to PPP * Point-to-Point (PPP) © New standards for TCP/IP transmission over low speed serial links © Adds multiple protocol supports encryption and error detection. + Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN) ©. Digital technology for the transmission of both voice and data over modified analog lines. IEEE Standards * 802.1 -Intemetworking 8022 -LLC = 802.3 -CSMA/CD (Ethemet) = 802.4 -Token bus * 802.5 Token ring "802.6 -MANs * 802.7 - Broadband Technology = 8028 -Fiber optics = 8029 Integrated Voice and data = 802.10 - Network Security * 802.11 ~ Wireless networking * 802.12~ 100 VG - any LAN Data Encapsulation Application Layer Presentation Layer Session Layer Segmen Transport Layer | | ° s Network Layer: Packets Data Link Layer oexels Frame Physical Layer Network Associate©0000 H HEH HSS OO 0 0010 OPH SOOT OO 0 00000 Physical Layer (Layer 1): itis responsible for binary transmission. It deals with physical transmission of binary data on the given media (Copper fiber, wireless). + Ilis so deals with electrical, mechanical and functional specification of the devices media. The major function describe at this layer are: Encoding And Decoding - Itis the process of converting the binary data into signals based on the type of media. Media Specification Copper Media - Electrical signal of different voltages. Fiber Media - Light pulses of different wave length. Wireless Media - Radio frequency waves Electrical and Mechanical specification of media devices - topology Clocking ~ Sets the rate at which various data samples are passed across the wire. ‘+ Physical Topology * Identifies how devices connect to the network * Physical and logical topologies have to match. Modes of Transmission of signals - signal communication happens in three different modes * Simplex - one way traffic eg., Radio * Half Duplex - Two way traffic one at a time eg., Walkie-talkie * Full Duplex ~ Two way traffic simultaneously eg., Telephone Standards + EIA/TIA - 232 (RS232) - supports circuit speeds up to 64 KBps + EIA/TIA ~ 449 (RS449) — supports circuit speed Up to 2 MBps © V.24/ V.35 + IIV-TStandards * Similar to RS 232 Topology Types Bus Ring Star Point-to-Point Full Mesh (Partial Mesh) Ethernet Topology * LAN Topology * Used in contention ~ based networks such as, Ethemet and fast Ethernet, * Ethernet, digital, Intel and Xerox (DIX) and IEEE 802.3 * Define original Ethemet standards Cisco Certified Network AssociateSOHSSSHHSHESHESCSCHSHOHSOHPHOOHHOSTHHOHSCHC CC EOBSOE * CSMA/CD - designed to detect collisions * Allversions uses a bus topology * Half duplex operation (Full duplex capable) © Both define a max raw transmission rate of 10 MB. © Aggregate rates double then full duplex. = Standards © 10 Base 2-Thin Ethemet - 185 meters © 10 Base 5 ~ Thick Ethernet - 500 meters © 10 Base T- Twisted pair Ethemet - 100 meters * The original Ethemet only used a 4 bit data path at 2.5 MHz © Current processor 2 GHz * Fast Ethernet Technologies © 802.3. Standard Ethemet (10 Mb) © 802.3 Fast Ethernet (100Mb) © 802.32 Gigabit Ethemet (1000 Mb) © 802,3ae 10 Gigabit Ethemet (10000 Mb} * Fast/Gigabit Ethemet © 802.30 100 Base T Defines a bus topology * Half duplex or full duplex © 100 Base TX-CAT 5/FE UTP - 100 meters © 100 Base FX ~ Multi-mode fiber - 400 meters * Maximum raw transmission rate of 100 Mb. © Aggregate rates double when full duplex. © 4bit data path at 25 MHz © 802.3z- 1000 Base T + Defines a bus topology * Half / full duplex operation © 1000 Base T- CAT 5 UTP - 100 meters © 1000 Base Sx - Multimode fiber - 260 meters © 1000 Base LX - Single mode fiber — 10 Km. + Maximum raw transmission rates of 1 GB © Aggregate rates doubles when full duplex © 8bit data path at 125 MHz Ring Topology + IBMs Token Ring was first seen in the late 1970s © Later IEEE 802.5 became standard © Available in 4 Mbps and 16 Mbps + Uses a token frame for access to the network. © Token is passed around a logical ring of the network devices ©. System must acquire the token to transmit data © Data always travels around the ring in the same direction, therefore no collision. Cisco Certified Network AssociateInternet Protocol (IP) The Internet Protocol (IP) is a network-layer (Layer 3) protocol that contains ‘addressing information and some control information that enables packets to be routed. IP is documented in RFC 791 andis the primary network-layer protocol in the Intemet protocol suite. Along with the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), IP represents the heart of the Intemet protocols. IP has two primary responsibilities: providing connectionless, best-effort delivery of datagrams through an intemetwork; and providing fragmentation and reassembly of datagrams to support data links with different maximum- transmission unit (MTU) sizes. IP Packet Format An IP packet contains several types of information, as illustrated in . Figure 30-2 Fourteen fields comprise an IP packet. $<$£$£$£$$$_—_— 22 bits ——_______—_——- IHL | Type-ct-sorvce “otal tongth Flags | Fragment ofsot ‘Options (+ padding) | Data (variatio) fl . . LL se \ The following discussion describes the IP packet fields illustrated in: * Version—Indicates the version of IP currently used. IP Header Length (IHL|—Indicates the datagram héader |erigth in 32-bit words. - * Type-of-Service—Specifies how an upper-layer protocol would like a current * datagram to be handled, and assigns datagram's various levels of importance. + Total Length—Specifies the length, in bytes, of the enfire IP packet, including the data and header. * Identification—Contains an integer that identifies the current datagram. This field is used to help piece together datagram fragments. 16 Cisco Certified Network Associate* Flags—Consists of a 3-bit field of which the two low-order (least-significant) bits control fragmentation. The low-order bit specifies whether the packet can be fragmented. The middle bit specifies whether the packet is the last fragment in a series of fragmented packets. The third or high-order bit is not used, * Fragment Offset—indicates the position of the fragment's data relative to the beginning of the data in the original datagram, which allows the destination IP process to properly reconstruct the original datagram. + Time-to-Live—Maintains a counter that gradually decrements down to zero, at which point the datagram is discarded, This keeps packets from looping endlessly. * Protocol—indicates which upper-layer protocol receives incoming packets atter IP processing is complete. . Header Checksum—Helps ensure IP header integrity. Source Address—Specities the sending node. Destination Address—Specifies the receiving node. Options—Allows IP to support various options, such as security. Data—Contains upper-layer information. ©90CCOCOHAOROMHOC COSHH OEHH EH OKAREK OC C050 Addressing IP addressing supports five different address classes: A, B,C, D, and E. Only classes A, B, and C are available for commercial use. The left-most (high-order) bits indicate the network class. provides reference information about the five IP address classes. iP High- Address Order No. Bits Class [Format [Purpose Bit’) Address Range | NetworkiHost| Max. Hosts A |NHHH|Fewlarge [o [1.0.00t0 ° [724 1677214 | organizations 126.0.0.0 (24-2) B |N.N.H.H|Medium-size}1,0 | 128.1.0.0 to 14/16 165534 (2'° organizations | 191.254.0.0 j- 2) je IN.N.N.H]Relatively }1, 1, |192.0.1.0 to 21/8 254 (25- | ‘small 0 }223.255.254.0 2) organizations 'D N/A. | Multicast 1, 1, }224.0.0.0 to N/A (not |N/A. groups (RFC |1, 0. {239.255.255.255} for 1112) commercial use) E N/A Experimental] 1, 1, |240.0.0.0 to |N/A N/A, 1,1 |254.255.255.255 Cisco Certified Network AssociateCOMPMPOCCHCEEHSTCO COL CO REBVEBECS Address Scheme * Public Address Scheme = Many host require direct access to the intemet * Have a sufficient no. of public addresses. = Must have been assigned an address by the internet community or by an ISP * Private Address Scheme = Fewer hosts require direct access to the intemet. * Will probably not have a sufficient no. of public addresses for all hosts. Reserved Addresses (Private IP Addresses): —— © RFC 1918 * There are certain addresses in each class of IP address that are reserved for LAN. These addresses are called as private IP addresses. They can be used for home Gind office networks, networks that are not connected to intemet. Note: Reserved Private IP addresses‘are not routable oriented Class Start address End address [type A 10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255__| B 172.18.0.0 172.531.255.255 c 192.168.0.0 [192.168.255.255 Other Reserved Ranges: * Loop back Testing + 127.0.0.0 - 127.255.255.255 * 127.0.0.1 is only a prominent address which is used for self checking i.e., used to test your own network interface card but complete 127 network is reserved for loop back test. * Link Local Addresses (RFC2026) + 169.254.0.0 - 169.254.255.254 © RFC 2026 - link local address © Automatically assigned to clients if the DHCP server cannot be contacted. © Not routed by any router. © Submitted by Apple computers corporation to suppress messages on DHCP clients IP Addressing is logical addressing. It works on network layer. As with any other network-layer protocol, the IP addressing scheme is integral to the process of routing IP datagram's through an intemetwork. Each IP address 18 Cisco Cerfitied Network Associate| | has specific components and follows a basic format. These IP addresses can be subdivided and used to create addresses for subnetworks, as discussed in more detail later in this chapter. Each host on a TCP/IP network is assigned a unique 32-bit logical address that is divided into two main parts: the network number and the host number. The network number identifies a network and must be assigned by the Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC) if the network is to be part of the Internet, An Intemet Service Provider (ISP) can obtain blocks of network addresses from the InterNIC and can itself assign address space as necessary. The host number identifies a host on a network and is assigned by the local network administrator. There are two versions of IP addressing Scheme * IP V 4~32bit addressing © IP V 6-128 bit addressing * Bitis a value representing 0's or I's © Priority Bit ~ * To identify the range of each class a bit called priority bit is used * Priority bit is the left most bits in the first octet Class A priority bit is 0 = Class B priority bit is 10 Class C priority 10 Class D priority bit is 1110 Class E priority bit is 1111 * Network Address is represented with all bits as zero in the host portion of the address * Broadcast address is represented with all bits as one’s in the host portion of the address. * The valid IP address lies between the network address and broadcast address. Only valid IP addresses are assigned to hosts/clients. Every host requires a unique IP address on a given network. Every router interface has a unique adafess to the respective network. This address is used by the host to get off of the network. Always configure an IP host with: = OwnlP * Subnet mask * Address of Default Gateway IP Address Format The 32-bit IP address is grouped eight bits at a time, separated by dots, and. represented in decimal format (known as dotted decimal notation). Each bit in the octet has a binary weight (128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1). The minimum value for an octet is 0, and the maximum value for an octet is 255. Illustrates the basic format of an IP address. 9 Cisco Certified Network Associateeo @ é e é s e e e e e e e e e e ° @ e e e e e e Figure: An IP address consists of 32 bits, grouped into four octets. a2 aie aah ate om a doxted | ] Decimal J Retation We ee Subnet Mask * Asubnet address is created by "borrowing" bits from the host field and designating them as the subnet field. The number of borrowed bits varies and is specified by the subnet mask. Shows how bits are borrowed from the host address field to create the subnet address field. * Subnet Mask differentiates network portion and host portion. * Subnet mask is been given for host identification of network ID. * Identifies the division of network portion and host portion of an IP address. * Used in conjunction with source and destination address to make routing decisions. * All hosts in given network scheme will always use the exact subnet mask to provide accurate routing known as classful routing * Same subnet mask is always evaluated against the source and destination IP. * Without an accurate subnet mask, broadcast or ARP storing LAN occur. * Have an accurate subnet mask for every host or the network. + Two different types of subnet mask * Default subnet mask — It is the no. of bits that are reserved by the address class © Using the default mask only accommodates a single segment. o Willnot have any more than one subnet capability * Custom subnet - Mask can be defined to accommodate many network segments * Represented with all 1's in the network portion and with all 0's in the host portion. * Default subnet mask: = *Class A — 255.0.0.0 = Class B - 255.255.0.0 * Class C ~ 255.255.255.0 Note: A subnet mask itself defines the bits used by the network address. The classful boundary defines the classful network bits and a custom subnet mask defines any additional bits used for the network portion. Figure: Bits are borrowed from the host address field to create the subnet address field. Cisco Certified Network AssociateCOR SSOHP HP GASH LS SOO 0010 OHGOOSTLHE CO © 000008 Clans B Address: After Subnetting Subnet masks use the same format and representation technique as IP addresses. The subnet mask, however, has binary 1s in all bits specifying the network and subnetwork fields, and binary 0s in alll bits specifying the host field. illustrates a sample subnet mask. Figure: A sample subnet mask consbts ofall binary 1s and 0s. c— r [ Network | Network Subnet] | Host Binary . . representation | 11111111 venti anata ‘0000000 | Dotted decimal z representation a ) s Subnet mask bits should come from the high-order (left-most) bits of the host field, as illustrates. Details of Class B and C subnet mask types follow. Class A addresses are not discussed in this chapter because they generally are subnetted on an 8-bit boundary. Figure: Subnet mask bits come from the high-order bits of the host field, Cisco Certified Network Associate eZ 2COSC TOHAHA BOSSE OO OO ONO COMPOSE SEES OC OC 9)000C0 to4ro44 Sr ) Various types of subnet masks exist for Class B and C subnets. The default subnet mask for a Class B address that has no subnetting is 255.255.0.0, while the subnet mask for a Class B address 171.16.0.0 that specifies eight bits of subnetting is 255.255.255.0. The reason for this is that eight bits of subnetting or 28- 2 (1 for the network address and 1 for the broadcast address) = 254 subnets possible, with 28 - 2 = 254 hosts per subnet. The subnet mask for a Class C address 192.168.2.0 that specifies five bits of subnetting is 255.255.255.248.With five bits available for subnetting, 2°- 2 = 30 subnets possible, with 28-2 6 hosts per subnet. The reference charts shown in table 30-2 and table 30-3 can be used when planning Class 8 and C networks to determine the required number of subnets and hosts, and the appropriate subnet mask, Class B Subnetting Reference Chart Number of Number of Number of [Bits Subnet Mask __|Subnets Hosts 2 255.255.1920 |2 16382 3 255.255.2240 |6 18190 4 255.255.2400 _]14 4094 5 /255.255.248.0 [30 2046 6 255.255.252.0 _|62 1022 7 255.255.254.0 _|126 510 22 Cisco Certified Network AssociateSCOHHSHAHHSHSSHH SHC OCHHAPAOOHEEFTENMTO SC CCK HE 8 /255.255.255.0 |254 254 9 [255.255.255.128]510 126 10 [255.255.255.192|1022, 62 a 255.255.255.224 | 2046 Ei) 12 |255.255.255.240) 4094 14 13 255.255.255.248 |8190 6 14 255.255.255.252] 16382 2 Class C Subnetting Reference Chart Number of |Subnet Mask Number of Number of Bits Subnets Hosts 2 255.255.255.192|2 162 3 255.255.255.224] 6 30, 4 _|255.255.255.240 14 Tia 5 }255.255.255.248|30 6 6 }255.255.255.252| 62 2 How Subnet Masks are Used fo Determine the Network Number The router performs a set process to determine the network (or more specifically, the subnetwork) address. First, the router extracts the IP destination address from the incoming packet and retrieves the internal subnet mask. It then performs a logical AND operation to obtain the network number. This causes the host Portion of the IP destination address to be removed, while the destination network number remains. The router then looks up the destination network number and matches it with an outgoing interface. Finally, it forwards the frame to the destination IP address. Specifics regarding the logical AND operation are discussed in the following section. How subnet mask works? IP address: 192.168.1.1 Subnet mask: 255.255.255.0 ANDing process ~ the output of AND table is ‘1’ if both its input is 1 for all other possible inputs the output is IP Address 192.168.1.1 = 11000000.10101000.00000001 00000001 Subnet Mask 285.255.255.0 = 11111111.11111111.11111111,00000000 23 Cisco Certified Network Associatee ©9080 OFOHSHHOHCHHTHHOOOCH HAE EEHT SEO MKO Network ID 192.168.1.0, = 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000000 Subnetting: * Dividing a single network into multiple networks. Converting hosts bits to network bits ie., 0's into 1's Subnetting is also called as FLSM Subnetting can be done in three ways * Requirement of networks + Requirements of host * CISCO/Notation Fixed Length Subnet Mask (FLSM) - All the bits in the subnet mask portion should not be zeros or all one's. Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM) — All the bits vary in subnet portion. Subnetting a subnet is called as VLSM 24 Cisco Cerfified Network AssociateROUTER ROUTER A Router is a layer 3 network device that moves data between different network segments and can look into a packet header to determine the best path for the Packet fo travel. Routers can connect network segments that use different protocols. They also allow all users in a network to share a single.connection to the Internet or a WAN. It is used to improve network performance by:- + segmenting the network and creating separate collision & broadcast domains. + reducing competition for bandwidth. * Broadcasts are not forwarded to other network segments. * Increases security by using Access Lists, Components of Router * Router is a device which makes communication possible between two or more different networks present in different geographical locations * To make communication possible between two or more different network present in the same geographical location what are the steps to be taken. * The same network present in different geographical locations can't communicate through a router because of network ID of both the networks are same then the request will not go out of the router and it will keep on searching with the LAN. CISCO Hierarchical Design Model: CISCO divided router into three layers * Access Layer Router — Routers which are used by the small organizations and are also known as Desktop Routers or Company Layer Routers. Router Series: 800, 1000, 1600, 1700, 2500. : * Distribution Layer Router - Routers which are used by the ISPs and are also know as ISP layer routers. Router Series: 2600, 3200, 3600, 3700. * Cote Layer Router - Routers which are used by the global ISPs and are also known as Back bone Routers. Router series: 6400, 7200, 7300, 7400, 7500, 7600, 10000, 12000. Router Classification _ Fixed Router Modular Router Fixed Routers are just like a Modular routers are just like branded PC where assembled PC where modification of interface is not | modifications of interfaces are possible possible. 25 Cisco Certified Network AssociateSCOCHOHCHHEHHHSCHCHCHC CHC CBBC OHREROSE SCO SELLE COHEES ‘Access layer router are example of fixed router except 1600 and 1700 series Distribution and core layer routers are example of modular routers. Internal and External Components of a Router: * Very similar to a PC. PC works on layer | to layer 7 but routers are optimized to work at OSI layer 3. Attachment Unit Interfaces: * AU! pin configuration is 15 pin female. * Itis known as Ethernet port or LAN port or Default gateway. + Itis used for connecting LAN to the router. * Transceiver is used for converting 8 wires to 15 wires i.6., RJ45 to 15 pin converter. * An IP address need to be assigned to this interface and it should be in the same network as of the LAN Serial Port: * Setial pin configuration is 60 pin configuration female {ie., 15 pin and 4 rows) and smart serial pin configuration is 26’pin configuration pin Itis known as WAN port Its used for connecting fo remote locations V.35 cable is having 60 pin configuration male at one end and on other end 18 pin configuration male. Console Port: + Itis known as local administrative port. * Ils generally used for initial configuration, password recovery and local administration of the router. + Itis RI 45 port, + Itis the most delicate port on the router so make less use of the console port. Auxiliary Port: * Itis known as remote administrative port. + Itis used for remote administration. © itis an RJ 45 port * Aconsole or a roll over cable is to be used. BRI Port (WAN): 26 Cisco Certified Network Associate* Basic Rate Interface (BRI) used to connect ISDN to the router. * tis aRJ 45 port. * tis available on 2503 and 2520 model router. 10 Base T Port: © Itis RJ 45 port. * Itis used for connecting LAN to the router. * Its function is same as AUI port but there is no need for a transceiver. * Itis available on 2520 model router. Processor: * Motorola processor 70 MHz * RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) based processor. Read Only Memory (ROM) : + Onevery router board ROM will present. Contains Bootstrap process Basic boot configuration May contain an almost complete subset of the 10S ROM is used to store the router's bootstrap startup program, operating system software, and power-on diagnostic tests programs. + Inorder to perform ROM upgrades you remove and replace pluggable chips on the motherboard, Random Access Memory (RAM) + RAMis used fo store operational information such as routing tables, router's running configuration file. RAM also provides caching and packet buffering capabilities. * Ils contents are lost when you switch off or restart the router. * Allows basic functionality "Password recovery * Retrieval of lost devices * Amounts differ depending on the capacity * Used as a working buffer memory. Buffer memory stores-packet on the interfaces before switching if to the out interfaces. * The higher the RAM, the greater the router capacity. + Routers ship with the amount of RAM required operating at their minimum capacity. Flash Memory It holds operating system image(s). Flash memory is erasable, reprogrammable ROM. 108 software upgrades without having to remove and replace chips. Flash content is retained when you switch off or restart the router. Stores the full IOS image a7 Cisco Certified Network AssociateePe%~@W@oeccecoeeeece eCeoeccccreweeccecoccece * Loaded during the boot process into RAM * Similar to a PC operating system being loaded from the hard drive. Non-Volatile RAM (NVRAM) * Does not lose power when tured off. * Start up configuration file * When fist started, a router does not know how fo route. No name, no IP address Looks for the startup configuration file. The configuration file will be not present in NVRAM we have to save it. When saved, the configuration file is copied fo NVRAM. + Every subsequent boot will load the configuration. * Generally, size of NVRAM is 32 KB. Network Interfaces + The router's network interfaces are located on the motherboard or on separate interface modules. * You configure Ethernet or Token Ring interfaces to allow connection to a LAN. * The synchronous serial interfaces are configured to allow connection to WANS, * You can also configure ISDN BRI interfaces to allow connection to an ISDN WAN. Router Components (External) A router can be configured over any of its network interfaces. You can supply configuration information to a router using: + TFIP servers: Trivial File Transfer Protocol; A simplified version of FIP.that allows files to be transferred from one computer to another over a network. * virtual terminals * network management stations Router Process * Every interface is assigned in memory a specific buffer area used for storing Packets on inbound and outbound transit paths. Every incoming packet is stored in the inbound packet buffer. + Router examines every inbound packet then moves it to outbound of another interface. * Memory function is based upon dynamic RAM (DRAM). DRAM allocates butter to the router itself. Route Table + The element that a router uses to make decisions when forwarding data. * Matches an inbound packet to a destination router 28 Cisco Certified Network Associateeeooeorsree ° ° e e e e e o . e e ° e e ° e ° e e e é é e ¢ e ° e e e e * Used by the IP protocol in the router to make decisions. More information in the route table results in the better decisions by IP. * Have a certain degree of accuracy in the route table. Route Determination * Determine destination of packet. * Determine if there is a match in the table. = No-router returns an ICMP host unreachable message. * Yes—runs selection sequence to identify which route to use. * Selection order + Most specific route © Route which most closely matches the destination, © Router picks the route with longest prefix. * Router with lowest cost or lowest met * Oldest route Switching Process * Packet moves from input packet buffer to destination interface via output buffer. * Every packet has to be re-written into DRAM than switched to the outbound interface. * By default, the entire router has the capability of process switching 10S Upgrade Process Backup all router configurations first. Access the CISCO website using CISCO account. Make sure that the appropriate license has been purchased for the software. Downloading IOS. Looks at caveats and security warming with the download. Several stages of deployment for software. * General deployment typically means most bugs have been fixed. Have a TFIP or FIP server available that the router can access. * File download will have .bin extension * In the root directory for TFTP * Inthe FIP root directory on the FIP servers Routing Table + Understand the contents of the route table. * Contains a list of routes learned * Table displays: + Route origin Destination network Administrative distance Metric 2 Cisco Certified Network AssociateCOOH HHOMOCHCHCE SCO OOCHEOHEMMOSOC OCR COCO OES * First step in the path to the destination "Age of route * Destination port Cisco CL! Command Modes The Cisco® IOS software provides you with access to several different command modes. Each command mode provides a different group of related commands. The Cisco® Command Line Interface (CL) is called EXEC. EXEC has two modes:- User mode Privileged mode For security purposes the two EXEC modes serve as two levels of access to Cisco 10S commands. EXEC user commands allow you fo + connect to remote devices + make temporary changes to terminal settings + perform basic tests + list system information Ifyou want to access privileged mode you have to enter a password. The commands available in Privileged mode also include all those available in. User mode. You can use Privileged EXEC commands to + set operating parameters * perform a detailed examination of the router's status + test and debug router operation + access global and other included configuration modes From Privileged mode you can enter global configuration mode. This gives you access to configuration commands that affect the system as a whole, and to other configuration modes. . You can specify the source of the configuration commands as being from = + a terminal + memory * the network You can access many other specific configuration modes from Global Configuration mode that allow complex configurations to be performed. Setup Mode: If the router does not have a configuration file it will automatically enter Setup mode when you switch it on. Setup mode presents you with a prompted dialog, called the system configuration dialog, in which you establish an initial configuration. Rom Monitor Mode: If the router does not find a valid operating system image, or if you interrupt the boot sequence, the system may enter ROM monitor mode. From ROM monitor mode you can boot the device or perform diagnostic tests. 30 Cisco Certified Network AssociateSOSHSSHSHNHSCHCSSSSHESSCSSHSHAHRESAZOCLC CHC SESE RECSe Router's Startup Procedure Each time you switch on the router, it goes through power-on self-test diagnostics to verify basic operation of the CPU, memory and network interfaces. The system bootstrap software in ROM (boot image] executes and searches for valid router operating system software (Cisco® IOS image). |OS is acronym for Intemetwork Operating System. There are three places to find the Cisco® IOS image to load: * Flash memory © ATFIP server on the network * ROM The source of the Cisco® IOS image is determined from the boot field setting of the router’s configuration —_ register. Configuration Registration: A 16-bit register used to control how the router boots’ up, where the IOS image, how to deal with the NVRAM configuration, setting the console baud rate and enabling or disabling the break function. The default setting for the configuration register indicates that the router should attempt to load a Cisco® IOS image from flash memory. If the router finds a valid IOS image, it searches for a valid configuration file. If your router does not find a valid system image, or if its, configuration file is corrupted at startup, and the configuration register (bit 13) is set to enter ROM monitor mode, the system will bypass the NVRAM setting and enters ROM monitor mode. This also allows access to the router in the event a password is lost. The configuration file, saved in NVRAM, is loaded into main memory and executed one line at a time. These configuration commands start routing processes, supply addresses for interfaces, and set media characteristics. If no configuration file exists in NVRAM, the operating system executes a question-driven initial configuration routine called the system configuration dialog. This special mode is also called the Setup mode. Boot Process + Power on Self Test (POST) - checks memory and power like a PC POST. * Loads Bootstrap from ROM + Looks for the IOS image in flash + 10S image is a small fle + 10S image loaded from flash - IOS looks for a start up configuration file in NVRAM. * Start up configuration is loaded from NVRAM, * Ifo configuration file is found, router enters auto setup mode. Auto setup mode is used for establishing the initial use of a router. 31 Cisco Certified Network Associate@ Oe OO © OOn0-8 OOOH HHS HSHAHOMOSESCBSC HC CEOSES Boot sequence POST (Power On Self Test) BOOTSTRAP (ROM) [It tries to locate IOS) FLASH (FLASH relies on a or TFIP (IFIP relies on UDP) NVRAM (NVRAM is a router memory) (Start up configuration) RAM (NVRAM Configuration copied into RAM) Start > program > accessories > communications > hyper Terminal > click > give a connection name > connectto COMM! > ok > com! properties restore default > ok > switch on the router now > would u like to enter initial configuration (Y/N) > no > enter Basic Router Configuration Rename the Router To specify or modify the host name for the router, global configuration command HOSTNAME is used. Hostname is case sensitive. The host name is used in prompts and default configuration filenames. Router(config)# hostname How2Pass The factory-assigned default host name is router. Setting the System Clock The system clock runs from the moment the system starts up and keeps track of the current date and time based on Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), also known as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). The system clock can be set from a number of sources, and in turn can be used to distribute the currént time through various mechanisms to other systems. To manually set the system clock, use one of the formats of the clock set EXEC command. clock set hh:mm:ss day month yyyy clock set hh:mm:ss month day yyy In the following example, the system clock is manually set to 1:32 p.m. on May 12, 2001: Router# clock set 13:32:00 12 May 2001 Show System Time To display the system clock, use the show clock EXEC command. If time has not been set by the clock set command then this command will show the time lapsed since router is up. 32 Cisco Certified Network AssociateRouter# show clock Setting the Banner To specify a message-of-the-day (MOTD) banner, use the banner motd global Configuration command. The no form of this command deletes the MOTD banner. When someone connects to the router, the MOTD banner appears before the login prompt Router(config)# banner motd # message # Here (#) sign is used as delaminating character. You can use any character. Setting the Description for an Interface To add a description to an interface configuration, use the description interface Configuration command. Use the no form of this command to remove the description The description command is meant solely as a comment to be put in the Configuration to help you remember what certain interfaces are used for. The following example shows how to add a description for aT! interface: Router(contig)# interface serial 0 Router(config-if)# description T1 line to How2Pass - 128 Kb/s The description 'T| line to How2Pass - 128 Kb/s" appears in the output of the following EXEC commands: show startup-config, show interfaces, and show running-config Setting the Line Password To specify a password on a line, use the password line configuration command. Use the no form of this command to remove the password. The first character cannot be a number. The string can contain any alphanumeric characters, including spaces, up to 80 characters. Console Password Console password is needed when logging into router at user EXEC mode from console. Router(config) # line console 0 Router(config-line) # password How2pass2004 viy lines password Virtual terminal lines (vty) are used to allow remote access to the router (by telneting through its interfaces). The router has five virtual terminal lines by default. Router(config) # line vty 0.4 Router(config-line) # password How2Pass2004 33 Cisco Certified Network AssociateCoecece wore esecccecccee Ss PPorotcceccoecoceedéo Setting Privileged Access Password To set a local password to control access fo various privilege levels, use the enable password global configuration command. Use the no form of this command to remove the password requirement. An enable password is defined as follows: Must contain from 1 to 25 uppercase and lowercase ‘alphanumeric characters. Must not have a number as the first character. Can have leading spaces, but they are ignored. However, intermediate and trailing spaces are recognized. Router(config)# enable password How2Pass2004 Setting Secret (Encrypted) Password To set an encrypted local password fo control access to various privilege levels, use the enable secret global configuration command, Use the no form of this command to remove the password requirement. Router(config)# enable secret How2pass2004 Router > enable * this is called as user mode. Router # Show running config * this is called as Privileged mode. Router # configure terminal Router (config) # * this mode is called as global configuration mode. Router (config) # hostname hyd Hyd(config)# Interface Ethemet 0 Hyd(config-if) # * this mode is called as interface configuration mode, Hyd(config:if)# IP address Hyd (config-if)# no shutdown (because all the interfaces are shutdown before configuration) Hyd(config-if)# exit Hyd(config) # lineconsole 0 * console configuration. Hyd{(config-line)# login Hyd(config-line)# password zoom Hyd(config-line} # exit Hyd(config)# line Vty 0.4 * Telnet configuration. Hyd(config-line)# login Hyd{config-line)# password CCNA Hyd{config-line)# exit Hyd(config) # line aux 0 * auxiliary configuration. Hyd(configline] # login Hyd(config-ine) # password CISCO Hyd(contig-line) #exit Hyd(config)# enable password 34 Cisco Certified Network AssociateSHeoececececeevceseconns Hyd(config)# enable secret Hyd(config) # Az * to go to the user mode directly from any other mode. Hyd# show configuration * to view the configuration Hyd copy running-config startup-config * to save router configuration. Or Hyd write * this is the shortcut command to save configuration * In global configuration mode, Hyd (config}# service password - encryption By using this command the password which are stored in clear text will be encrypted into MD-5 (message digest file) * {line Vty 0 4} (0 to 4is used because telnet can run 5 session ata time) | Bat Method | About This Mode Command | Access Modes | Method ' | ! eT User EXEC Begina 1600> | Enter the A subset of the | session with | logout commands available your router. command. in this mode. Use this. | mode to: + Change terminal } 1 settings | | | © Perform | | basic tests | | | i | + Display | | | system | | information | Privileged Enter the 16008 To exit to.user | Use this mode to: | EXEC enable | EXEC mode, command | enter the | © Configure while in user | | disable yourrouter | EXEC mode. i command. | operating | } parameters. | To enter + Perform the global verification configuration steps shown | | mode, enter | Cisco Certified Network AssociateCOHCCCCEHRO CC CCC CCC CCC OCOBWESELEECE CLC. Global Enter the 1600 (config) # configuration | configure command while in privileged | EXEC mode. | Interface Enter the configuration | interface | command | | | | (with a specific interface) while in the global configuration mode. Cisco Certified Network Associate the configure command. To'exit to privileged EXEC mode, enter the exit orend command, or press Ctrl-Z. To enter interface configuration mode, enter the interface command, To exit to global configuration ‘mode, enter the end command. To exit to privileged EXEC mode, enter the exit ‘command, or press Ctrl-Z. To enter subinterface configuration mode, specify a subinterface guide. To prevent unauthorized changes | to your router configuration, access to this mode should be protected witha | password Use this mode to configure parameters that apply to your router as a whole. | Usethismodeto | configure parameters | for the various LAN and WAN interfaces of your router, including the: | | + Ethernet interface © Serial interface + ISDN interface@e@eeeeeeaQgeeeoeoeeneeneneneoenenenegagngceaee Router Enter your 1600(contig-r | Toexitto | Use this mode to configuration router outer) global | configure an IP command configuration | routing protocol. | followed by | mode, enter | | | the appropriate | the end | | | keyword while command, | | in global ve | | configuration To exit to | | mode, *| privileged EXEC mode, | : | enter the exit | command, or | press Ctrl-Z. | Line | Specify aline | 1600 (con: | To exit to Use this mode to. configuration | with the ae a | global configure parameters | line vty | configuration for the terminal. | command mode, enter | } while in the the exit | i | global | command. | | | configuration | | | | mode. | To enter | | | | | | | | i - fo | | WAN Interfaces * Communication Protocols PPP HDLC Point to point protocol High level data link control Open standard protocol (works ith same and different company Cisco Certified Network Associate Vendor Proprietary protocol (works with same company 37SHOHRHHSSFASCHSHSSHSSHSHSHSHSHHOSHSHESSHSHSESTEBBE router) Le., CISCO = NORTEL. router) Le., CISCO = CISCO, NORTEL ~ NORTEL. Support authentication (user No support authentication. name and password identification) ‘Support compression No support for compression By default on all CISCO routers uses HDLC protocol. * Device Classification DCE DIE Data communication equipment_| Data terminal equipment Generating, clocking (i... speed) | Accept clocking [i.e.. speed) Master _ Slave Example of DCE devicesin leased | Example of DTE devices in line setups: V.35 and.G703 leased setup: router modem and exchange (MODEM - and MUX) (MUX - Multiples) Example of DCE devices in dial-up | Example of DTE devices in dial setup: dialup modem ~ | up setup: computer, Command * This command is used to know which interface is router either DCE or DTE. Router# show controller 0 * Tolist the available clock rate in the router the command is Router# clock rate? Configuration of Serial Interfaces Router(config)# interface serial SO Router(config-if)# ip address Router(config-if# no shutdown Router(config-if]# clock rate (this command is only for DCE device only) Router(configif] # encapsulation {PPP/HDLC} For the removal of the interfaces Router(config)# default interface Router(config)# default interface $% (for removal of 8% interface) * OnHyd router Hyd(config)# interface serial SO Hyd(config-if)# ip address 10. Hyd{config-if)# no shutdown 1 255.0.0.0 Cisco Certified Network Associate@eeeeseeaeemeceosceeceeaoeseaeegeoseeecevoeoneoerwne Hyd(config:if)# encapsulation HDLC Hyd(config:if)# exit * OnChennal router Chennai(config) # interface $1 Chennai(config-i # ip address 10.0.0.2 255.0.0.0 Chennai (config:if)# no shutdown Chennai (configrif)# encapsulation HDLC Chennai (config-if} # exit * Trouble shooting Hydi#show int SO + If serial 0 is up, line protocol is up. It implies all configurations and the connectivity are fine. * If serial 0is administratively down, line protocol is down. implies, no shutdown (layer 1 command) has not been given on the local router interface. + Ifserial 0 is up and line protocol is down. Implies, encapsulation or clock rate (layer 2 command) have not been given or encapsulation on both the routers are different. * Serial 0 is down and line protocol is down. Implies, no shutdown command has not been given on the remote router interface or some problem with the physical connectivity. 39 Cisco Certified Network AssociateCOSCO HHOOMSOCHCSCESHSHCCEEOCAERNRNTC OCHO HSHC EEE EBE®O Rules of Routing * Head office Ethemet interface should be in the same network as your head office LAN and similarly on branch office side. Head office LAN - 192.168.1.0 £0 ~ 192.168.1.150 * Branch office LAN — 192.168.2.0 EO - 192.168.2.150 * Head office SO and Branch office S1 should be in the same network. * Network so sl + 10.0.0.0 10.0.0.1 10.0.0.2 * Head office LAN and Branch office LAN should be in different network. * Head office LAN 192.168.1.0 * Branch office LAN 192.168.2.0 * Allinterfaces of router should be in different networks « Head office EO - 192.168.1.150 SO-10.0.0.1 * Branch office EO - 192.168.2.150 $1 — 10.0.0.2 Types of Routing: 1. Static routing 2. Dynamic routing Static Routing © tis configured by administrator manually. Administrator has entered in a route table entry. Mandatory need of destination network ID Itis secure and fast. Enhanced security Lower utilization of bandwidth Lower route processing overhead. Used for small organization with a network of 10 ~ 15 routers Administrative distance for static routing is 0 and 1. ‘Administrative distance is a trust worthiness of the routing information. Lesser the administrative distance, higher the preference. * Administrative distance is 0 and 1 for static routing because if the router is teferred twice its distance is 1. The one which is configured with the exit interface administrative distance is 0. The which is configured with its next hop address its administrative distance will be 1. Disadvantages + Administrative overhead * Time consuming * Error prone * Not dynamic No automatic recovery in the event of a failure. * Suitable only for small network 40 Cisco Certified Network Associate@ee ee eereveroo Cee eeeeesemenoenoeeoeseeeneeagce Configuring static routing: Router(config) # ip route Or Router(config) # ip route * Hyd Router Hyd(config) # ip routing Hyd(config) # ip route 192.168.2.150 255.255.255.0 10.0.0.2 * Chennai Router Chenni ‘onfig) # ip routing Chennai(config) # ip route 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0 $1 Multiple Routing Hyd router Chennai router Bang router. $010 soul 10.0.0. 0.0.2 1.150/24 50 ED] 192.168.3.150 | switch | | Switch | Switch | LAN 192.168.1.0/24 LAN 192,168.2.0/24 LAN 192.168.3.0/24 Routing Table [ Hyd router Chennai router Bang router 192.168.1.0 £0 [11.000 S0_|17.0.0.0 1 10.0.0.0 SO _|10.0.0.0 Si__|192.1683.0 £0 192,168.20 via 192,168.20 £0 | 192,168.20 SI 10.0.0.2 192.168.3.0 via 192.168.1.0 via 192,168.10 SI Cisco Certified Network Associate 4)|. e Coeceeceestsseeecveeeeccce 10.0.0.2 10.0.0.1 11.0.0.0 via 192.168.3.0 via 10.0.0.0 SI 10.0.0.2 1.0.0.2 On Hyd Router Hyd(config)# ip routing Hyd (config) # ip route 192.168.2.0 255.255.255.0 10.0.0.2 Hyd (config) # ip route 192.168.3.0 255.255.255.0 10.0.0.2 Hyd(config) # ip route 11.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 10.0.0.2 On Chennai router Chennai(config)# ip routing Chennai(config)# ip route 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0 10.0.0.1 or $1 Chennai(config)# ip route 192.1 68.3.0 255.255.255.011. On Banglore Router Bang(config)# ip routing Bang(config)# ip route 192.168.2.0 255.255.255.0 1.0.0.2 or $1 Bang(config)# ip route 192.168. 1.0 255.255.255.0 1.0.0.2 or $1 Bang(config}# ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 11.0.0.2 or $1 To view the IP routes which are configured the command is: Router# show ip route What is Routing Protocol? A Routing Protocol is the language a router speaks with other router in order to share information about the reach-ability and status of network. Eg: RIP, EIGRP. etc. Dynamic Routing Information entered into the IP route table dynamically, This is a function of routing protocol Protocols share information about all known network with neighbors. ‘Automatic recovery from network failure. Suitable for layer network. Router converges automatically. Dynamic routing protocol advantages far outweigh the disadvantages. Disadvantages * Router processing overhead. * Network bandwidth utilization. 42 Cisco Certified Network AssociateCHCSCHCEHARHHSC CCE EHC HOEOOCHOEHRECOC SCH OCOCOCORDDE Administrative Distance + Integral part of how CISCO works. Not all routers use the same terminology or technology. * Predefined sets of precedence no. known as Administrative Distance. Administrative distance qualifies how believable the leaned router is. * The lower the no. the most believable the router. ‘+ EIGRP is much more sensitive to live conditions and has a lower no. Metric: A Metric is a variable assigned to routers as a mean of ranking them from best to worst or from preferred to least preferred, Protocol | Administrative Distance (AD) - Static or! RIP _ 120 IGRP 100 OSPF 0 EIGRP. 90. Advantages of Dynamic Routing over Static Routing: There is no need to know the destination network ID. Need to advertise the directly connected networks Update topology change dynamically, Administrative work reduced. Used for larger organizations. Types of Dynamic Routing: * Distance Vector Protocol * Link State Protocol * Hybrid Protocol Distance vector Protocol ‘+ Two primary characteristic + Uses measurement of distance or direction as the metric. Hop count is one example. * Broadcast the entire routing table on specific time interval. Work with Bellman Ford Algorithm. Periodic updates. Class full routing protocol (class full means doesn't understand subnetting) Full routing tables are exchanged. Updates are through broadcast Also known as “Routing by Rumors". Examples: RIP, EIGRP 43 Cisco Certified Network AssociateSCoeeeeoeeeeeeesceeeceooenoersae e 6 @ o ° ° ° ° e ° e Link State Protocol * Three primary characteristics: * Compound metrics - calculation of cost, bandwidth, delay, etc. * More sensitive to line conditions and considered more believable. Can typically make better decisions. Make a map of the network from every router's perspective. * Exchange triggered updates. © Small updates everywhere. © Only shared with neighbor when network status change. © Lower bandwidth consumption. Works with Dijkstra Algorithm. Utilizes the network in more optimal fashion than distance vector Link state updates Classless routing protocol (classless means understand subnetting) Missing routes are exchanged. Updates are through multicast. Also known as “Routing by Intelligence”. Examples are OSPF, IS-IS Hybrid Protocol + Works with Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) Link state updates Classless routing protocol. Missing routes are exchanged. Updates are through multicast. Also know as “Routing by intelligence” Examples: EIGRP Note: EIGRP is classified in both distance-vector and link state protocol because its metric measures distance but its function is more compatible to alink state routing protocol. Routing Information Protocol (RIP) Open standard protocol. RIP uses non-reliable transmission i.e., UDP Classful routing protocol Updates are broadcasted via 255.255.255.255 Administrative distance is 120 Metric : hop count Maximum hop count is 15 and maximum routers are 16. Load balancing of 4 equal paths. Used for small organization. Characteristics 44 Cisco Certified Network Associate02090 SCSOSCHOHSSHHSOHGQCQVCDC SHR ECVBCOSEeSEO © RIP Version 1 * Uses hop count as the only metric. ©. Not sensitive at all to line conditions. * Least believable of all protocols. © Administrative distance of 120 © Every other routing protocols take precedence over router learned from RIP * Sends updates every 30 sec. © Entire route table from every interface * Invalid flush and hold down timer + RIP Version 2 ‘Add capability for multiple masks (Supports VLSM) Type “version 2" at the router rip prompt. Uses triggered updates. Uses split horizon and poison reverse. Extremely simple to configure. Route selection is not believable. RIP Timers + Update Timer: 30 sec. » Time between consecutive updates * Invalid Timer: 180 sec * Itis.a time a router waits to hear updates * The route is marked unreachable if there is no update during this interval + Flush Timer: 240 sec : = Time before the invalid route is purged from the routing table. * Hold down Timer: 180 sec * Specifies the amount of time for which the information about poorer router is ignored. Syntax Router(config)# router RIP Router(config-router) # network Hyd router, Chennai rot Bang router $0 10. sou 10.0.0. 11.0.0.2/ EO] 192.168.1.150/24 EQ 192.168.2150 EO] 192.168.3.150 Switch | Switch Switch 45 Cisco CertiieeNetwork AssociatCCCCCOHPH EHSL OOOO 000-0 002GPGHOSOSE CO 6 09900 LAN 192.168.1.0/24 LAN 192.168.2.0/24 LAN 192.168.3.0/24 C 192.168.1.0 EO 0 C 192.168.2.0 EO 0 C 192.168.3.0 £0 0 C 10.0.0.0 so 0 C 10.0.0.0 so C11.0.0.0 S10 R11.0.0.0 1 C 11.0.0.0 S07 R 192.168.2.0 1 R 192.168.2.0 1 R192.168.1.0 1 R 10.0.0.0 1 R 192.168.3.0 2 R 192.168.3.0 1 R192.168.1.0 2 At Hyderabad router Hyd|config) # router RIP Hyd|config-outer) # network 192.168.1.0 Hyd(config-router) # network 10.0.0.0 At Chennai Router ‘Chennai(config) # router RIP Chennai(config-router) # network 192.168.2.0 Chennai(config-router) # network 10.0.0.0 Chennai(config-router) # network 11.0.0.0 At Bangalore Router Bang|config}# router RIP Bang(config-router)# network 192.168.3.0 Bang|config-router) # network 11.0.0.0 Update Timer By default, updates start in 30 sec. when the timer gets ‘0’ the router will send the update which contains the whole routing table by incrementing the hop by 1. Hyd router sends updates to the neighbor router, Chennai router receives the updates i.e., the IP address 192.148.1.0 and 10.0.0.0 by incrementing the hop by 1.Chennai router will accept the IP address which is missing in its tables. Similarly Chennai and Bangalore router will send updates after every 30 sec. Invalid Timer Invalid timer is a timer specified when a link between the router is down while sending an update. The update will not be received by the neighbor router so. after 180 sec it will mark that router as invalid by making the hop count as 16 because 16 is not reachable in RIP. Flush Timer if again that router couldn't send any update due to some problems in another 60 sec i.e., (180+60 = 240 sec) the router will be remove the IP address from the routing table i.e., it will flushed. 46 Cisco Certified Network AssociateCPL eoeeceececerv® eoeeeesS SFC cece eee eo ddde Hold down Timer Prevents data from using the path that has the hold down timer set. A router never forwards a broadcast. Distance vector loops * Advertises through broadcast the entire routing table a predetermined interval. * Exchanges data the same way no matter what. * Routing by rumor process * Can generate routing loops Split Horizon: It will not send the update from where you have received through the same interface. It prevents from routing loops. Updates are never sent back in the direction they were received. It's the best of the solution for preventing routing loops. Route Poisoning: incrementing the hop count to 16 is called as Route Poisoning. It sets max hop count to unreachable state. Route remains poisoned until hold down timer expires. Only one direction of traffic. Commands of RIP: to see the updates of RIP routers Router# debug ip RIP? Router terminal Monitor To stop the debug process router# u all To stop the terminal monitor Router# terminal no monitor ‘Commands for Holding down the updates router# config t router(config)# router rip router(config-router) # network router(config-router) # passive-interface serial 0 Disadvantages of RIP * More bandwidth utilization since it sends updates for every 30 secs. + Doesn't consider bandwidth, works only with hop count. * Slow convergence. * Formation of routing loops. Note: The biggest disadvantage of RIP is, it sends updates every 30 sec i.e. bandwidth consumption 47 Cisco Certified Network AssociateCHESS HSEEFESSHSSCHOSCHSSHCHOHHOHRZEESCSCHOSTHL ELC OBBDE Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) * CISCO proprietary protocol. Class full routing protocol. Updates are broadcasted via 255.255.255.255. Administrative distance is 100 Metric (24 bit) = composite metric (bandwidth + delay) Bandwidth = {107/ least bandwidth along the path} Delay = {sum of delay along the path/10} * Delay metric is based upon calculating of total link delay * Bandwidth based on the smallest bandwidth line on the transit path. * Delay will dominate longer paths because calculating of 10's of microsecond timer 256. * Bandwidth will dominate shorter paths. Maximum hop count is 255 (100 is by default). Load balancing of 6 equal or unequal paths. Used for larger organization. Characteristics * IGRP uses a compound or composite metric for route determination. Display this with 24-bit number. + IGRP utilizes different values. * Bandwidth * Delay * Reliability * Load factor * Maximum transmission unit (MTU) * Bandwidth and delay are the primary factors of determining the metric of IGRP and EIGRP. * Reliability, load factor and MTU are taken into consideration only as secondary values. + IGRP uses 24-bit number metric whereas EIGRP displays the metric with 32 number. Uriderstand bandwidth of the line and overall delay. Does have the capability of properly calculating the overall network condition. * Add reliability, load and MTU, * Very good metric for use in the larger network environment IGRP Timer + Update Timer: 90 sec. «Time between consecutive updates. * Invalid Timer: 270 sec + Itis.a time a router waits to hear updates * The route is marked unreachable if there is no update during this interval 48 Cisco Certified Network Associate© OO OO © 0% OQ 0- CHOSCHCHCHOCEECHAHREMEOCOC COCO CO EOS «© Flush Timer: 630 sec + Time before the invalid route is purged from the routing table. * Hold down Timer: 280 sec + Specifies the amount of time for which the information about poorer router is ignored Configuration of IGRP Syntax Router(config) # router IGRP Router(config-touter) # network To check the updates the command is Router# show ip route Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) Open standard protocol. Successor of RIP Classless routing protocol (supports subnetting) Work with link state administrative (LSA). Updates are through multicast 224.0.0.5. Administrative distance is 110. Metric (Cost) = 108/ bandwidth in bps (bits per sec) (CISCO) Hello packets are send every 10sec Faster convergence. Hierarchical design with multiple areas Area 0 is called the back bone area. If logical interface is configured, the highest IP address of the logical interface is router ID. * Highest IP address of the logical interface will be given preference over highest IP address of the active physical interface. * Router ID is the highest IP address of the active physical interface of the router. © OSPF uses reliable transmission i.e., TCP Characteristics * Link state routing protocol * Neighbor relationship and hello packets. + Exchanges updates only with neighbors. "More complex than EIGRP Design to be an IGRP. Designed for a single Autonomous system. Supposed to be used inside a company's environment Designed exclusively for large networks. Does allow authentication. Very management intensive. 9 Cisco Certified Network Associate© © © © © 007090 gh 0000000 OE HER MDQOQZD OCC OCROSCCO EES + Designed for: Fast convergence Enhanced coverage for all networks. Net mask capable - supports VLSM Minimizing bandwidth utilization. * Optimal route selection OSPF is industry standard, every router supports OSPF. ‘+ Uses protocol 89 for IP. Requires careful design and planning before implementation. OSPF Tables: it maintains three tables. * Neighbor Table: It contains information about directly connected OSPF neighbor forming adjacency. + Database Table: it contains information about the entire view of the topology with respect to each router. * Routing Information Table: Routing table contains information about the best Path calculated by the shortest path first algorithm in the database table. Terminology Area * Location where all routers share information about every router * Always one area that exist is known as Area 0. Area 0 is designated as backbone. . * OSPF focused more on logical design of routing domains. Area types ‘An OSPF network is divided into areas. These are logical groupings of routers whose information may be summarized towards the rest of the network. Several "special" area types are defined: Backbone area The backbone area (also known as area zero) forms the core of an OSPF network. All other areas are connected to i, and inter-area routing happens via arouter connected to the backbone area. It is the logical and physical structure for the ‘autonomous system! (AS) and is attached to multiple areas. The backbone area is responsible for distributing routing information between non- backbone areas. The backbone must be contiguous, but it does not need fo be physically contiguous; backbone connectivity can be established and maintained through the configuration of virtual links. Note: All OSPF areas must connect fo the backbone area! Stub area A stub area is an area which does not receive external routes. External routes are defined as routes which were distriouted in OSPF from another routing protocol. Therefore, stub areas typically need to rely on a default route to send 50 Cisco Certified Network AssociateCHOSHCCHOHOHSHSHTKCSCSCOSHSHOSSCOBSHSSOSCCOCHSCHC LEO SC EBRE traffic to routes outside the present domain. This implies that AS-external routes (Type 5 LSAs) are not fed into Stub Areas. Totally stubby area A totally stubby area (TSA) is similar to a stub area, however this area does not allow summary routes in addition to the external routes, that is, inter-area (IA) routes are not summarized into totally stubby areas. The only way for traffic to get routed outside of the area is a default route which is the only Type-3 LSA. advertised into the area. When there is only one route out of the area, fewer routing decisions have to be made by the route processor, which lowers system resource utilization. Not-so-stubby area A not-so-stubby area (NSSA) is a type of stub area that can import autonomous system (AS) external routes and send them to the backbone, but cannot receive AS external routes from the backbone or other areas. Cisco also implements a proprietary version of a NSSA called a NSSA totally stubby area. It takes on the attributes of a TSA, meaning that type 3 and type 4 summary routes are not flooded into this type of area, ‘Multiple OSPF Area * All areas are connected to Area 0. * All areas are communicated through Area 0. ‘Area Border Routers (ABRs) * The routers which interconnect the areas are known as ABRs. * Provides all transition and routing from one area to another. * Connect all areas together. Autonomous System ‘ * Itis defined as a no. of devices that falls under same administrative control. * Two autonomous systems are connected by exterior gateway protocol but they do not share the routing table irrespective of their physical connection. * Aunique number identifying the routing domain of the routers Ranges from 1 - 65535 Public 1 - 64512 Private 64519 - 65535 + An autonomous system is a collection of networks under a common administrative domain. + The Autonomous number is given by the registrar (APNIC, Afri NIC) * Autonomous System Border Routers (ASBRs) 51© Have an interface into the local AS and also have interfaces that plug into other system © Every router inside an area has a link state database and route table. All share information about their perspective of the network * Link state routing protocol builds a tree which defines all possible paths. OSPF router types OSPF defines various router types. These are logical definitions, and a router that uses OSPF may be classified as more than one of the following types. For example, a router that is connected to more than one area, and which receives routes from a BGP process connected to another AS, is both an ABR and an ASBR. Internal router A router is called an intemal router (IR) if it has only OSPF adjacencies with routers in the same area. Area Border Routers: These are routers that connect to routers or networks in more than one area. They maintain an LSDB for each area of which they are a part. They also participate in the backbone. Backbone Routers: These are routers that are part of the OSPF backbone. By definition, this includes all area border routers, since those routers pass routing information between areas. However, a backbone router may also be a router that connects only to other backbone (or area border) routers, and is therefore not part of any area (other than Area 0). To summarize: an area border router is always also a backbone router, but a backbone router is not necessarily an area border router. Designated router A designated router (DR) is the router elected among all routers on a particular multicaccess network segment. The DR is elected based on the following default criteria: - If the priority setting on a OSPF router is set to 0, that means it can NEVER become a DR or BDR (Backup Designated Router). When a DR fails and the BDR takes over, there is another election to see who becomes the replacement BDR. The router sending the Hello packets with the highest priority. If two or more routers tie with the highest priority setting, the router sending the Hello with the highest RID (Router ID) wins. NOTE: a RID is the highest logical (loopback) IP address configured on a router, if No logical/loopback IP address is set then the Router uses the highest IP address 52 Cisco Certified Network Associate© ee © Oe © OOner CHOC CHC CCE OCHRE MHOEC SOC LOCO EES configured on its active interfaces. (e.g. 192.168.0.1 would be higher than 10.1.1.2) Usually the router with the second highest priority number becomes the BDR. The priority values range between 1 - 255, with a higher value increasing its chances of becoming DR or BDR. IF ad HIGHER priority OSPF router comes online AFTER the election has taken place, it will not become DR or BDR until (at least) the DR and BOR fail DR’s exist for the purpose of reducing network traffic by providing a source for routing updates, the DR maintains a complete topology table of the network and sends the updates to the other routers via multicast. This way all the routers do not have to constantly update each other, and can rather get all their updates from a single source. The use of multicasting further reduces the network load. DRs and BDRs are always setup/elected on Broadcast networks (Ethemet). DR's can also be elected on NBMA (Non-Broadcast Multi-Access) networks such as Frame Relay or ATM. DRs or BDRs are not elected on point-to- Point links (such as a point-to-point WAN connection) because the two routers on either sides of the link must become fully adjacent and the bandwidth between them cannot be further optimized. Backup designated router A backup designated router (BDR) is a router that becomes the designated router if the current designated router has a problem or fails. The BDR is the OSPF router with second highest priority at the time of the last election. Link State Database (LSDB) * Builds based upon neighbor relationship. + Routers exchange information about their own LSDB = Run the shortest path first (SPF) algorithm or Dikstra’s algorithm. Takes the contents of the LSDB and generates the route table. + Dikstra'’s or SPF algorithm is much higher overhead than DUAL © Must take the entire picture of the network at once and create the router. © When OSPF converges, the entire tree must be changed inside the LSDB before generating routes * Convergence is not quite as fast as EIGRP Note: ABRs are designed to connect area together and share information because LSDB is specific to an area , ABR have more than one database - One for every area they connect to. OSPF Metric = OSPF uses only bandwidth as its metric. * Calculation based on the bandwidth of the line divided into 100. 53 Cisco Cerlified Network AssociateSHOES HSHCHPPeeESSCSSSHOSHSHSSCOEOCMMPeSFCLCLCeSEeKTCO * Critical that the bandwidth is set appropriately for every line on every router. + OSPF has no capability of measuring another statistics. * By default, utilizes a reference no. of 100 for divisor. Anything faster than 100 Mbps fast Ethemet would have cost of 1, unless the no. is changed. © This calculation must be modified for OSPF to properly produce the metrics required. Dijkstra Tree * Built fo identify what the LAN looks like inside the local area. * Every router connected to R1 will produce a relative cost of the line in between. * Every target network identified will have a cost associated with it. * Dijkstra tree is built automatically through the convergence of the OSPF protocol © Routers exchange LSDB until they are identical. ©. Dikstra tree is built. ‘©. Dijkstra or SPF algorithm is run to allow the route table to be built. SPF Algorithm The Shortest Path First (SPF) routing algorithm is the basis for OSPF operations. When an SPF router is powered up, it initializes its routing-protocol data structures and then waits for indications from lower-layer protocols that its interfaces are functional. After a router is assured that its interfaces are functioning, it uses the OSPF Hello protocol to acquire neighbors, which are routers with interfaces to a common network. The router sends hello packets to its neighbors and receives their hello packets. In addition to helping acquire neighbors, hello packets also act as keep alive to let routers know that other routers are still functional On mulfi-access networks (networks supporting more than two routers), the Hello protocol elects a designated router and a backup designated router. Among other things, the designated router is responsible for generating LSAs for the entire mutfi-access network. Designated routers allow a reduction in network traffic and in the size of the topological database. When the link-state databases of two neighboring routers are synchronized, the routers are said to be adjacent. On multi-access networks, the designated router determines which routers should become adjacent. Topological databases are synchronized between pairs of adjacent routers. Adjacencies control the distribution of routing-protocol packets, which are sent and received only on adjacencies. Each router periodically sends an LSA to provide information on a router's adjacencies or to inform others when a router's state changes. By comparing established adjacencies to link states, failed routers can be detected quickly, 54 Cisco Certified Network AssociateSCHCSHSHAKHSSCHSS AE SHSSHSSHEAKEERSPSCH HSH LOSE DHO and the network's topology can be altered appropriately. From the topological database generated from LSAs, each router calculates a shortest-path tree, with itself as root. The shortest-path tree, in tum, yields a routing table. OSPF States and Packets: OSPF States ‘OSPF Packets Down Hello Initial Database descriptor (DBD) 2= wai Link state Request (LSR) Exstart Link state update (LSU) Exchange Link State Acknowledgement (LS Ack) Loading Full OSPF Packet Header ° 1 2 3 01234567890123456789012345678901 1 version 1 . type 1 packet length OSPF Hello Packet ° 1 2 3 01234567890123456789012345678901 | version | type 1 packet length 1 1 ' i checksum 1 authentication 1 1 authentication * i 55 Cisco Cerfified Network AssociateCHCCHCHEEASSCHCECE OHO HCECOCODOVOBLSCECOCOCLOC OL O®S network mask 1 hello interval | options | router priority! 1 Packet Format All OSPF packets begin with a 24-byte header. Figure: OSPF Packets Consist of Nine Fields Fie rath, ie ea |v yn cue [ter | ou | sion ackot | Rover a I ‘eaton ication a Henge | ero | anno | cashes | Amann) om L 1 1 1 The following descriptions summarize the header fields illustrated in Figure 46-2. Version number—dentifies the OSPF version used. Type—Identifies the OSPF packet type as one of the following: Hello—Establishes arid maintains neighbor relationships. Database description—Describes the contents of the topological database. These messages are exchanged when an adjacency is initialized. + Link-state request—Requests pieces of the topological database from neighbor routers. These messages are exchanged after a router discovers (by examining database-description packets) that parts of its topological database are outdated. * Link-state update—Responds to a link-state request packet. These messages iso are used for the regular dispersal of LSAs. Several LSAs can be included within a single link-state update packet + Unk-state acknowledgment—Acknowledges link-state update packets. «Packet length—Specifies the packet length, including the OSPF header, in bytes. + Router ID—identifies the source of the packet. * Area ID—Identifies the area to which the packet belongs. All OSPF packets ‘are associated with a single area. © Checksum—Checks the entire packet contents for any damage suffered in transit. 56 Cisco Certified Network AssociateCOSHH EHHOSCC COCO COCHOHCECOCEEARNTEOC HCC OCOLOOSE®S * Authentication type—Contains the authentication type. All OSPF protocol exchanges are authenticated. The authentication type is configurable on per-area basis. Authentication—Contains authentication information. Data—Contains encapsulated upper-layer information. Additional OSPF Features Additional OSPF features include equal-cost, multipath routing, and routing based on upper-layer type-of-service (TOS) requests. TOS-based routing supports those upper-layer protocols that can specify particular types of service. An application, for example, might specify that certain data is urgent. If OSPF has high-priority links at its disposal, these can be used to transport the urgent datagram. OSPF supports one or more metrics. If only one metric is used, it is considered to be arbitrary, and TOS is not supported. If more than one metric is used, TOS is optionally supported through the use of a separate metric (and, therefore, a separate routing table) for each of the eight combinations created by the three IP TOS bits (the delay, throughput, and reliability bits). For example, if the IP TOS bits specify low delay, low throughput, and high reliability, OSPF calculates routes to all destinations based on this TOS designation. IP subnet masks are included with each advertised destination, enabling variable-length subnet masks. With variable-length subnet masks, an IP network can be broken into many subnets of vatious sizes. This provides network administrators with extra network-configuration flexibility. Routing Hierarchy Unlike RIP, OSPF can operate within a hierarchy. The largest entity within the hierarchy is the autonomous system (AS), which is a collection of networks under a common administration that share a common routing strategy. OSPF is an intra-AS (interior gateway) routing protocol, although it is capable of receiving routes from and sending routes to other ASs. ‘An AS can be divided into. a number of areas, which are groups of contiguous networks and attached hosts. Routers with multiple interfaces can participate in multiple areas. These routers, which are called Area Border Routers, maintain separate topological databases for each area. A topological database is essentially an overall picture of networks in relationship to routers. The topological database contains the collection of LSAs received from all routers in the same area. Because routers within the same area share the same information, they have identical topological databases. The term domain sometimes is used to describe a portion of the network in which all routers have identical topological databases. Domain is frequently used interchangeably with AS. 87 Cisco Certified Network Associate