Economic Zoology

Economy:
An economy is an area of production, distribution and trade, as well
as consumption of goods and services. It is the system for deciding how scarce resources are
used so that goods and services can be produced and consumed. Resources are things like land,
people (who can work or innovate through their ideas) and raw materials. Economy of Pakistan
is classified as a low-income developing economy. It is the 23rd-largest in terms of GDP based
on purchasing power parity (PPP).

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) measures the monetary value of final goods and
services—that is, those that are bought by the final user—produced in a country in a given period
of time (say a quarter or a year). It counts all of the output generated within the borders of a
country.

GDP = private consumption + gross private investment + government investment +

government spending + (exports – imports)

GDP of Pakistan was 348.3 billion USD (2021). GDP in Pakistan averaged 89.96 USD
Billion from 1960 until 2021, reaching all time high of 356.13 USD Billion in 2018 and a record
low of 3.75 USD Billion in 1960. According to World Bank, Pakistan's GDP is to grow
at 2.0% in 2023.

Purchasing power parities (PPPs) are the rates of currency conversion that try to equalize
the purchasing power of different currencies, by eliminating the differences in price levels
between countries. In 2021, the country had a population of 227 million people. In 2021,
purchasing power parity for Pakistan was 41.9 LCU (local currency unit) per international
dollars. Purchasing power parity of Pakistan increased from 11.8 LCU per international dollars
in 2002 to 41.9 LCU per international dollars in 2021 growing at an average annual rate of
7.01%.

Economic history of Pakistan:

Since independence in 1947, the economy of Pakistan has emerged as a semi-
industrialized one, that depends on textiles, agriculture, and food production, though recent years
have seen a push towards technological diversification. Pakistan's GDP growth has been
gradually on the rise since 2012 and the country has made significant improvements in its
provision of energy and security. However, decades of corruption and internal political conflict
have usually led to low levels of foreign investment and underdevelopment.

• Post-independence economy:Pakistan's population has grown rapidly from around 30 million

in 1947 to over 220 million in 2020. Despite this, Pakistan's average economic growth rate

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since independencs has been higher than the average growth rate of the world economy during the
same period. Average annual real GDP growth rates were 6.8% in the 1960s, 4.8% in the 1970s, and
6.5% in the 1980s. Average annual growth fell to 4.6% in the 1990s with significantly lower growth
in the second half of that decade.

• 1950s and 1960s: Initial decades

Economic growth during the 1950s averaged 3.1 percent per annum, and the decade was
marked by both political and macroeconomic instability and a shortage of resources to meet the
nation's needs. After the State Bank of Pakistan was founded in 1948, a currency dispute
between India and Pakistan broke out in 1949. Trade relations were strained until the issue was
resolved in mid-1950. Monsoon floods between 1951–52 and 1952-53 created further economic
problems, as did uneven development between East and West Pakistan.

• Economy of East Bengal in Pakistan:

The partition of British India and the emergence of India and Pakistan in 1947 severely
disrupted the country's economic system. The united government of Pakistan expanded its
cultivated area and some irrigation facilities, but the rural population generally became poorer
between 1947 and 1971 because improvements did not keep pace with the rural population
increase. Pakistan's five-year plans opted for a development strategy based on industrialization,
but the major share of the development budget went to West Pakistan, that is, contemporary
Pakistan. A lack of natural resources meant that East Pakistan was heavily dependent on imports,
creating a balance of payments problem. Without a substantial industrialization program or
adequate agrarian expansion, the economy of East Pakistan steadily declined.

• 1970s: Nationalization and command economy

Economic mismanagement in general and fiscally imprudent economic policies in particular,

caused a large increase in the country's public debt and led to slower growth in the 1970s. Two
wars with India - the Second Kashmir War in 1965 and the separation of Bangladesh from
Pakistan also adversely affected economic growth. In particular, the latter war brought the
economy close to recession, although economic output rebounded sharply until the
nationalization of the mid-1970s. Large generous aid from the United States also declined after
the global oil crisis in 1973, which had a further negative impact on the economy.

• 1980s-1999: Era of privatization and stagnation

Pakistan's economy in the 1990s suffered from poor governance and low growth as it alternated
between the Pakistan People`s Party under Benazir Bhutto and the Pakistan Muslim League (N) led
by Nawaz Sharif. The GDP growth rate sank to 4 percent and Pakistan faced persistent fiscal and
external deficits, triggering a debt crisis. Exports stagnated and Pakistan lost its market share in a
buoyant world trade environment.
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 • 2000s: Economic liberalization, growth and re-stagnation

At this time, the country lacked the foreign exchange reserves needed to cover its imports or
service its debts, remittances and investments had decreased by millions, and Pakistan had no
access to private capital markets. Yet, sound structural policies coupled with improved economic
management accelerated growth between 2002 and 2007. Approximately 11.8 million new jobs
were created during Musharraf's term from 1999 to 2008, while primary school enrollment rose
and the debt-to-GDP ratio dropped from 100 to 55 percent. Pakistan's reserves increased from
US$1.2 billion in October 1999 to US$10.7 billion on 30 June 2004. The rate of inflation fell,
while the investment rate grew to 23 percent of GDP, and an estimated $14 billion of foreign
private capital inflows financed many sectors of the economy. The exchange rate also remained
fairly stable throughout this period.

• Since 2013: Privatization and liberalization

Lower oil prices, better security, higher remittances, and consumer spending spurred growth
toward a seven-year high of 4.3 percent in the fiscal year 2014-15 and foreign reserves increased
to US$10 billion.

• 2018 onwards:

PTI came into power in 2018. The growth rate in FY18 was 5.84. In a mean time just after a
year the whole world was hit by a catastrophe –COVID-19, which has put the world economy
into its knees. It has also largely hit the Pakistan and made its economy to shrink. The growth
rates started to decline. In FY19 the growth rate declined to 0.99 and in FY20 it was recorded
0.38.

Year GDP GDP Growth Per Capita

(%)
FY2023e $368.8B 2.0% $1,681
FY2022 $376B 6.0% $1,658
FY2021 $348.26B 6.49% $1,505
FY2020 $300.43B -1.27% $1,322
FY2019 $320.91B 2.50% $1,437

FY2018 $356.13B 6.15% $1,621

Types of industries in Pakistan:

• Food Processing.
• Logistics.
• Textile.
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 • Automobiles.
• Information Technology.
• Housing and Construction.
• Tourism and Hospitality.
• Mining.
• Fuel extraction industry.
• Agriculture.
• Electronics.
• Livestock machinery.
• Pharmaceutical products.
• Sports goods.

Major exports of Pakistan:

Exports play a crucial part in economic growth and progress of any nation. The country
which has more exports has higher growth than the country which has less exports. Researchers
have different views about the relationship between exports and economic development. Some
argue that there is positive relationship while others argue that there is negative connection
among exports and economic development. For instance, some economists recommend that there
is close connection between exports growth and economic development. The theory says in
developing nations exports and economic development are interdependent. It indicates that if
there is economic growth it will lead to increased exports whereas increase in exports will
accelerate overall economic activities in the economy further and at the same time economies of
scale and signals of boom would be witnessed.

In 2020, Pakistan was the number 41 economy in the world in terms of GDP (current US$), the
number 65 in total exports, the number 49 in total imports, the number 172 economy in terms of
GDP per capita (current US$) and the number 93 most complex economy according to the
Economic Complexity Index (ECI). Exports during FY2021 amounted to US$ 25.3 billion as
compared to US$ 21.4 billion in FY 2020 thus registered impressive growth of 18.3% as
compared to the negative growth of - 6.81% during FY2020. The analytical report 2021-22
highlighted the trade directions and analytical sketch of trade statistics. The Country’s trade
deficit during FY2021-22 estimated at $48.355 billion. Although country’s exports registered
highest $31.782 billion while the imports at $80.137 billion remained much higher. The major
imports were from are China, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, U.S.A and Qatar
FY2022.

List of major exports of Pakistan:

The major exports of Pakistan include textiles, leather and sports goods, chemicals, carpets,
and rugs. Meanwhile, Pakistan also exports significant quantities of rice, sugar, cotton, fish,
fruits, and vegetables. The country ranks among Asia’s largest camel market, second-largest

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apricot and ghee (oil), and third-largest cotton, onion, and milk market. Here’s a look at some
exports that help Pakistan stand out in the exporting community across the world:

• Rice
• Sea food and other food items
• Mangoes and oranges
• Cotton and textile industry
• Surgical Instruments
• Other manufacture industries

• Rice:

Pakistan is regarded among the best producers of high-quality basmati rice, which is then
exported to several countries, including Oman, the UAE, Kenya, Thailand, and Jordan, to name a
few. Pakistan rice export sector achieved the milestone of exporting the commodity worth
$2.511 billion during the FY2021-22.

• Sea food and other food items:

Fish & fish preparation subgroup slightly improved by 1.96% in value while its quantity
increased by 3% in comparison with negative growth of 7.2% in value and 12.1% in quantity
during FY2020.

Exports of oil seeds, nuts & kernels witnessed a remarkable growth of 216.33% in quantity and
212.59% in value during FY2021 and touched at million 94.1 US$ as compare with million 30.1
US$ during FY2020.

The export of spices also increased by 5.32% in value and 6.65% in quantity during the period
under review while the export of spices also declined by 0.5% in value and 9.1% in quantity
during FY2020.

Meat and meat preparations increased both in value and quantity by 9.03% and 14.21%,
respectively signaling a recovery in production of livestock.

• Mangoes and oranges:

While Pakistan is renowned as the fifth-largest mango producer in the world, the fruit is the
country’s second-largest export. Pakistan annually grows 110 diverse kinds of mangoes, among
which the most notable are Chaunsa, Sindhri, Langra, Dasehri, Anwar Ratool, Saroli, Toota Pari,
Fajri, Neelum, Almas, Sanwal, and Desi. Iran, China, the Middle East, Japan, Hong Kong, and
Germany are the most prominent importers of the mangoes grown in Pakistan. You can easily
find the best quality fresh Oranges (also known as Kinnows) in Pakistan, a fruit that the country
exports annually about 0.44 million tons of citrus valuing around 166 million USD. Russia,
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Philippine, Iran, Sri-Lanka, Indonesia, Singapore, Saudi Arabia, Canada, Bangladesh, Malaysia,
and the UAE are among the biggest importers of Kinnows from Pakistan.
• Cotton and textile industry:

Textiles and apparel sector occupy a pivotal position in Pakistan’s economy having most
intensive backward and forward linkages compared to any other sector. Textile policy 2020-25
was approved by the Cabinet in 2021. Textiles and Apparel Policy, 2020-25 aimed at fully utilize
potential of home-grown cotton augmented by manmade fibers/filaments to boost value-added
exports and become one of the major players in global textiles and apparel supply chain. Exports
of textile manufacturers, which accounts for 60.82% in total exports witnessed a remarkable
increase of 25.5% during FY2022 in comparison to a growth of 22.9% of last year and of the
value to US$ 19.33 billion in FY2022 as compared to US$ 15.40 billion during FY2021.

In case of home textiles, bed wear exports increased both in quantity and value by 11.1%
and 18.8% percent, respectively, whereas towels exports increased in both quantity and value by
3.8% and 18.5% in FY2022. Knitwear exports grew by 34.2% in value despite a decline of 6.1%
in quantity. The exports of readymade garments increased both in quantity by 49.2% and in
value by 28.8% during FY2022 due to increase in demand after COVID.

The exports of intermediate commodities like cotton yarn witnessed an increase in value
by 18.7%, while the quantity witnessed a decline of 13.9%. Cotton cloth export increased both in
quantity and value by 4.0% and 26.9%, respectively during FY2022.

• Surgical instruments:

Nearly 3,600 firms with a combined workforce of 150,000 people are operational in Pakistan,
manufacturing the highest quality surgical and dental instruments, besides producing a wide
range of other precision tools using the finest raw material and following the highest standards.
Surgical goods and medical instruments 12.35% share of this group showed an increase of
20.39%.

• Other manufacture industry:

Other manufacturers Group accounting 11.90% share of total exports registered a positive
growth of 8.7% during the period FY2022 and stood at US$ 3.8 billion while it was at US$ 3.5
billion in FY2021.In the case of sports goods, football – the major export item – witnessed a
noticeable increase both in quantity and value by 43.5% and 44.8% respectively, during FY2022.
Pakistan has been the official makers of match-ball since 1982 FIFA World Cup. Due to FIFA
world Cup 2022 which is set to commence in Doha, Qatar in November, 2022, demand for
football exports is very remarkable. Gloves exports also increased both in quantity and value by
77.9% and 4.5% respectively during, FY2022. Gloves exports recorded at US$ 76.3 million.

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Export of leather tanned grew remarkably both in quantity and value by 30.8% and 28.5%,
respectively. The leather industry witnessed a steady recovery on account of prudent government
policies and significant relaxations in lockdown at various export destinations. Leather garments
and leather gloves also showed growth of 10.2% and 10.6% in value during FY2022.While the
growth of Leather garments and leather gloves in quantity were 32.93 and 47.29 during FY2022.

Exports of chemicals and pharmaceuticals product grew by 36.5% and clocked at US$
1.6 billion in FY2022 while it was at US$1.1 billion in FY2021. Chemicals, other than the ones
used in pharmaceutical and plastic products, having the highest share stood at US$ 871.6 million
during FY2022 showed a remarkable growth of 56.7% in comparison with US$ 556.1 million in
FY2021. Exports of plastic material reached at US$ 428.4 million and showed a growth of
32.8% during FY2022. Exports of pharmaceutical products during FY2022 slightly showed
negative growth of 0.5% despite increased in prices of medicine in international market.

Export of carpets, rugs, and mats registered a growth both in quantity and value by 51.3%
and 12.3% respectively during FY2022.The export of cement witnessed a decline both in
quantity and value by 26.6% and 16.4% respectively during FY2022. Increased production cost,
elevated international freight rates, soaring coal prices were the main reasons of decline in
cements exports.

Major imports of Pakistan:

During FY 2021, imports stood at US$ 56.38 billion as compared to US$ 44.55 billion during
FY2020 showing an increase of 26.55%. Non-energy imports remained the main contributor in
raising the import bill. The surge in imports may be attributed to the rising demand for
intermediate goods due to the resumption of economic activities; supply shocks in agricultural
products especially wheat, sugar and cotton; government’s accommodative measures to underpin
the production of industrial sector in the form of removal of customs duty on import of raw-
materials; and concessionary loans. During FY2022, imports stood at US$ 80.14 billion as
compared to US$ 56.80 billion during FY2022 showing an increase of 42.1%. Multiple factors
have contributed to the steep rise in imports. Global commodity prices—both energy and non-
energy—remained elevated in 2021.

List of major imports of Pakistan:

Here is the list of major imports of Pakistan.

• Food items
• Heavy machinery
• Transport vehicles and spare parts
• Petroleum
• Textile
• Agriculture and other chemical products
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• Food items:

The highest share to the growth in total imports is that of food group. During FY2021,
food group having 14.81% share of the total imports, witnessed a growth of 53.91% and its
import reached at US$ 8,347.8 million as against US$ 5,423.9 million during FY2020. Within
food group, surge was observed in the import of wheat, sugar, palm oil and dry fruits. Due to
supply disruptions, 3613 MT of wheat was imported amounted to US$ 983.33 million. Likewise,
by the reason of deficiency of production, sugar import bill clocked at US$ 128.65 million. The
food group having 11.3% share of the total imports, witnessed a growth of 8.00% and its import
reached at US$ 9,015.86 million during FY2022 as against US$ 8,347.8 million in FY2021.
Within food group, surge was observed in the import of tea, sugar, soybean oil and palm oil.

The growth of 49.2% during the FY2022 in import bill of sugar is increased because of
high domestic demand. The sugar import reached at US 191.72. The imports of dry fruit during
FY2022 registered a decline of 16.8% in value and reduced to US$ 65.25 million during the year
from US$78.40 million last year.

Milk, dry fruits, tea, spices and pulses all showed increasing trend and increased by 17.54%,
128.93%, 8.97%, 29.31% and 15.48%. Meanwhile, the import of milk cream and milk for infants
during FY2022 decreased by 15.33% in value and 18.5% in quantity due to increase in domestic
production.

• Heavy machinery:

Machinery group with 18% share in overall imports increased by 15.47% and reached to
US$ 10,147 million during FY 2021 as compared to US$ 8,782 million in FY2020. Machinery
group with 13.6% share in overall imports increased by 7.63% and reached to US$ 10,920
million during FY2022 as compared to US$ 10,147 million in FY2021.

Imports of machinery related to telecom sector that has highest share of 25.36% to the
imports of machinery group posted an increase of 39.34% due to the hyper increase in imports of
mobile amounted to US$ 2,065 million during FY 2021and showed an increase of 50.75% over
previous financial year. Rising demand for mobile phones may be attributed to multiple factors,
including reduction in taxes, changing work and educational environment like work from home
and online schools in the wake of pandemic.

The second noticeable item within this group is power generating machinery that has
share of 18.86%. Import bill of power generating machinery has increased by 39.38% and
reached US$ 1,913.6 million in FY 2021 as compared to US$ 1,372.9 million last year, mainly
due to the ongoing work on CPEC-related power projects.

Electrical machinery & apparatus imports dropped by 26.13% to US$ 1,663.1 million during
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 FY2021 compared with US$2,251.3 million in last year.

Office and textile machinery exhibit an increase of 22.24% and 35.33% respectively during
FY2021 while it has declined trend by 12.9% and 18.7% in FY2020.

Construction and mining machinery import still have same trend as previous year and
plummeted by 26.53% during FY 2021 mainly because of the dormancy in construction
activities in the given period.

Agriculture machinery imports showed a slightly positive trend and increased by 0.94% during
FY 2021 contrary to the negative growth of 30.7% in FY2021.

• Transport vehicles and spare parts:

The import of transport group having a share of 5.30% increased by 93.24% and clocked at US$
2,987.4 million during FY2021 as compared to US$ 1,545.9 million last year.

The import of road motor vehicle increased by 92.19% of which CBU, increased by 77.57% and
CKD/SKD increased by 117.55% during the period under review.

Within road motor vehicle, buses, truck and other heavy vehicle (CKD/SKD) showed an increase
of 108.36% during FY 2021.

Imports bill of motor car in CKD/SKD posted an increase of 134.20% and reached US$ 1,119.8
million in FY 2021 as compared to US$ 478.1 million in FY2020.

Aircrafts, ships and boats import increased by 104.66% during FY 2021 and escalated to US$
513.6 million in comparison with US$ 250.97 million in FY 2020.
• Petroleum:

Country’s import bill of petroleum group increased by 105.3% to US$23,718.72 million

during FY2022 compared to US$11,357.85 million during the same period last year. The crude
oil imports rose by 80.2% in value and 5.3% in quantity during FY2022 and clocked at US$
5,598.67 million in FY22 from US$3,107.31 million. Surge in oil import bill is attributed to
increases in value as well as in demand. Higher oil prices in the global market and massive
depreciation of the Pakistani rupee made oil more expensive. The import of petroleum product
witnessed an increase of 133.9% during previous FY2022 to US$12,069.43 million compared to
US$5,160.14 million of previous year. Growing economic activity, specifically in transport and
power sectors, sustained the demand for HSD and furnace oil despite a significant increase in
domestic prices of these products. The huge increase in import of motor cars and motorcycle also
resulted in increased demand of motor spirit. The imports of liquified natural gas (LNG) and
liquified petroleum gas (LPG) both posted a growth of 90.7% and 39.7% during the financial
year. The LNG reached at US$ 4,989.65 million in FY2022 from US$2,617.13 million in the
same period of last year. The scarce natural gas reserves in the country are quickly depleting due
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 to substantial increase in the demand for gas, putting huge pressure on the gas reserves.

• Textile:

Textile group that has 6.85% share in overall import showed a noticeable increase of 23.8%
during FY2022 and clocked at US$ 4,785.90 million as compared to US$ 3,866.1 million in FY
2021.Within this group, raw cotton which has highest share of 38.2%, displayed an increase of
23.6% in value but a decrease of 8.9% in quantity during FY2022 as compared to FY2021 and
reached US$ 1,828.46 million while it was stood at US$ 1,479.69 million in FY 2021.Plunged
cotton production and rising demand for high value-added textile products of Pakistan in
international markets, divertors, compelled the producers to import significant amount of cotton
thereby increased the import bill. Other items in this group i.e., synthetic fiber, synthetic &
artificial silk yarn and worn clothing also posted an increase of 18.1%, 34.0% and 40.0%
respectively during FY2022 compared with FY2021 due to sharp rise in global prices.

• Agricultural and other chemical products:

In terms of contribution, agricultural and chemical group had the largest share in non-
energy imports. The import bills of agriculture & other chemicals group having share of 17.6%
of total imports increased by 51.4% and reached US$ 14,082.20 million during FY2022 as
compared to US$ 9,299.62 million last year. The pandemic-induced import of medicine
increased 192.3% to US$ 4,062.81 million in FY2022. Moreover, chemical imports due to
burgeoning demand in textile sector also increased. During FY2022, import of fertilizers
manufactured chemical showed an increase of 17.6% due to rise in activities of fertilizers
industry. The chemicals related to preparation of plastic posted a growth of 26.8% and clocked at
US$3,135.59 million during FY2022 from US$ 2,472.80 million in FY2021 resulted in huge
increase export by 32.8% of plastic material.

• Metals:

Metal group import increased by 33.3% and reached US$ 6,525.18 million. Increased activity
in the construction and automobile sectors led to a surge in import of iron and steel by 49.8%
percent in value and 19.4% in quantity during FY22. Import of iron and steel scrap also
increased by 24.10% in value during the period under review. The decline of 18.0% in iron and
steel scrap is due to rise in its global price. The domestic production and import of steel have
expanded significantly due to increase in domestic demand. The main reason behind the rise in
steel production from 2008 to 2018 was an increasing demand of steel commodities in
transportation, defense, automotive, and appliances sectors, industrialization and expansions,
increase in housing projects and infrastructure projects under CPEC.

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Fastest growing Pakistani exports

In 2020, Pakistan was the number 41 economy in the world in terms of GDP (current
US$), the number 65 in total exports, the number 49 in total imports, the number 172 economy in
terms of GDP per capita (current US$) and the number 93 most complex economy according to
the Economic Complexity Index (ECI).
Exports

1. The top exports of Pakistan are House Linens ($3.61B), Rice ($2.14B), Non-Knit Men's Suits
($1.8B), Non-Knit Women's Suits ($1.06B), and Knit Sweaters ($950M), exporting mostly to
United States ($4.04B), Germany ($2.13B), China ($1.97B), United Kingdom ($1.73B), and
United Arab Emirates ($1.09B). According to the provisional figures compiled by the
Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, exports from Pakistan during April, 2022 amounted to
Rs.534,514 million (provisional) as against Rs.498,845 million in March, 2022and
Rs.339,498 million during April, 2021 showing an increase of 7.15% over March, 2022 and
of 57.44% over April, 2022.
2. In terms of US dollars, the exports in April, 2022 were $ 2,897 million (provisional) as
compared to $ 2,777million in March, 2022 showing an increase of 4.32% and by 30.61% as
compared to $ 2,218 million in April, 2021.
3. Exports during July – April, 2021 - 2022 totaled Rs.4,553,272 million (provisional) as
against Rs.3,359,742million during the corresponding period of last year showing an increase
of 35.52%.
4. In terms of US dollars, the exports during July – April, 2021- 2022 totaled $ 26,247 million
(provisional) against $ 20,905 million during the corresponding period of last year showing
an increase of 25.55%.
5. Main commodities of exports during April, 2022 were Knitwear (Rs.90,096 million),
Readymade garments (Rs.64,669 million), Bed wear (Rs.51,398 million), Cotton Cloth
(Rs.38,763 million), Rice Others (Rs.32,704million), Towels (Rs.19,974 million), Cotton
Yarn (Rs.18,016 million), Made up Articles (Excl. towels & Bed wear) (Rs.15,277 million),
Rice Basmati (Rs.15,198 million) and Surgical goods & medical instruments (Rs.8,067
million).
6. The increase/ decrease recorded in main commodities exported during April, 2022 over
March, 2022 and April, 2021 is given below;

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 Economic Zoology

1. The top imports of Pakistan are Refined Petroleum ($3.87B), Petroleum Gas ($2.24B), Palm Oil
($2.15B), Crude Petroleum ($1.92B), and Raw Cotton ($1.68B), importing mostly from
China ($14.7B), United Arab Emirates ($5.34B), United States ($2.78B), Indonesia ($2.43B),
and Saudi Arabia ($1.8B).
2. In 2020, Pakistan was the world's biggest importer of Tea ($646M), Scrap Nickel ($259M),
Jute and Other Textile Fibers ($43.6M), and Metallic Yarn ($39.5M).
3. Imports into Pakistan during April, 2022 amounted to Rs.1,232,104 million (provisional) as
against Rs.1,150,786 million in March, 2022 and Rs.802,443 million during April, 2021
showing an increase of 7.07% over March, 2021 and of 53.54% over April, 2021.
4. In terms of US dollars, the imports in April, 2022 were $ 6,679 million (provisional) as
compared to $ 6,407million in March, 2022 showing an increase of 4.25% and by 27.41% as
compared to $ 5,242 million in April, 2021.
5. Imports during July – April, 2021- 2022 totaled Rs.11,349,408 million (provisional) as against
Rs.7,178,581million during the corresponding period of last year showing an increase of
58.10%.
6. In terms of US dollars, the imports during July – April, 2021 - 2022 totaled $ 65,537 million
(provisional) as against $ 44,731 million during the corresponding period of last year showing
an increase of 46.51%.
7. Main commodities of imports during April, 2022 were Petroleum products (Rs.232,765 million),
Petroleum crude (Rs.98,427 million), Natural Gas Liquified (Rs.71,072 million), Palm Oil
(Rs.67,840 million), Plastic Materials (Rs.51,678 million), Mobile Phone (Rs.39,460 million),
Raw cotton (Rs.38,533 million), (Iron & Steel Rs.35,157million), Iron & Steel scrap
(Rs.32,751million) and Electrical machinery and apparatus (Rs.28,572 million).
8. The increase/ decrease recorded in main commodities imported during April, 2022 over March,
2022 and April, 2021 is given below
:

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 Economic Zoology

On the other hand, imports during July-August, 2022 show an increase of 23.75pc.

ISLAMABAD:

The exports from Pakistan in rupee terms witnessed an increase of 40.53 per cent during the first
two months of current fiscal year (2022-23) as compared to the corresponding month of last year,
Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS) reported.

The exports during July-August (2022-23) were recorded at Rs1,043,046 million as against the
exports of Rs742,226 million in July-August (2021-22), showing an increase of 40.53 per cent,
according to provisional data released by PBS.

On a year-on-year basis, the exports from Pakistan increased by 48.67 per cent and were
recorded at Rs548,326 million, against the exports of Rs368,814 million in August 2021.

On a month-on-month basis, the exports increased by 10.84 per cent in August 2022 when
compared to the exports of Rs494,720 million recorded in July, 2022.

The main commodities of exports during August, 2022 were knitwear Rs99,362 million,
readymade garments Rs72,897 million, bed wear Rs57,055 million, cotton cloth Rs43,159
million, rice other than Basmati Rs22,569 million, cotton yarn Rs19,679 million, towels
Rs16,574 million, made up articles (Excl. towels & bed wear) were Rs.13,355 million, petroleum
crude Rs12,056 million and rice Basmati Rs9,179 million.

On the other hand, imports during July –August, 2022 totaled Rs2,436,754 million as against
Rs1,969,047 million during the corresponding period of last year, showing an increase of 23.75
per cent.

Imports into Pakistan during August, 2022 amounted to Rs1,341,024 million as against
Rs1,095,730 million in July, 2022 and Rs1,079,268 million during August, 2021 showing an
increase of 22.39 per cent over July, 2021 and of 24.25 per cent over August, 2021.

The main commodities of imports during August, 2022 were petroleum products Rs205,549
million, petroleum crude Rs104,572 million, palm oil Rs92,096 million, natural gas liquified
Rs88,118 million, plastic materials Rs46,649 million, wheat unmilled Rs44,977 million,
electrical machinery & apparatus Rs43,114 million iron & steel scrap Rs34,396 million, raw
cotton Rs32,916 million and iron & steel Rs32,617 million.

Introduction to Economic Zoology:

It is a specialized branch of zoology which deals with animal world that is associated with
the economy, health and welfare of humans. It includes culturing animals for mass production
for human use and to control or eradicate animals that are injurious to man directly or indirectly.

It is difficult to think of a word without animals. From dogs and cats to bees and butterflies the

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kingdom animalia has millions of members survival of each living thing is dependent on the
other and because animal form such large group when the kingdom animalia is considered in
totally its importance seems overwhelming.

Importance:

Economic zoology deals with the application of zoological knowledge for the benefit of
mankind. It includes culturing animals for mass production for human use and to control or
eradicate animals that are injurious to man directly or indirectly. The following chapters are
included here

• Beneficial and harmful insects

• Sugarcane pest

• Castor pest

• Rice grain pest

• Apiculture (Bee-keeping)
• Honey bee

• Sericulture (Silk worm)

• Lac culture (Lac insect)

• Carp culture

• Pearl culture and mollusc culture

• Prawn culture

• Venomous animals – Centipedes, wasps, honey bee

• Diseases of man

• Cattle and livestock diseases

• Arthropod vectors of diseases

• Non-poisonous and poisonous snakes of India

The estimated annual value of the ecological services provided by insects in the United States
alone is at least $57 billion, an amount that justifies greater investment in the conservation of
these services. Without the activities of insects, human life on earth would eventually be
extinguished. Over one lakh currently living species of insects have been identified, but the true

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number is surely much larger, about a million.

Beneficial insects:

Pollinators of crops (Bees, wasps, butterflies, moths, hoverflies, beetles), many plants
depend on insects to transfer pollen as they forage. Plants attract insects in various ways, by
offering pollen or nectar meals and by guiding them to the flower using scent and visual cues.
This has resulted in strong relationships between plants and insects. Value of crop production
from pollination by native insects is estimated to be about $3 billion in US alone.

There are many important pollinating insect species in the orders: Hymenoptera (bees, wasps,
and ants), Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), Diptera (flies) and Coleoptera (beetles). As adults
these insects feed on pollen and nectar from flowers.
Economic value of insect pollination worldwide is estimated at US$ 217 billion. German
scientist found that the worldwide economic value of the pollination service provided by insect
pollinators, bees mainly was dollar153 billion in 2005 for the main crops that feed the world.
This figure amounted to 9.5% of the total value of the World agricultural food production. The
study also determined that pollinator disappearance would translate into a consumer loss of food
estimated between dollar 190 to 310 billion.

Predators of pests: (Dragonflies, beetles, bugs, lacewings, wasps)

The arthropod predators of insects and mites include beetles, true bugs, lacewings, flies,
midges, spiders, wasps, and predatory mites. Insect predators can be found throughout plants,
including the parts below ground, as well as in nearby shrubs and trees. Some predators are
specialized in their choice of prey, others are generalists. Some are extremely useful natural
enemies of insect pests. Unfortunately, some prey on other beneficial insects as well as pests.
Major characteristics of arthropod predators:

• Adults and immature stages are often generalists rather than specialists.

• They generally are larger than their prey.

• They kill or consume many preys.

• Males, females, immature stages and adults may be predatory.

• They attack immature and adult prey. Important insect predators include lady beetles, ground
beetles, rove beetles, flower bugs and other predatory true bugs, lacewings and hover flies.

Spiders and some families of mites are also predators of insects and mite pests. Natural
enemies play an important role in limiting potential pest populations. We have seen what
happens when pesticides devastate the natural enemies of potential pests. Surveys of agricultural

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systems give an indication of the potential number and diversity of predators in a crop. For
example, over 600 species of predators in 45 families of insects and 23 families of spiders and
mites have been recorded in cotton. Eighteen species of predatory insects (not including spiders
and mites) have been found in potatoes in the northeastern United States.

Parasites of pests: (Hymenoptera and Diptera)

Parasitoids are insects with an immature stage that develops on or in an insect host, and
ultimately kills the host. Adults are typically free-living, and may be predators. They may also
feed on other resources, such as honeydew, plant nectar or pollen. Because parasitoids must be
adapted to the life cycle, physiology and defenses of their hosts, many are limited to one or a few
closely related host species. Crop losses averted by beneficial insects from predators or parasites
of agricultural pests are estimated to be $4.5 billion. The most valuable insect parasites belong to
the following groups:
• Tachinid Flies (Diptera)

• Ichneumonid Wasps (Hymenoptera)

Edible insects:

There are 1,462 recorded species of edible insects. Doubtless there are thousands more that
simply have not been tasted yet. 100 grams of cricket contains: 121 calories, 12.9 grams of
protein, 5.5 g of fat, 5.1 g of carbohydrates, 75.8 mg calcium, 185.3 mg of phosphorous, 9.5 mg
of iron, 0.36 mg of thiamin, 1.09 mg of riboflavin, and 3.10 mg of niacin. Compare this with
ground beef, which, although it contains more protein (23.5 g.), also has 288.2 calories and a
whooping 21.2 grams of fat. Usually crickets, grasshoppers, beetle and moth larvae and termites
are eaten. Australian aborigines regularly ate honey pot ants, adult bogong moths and the larvae
of wood moths. Being rich source of protein, grasshoppers have been eaten in nearly all regions
of the world. They are a common food in parts of Asia and Africa—fried, roasted or ground to be
mixed with flour. The grasshoppers eat green plants, however, by far outweighs their value as
food. Insects are an important food for many vertebrates, including birds, amphibians, reptiles,
fish and mammals. These “insectivorous” vertebrates usually feed on many insect species, and
rarely focus on specific pests, unless they are very abundant. Scavengers Ants, beetles,
apterygotes, cockroaches, crickets and a large number of other insects thrive on dead carcasses,
left over organic matter or excreta and in the process clean the environment. Economic losses
avoided every year by the burial of livestock waste by dung beetles only are estimated to be over
$3.8 Billion.

Neutral insects:

Majority of insects, almost 98% of all insect species, live in low populations in different
ecosystems, without causing appreciable damage. But they form an important component of the

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food web and work unnoticed. Conservation of such fauna is important since we do not know the
interactions of such insects with the animal and plant species.

Injurious insects:

Less than 1% of insects are regarded as pests. They can be classified into the following
categories;

• Pests of agriculture and forestry (Locusts, caterpillars, bugs, hoppers, aphids etc.); Locusts
are among the most destructive of all insect pests. Swarms of desert locusts were among the
plagues of the Biblical Egyptians, and they still plague farmers throughout Asia and Africa.
Their threat is so great that regional and international organizations monitor desert locust
populations and launch control measures when necessary. Locusts are particularly destructive
in hot, dry regions when a sudden increase in their numbers, combined with food shortage,
forces them to migrate. They migrate in huge swarms, devouring virtually every green plant
in their path.
• Pests of stored grains; the most common insect pests of stored cereal grains are: Rice
Weevil (Sitophilus oryzae); Lesser Grain Borer (Rhyzopertha dominica); Rust Red Flour
Beetle: (Tribolium spp.); Sawtooth Grain Beetle: (Oryzaephilus surinamensis); Flat Grain
Beetle: (Cryptolestes spp.); Indian Meal Moth (Plodia interpunctella); Angoumois Grain
Moth (Sitotroga cerealella); Khapra beetle (Trogoderma granarium); Rice moth (Corcyra
cephalonica). Insect management for stored grain depends upon good sanitation and grain
storage practices. Clean storage areas to reduce the potential for insect migration into the new
grain. Once the grain is dried to 13 percent moisture or less, cool it as soon as possible by
running aeration fans. Reducing the grain temperature to less than 60ºF stops insect
reproduction, and lowering it to less than 50ºF stops insect feeding activity. Infested grains
should be fumigated by Aluminum phosphide (Phostoxin, Fumitoxin), which is best in most
circumstances. Methyl bromide may also be used.
• Household pests (carpet beetles, furniture beetles, cloth moth, termites and silverfish).These
include ants, termites, bed bugs, carpet beetles, furniture beetles, book lice, house flies, fleas,
cockroaches, silver fish, clothes moths and spiders – the list seems almost endless. Common
household pests enter our homes for shelter and food, and also to nest and breed. Common
household pests can cause damage to our homes especially clothes, eatables and furniture.
Household pests can also be a threat to health of our families by spreading bacteria, diseases
or allergens in our homes. Household pests can be irritating, annoying or irritating and
annoying. They can be controlled by spraying insecticides or by fumigants and by
maintaining hygiene.

Insects of medical and veterinary importance (Mosquitos, flea, beetles, flies)

Mosquitoes can spread diseases such as malaria, yellow fever, dengue fever. Tsetse flies

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spread sleeping sickness. Lice suck human blood and can cause sores, which if left untreated can
become infected which may lead to blood poisoning. Screw worm flies lay their eggs in the
wounds of farm animals and pets. Horseflies and black flies suck blood and have painful bites,
which can become infected. Houseflies spread germs and spoil meat by laying eggs in it.
Bubonic Plague (or Black Death) was the worst disease epidemic in human history. It took 14
million lives–nearly 1 out of 4 people–in 14th-century Europe. The plague is passed to humans
by the bite of the Oriental rat flea (Xenopsylla cheopis), which picks up the disease-causing
bacteria from rats. Pyrilla perpusilla, The Sugarcane Leafhopper (Hemiptera: Lophopidae), this
insect is a serious pest of sugarcane in northern India where it also occasionally feeds on maize,
millets, rice, barley, oats, sorghum, bajra and wild grasses.

A Classification of Animals from the point of view of Economic Zoology.

GROUP A. - Animals captured or slaughtered by man for food, or for the use by him in other
ways, of their skin, bone, fat, or other products. Examples. - Animals of the chase; food - fishes;
whales; pearl-mussels.

GROUP B. - Animals bred or cultivated by man for food or for the use of their products in
industry or for their services as living things. Examples. — Flocks and herds; horses; dogs,
poultry; gold - fish; bees; silkworms and leeches.

GROUP C. - Animals which directly promote man's operations as a civilized being without
being killed, captured or trained by him. Examples. - Scavengers such as vultures; carrion -
feeding insects; earthworms and flower -fertilizing insects.

GROUP D. - Animals which concern man as causing bodily injury, sometimes death, to him,
and in other cases disease, often of a deadly character. Examples. - Lions; wolves; snakes;
stinging and parasitic insects; disease germ -carriers, as flies and mosquitoes; parasitic worms;
parasitic protozoa.

GROUP E. - Animals which concern man as causing bodily injury or disease (both possibly of a
deadly character) to (Ă), his stock of domesticated animals; or (B), to his vegetable plantations;
or (C), to wild animals in the preservation of which he is interested; or (D), wild plants in the
preservation of which he is interested. Examples. - Similar to those of Group D, but also insects
and worms which destroy crops, fruit and forest trees, and pests such as frugivorous birds,
rabbits.

GROUP F.-Animals which concern man as being destructive to his worked-up products of art and
industry, such as (A) his various works, buildings, larger constructions and habitations; (B)
furniture, books, drapery and clothing; (C) his food and his stores. Examples. - White ants; wood -
eating larva; clothes moths, weevils, acari and marine borers.
GROUP G. – Animals which are known as beneficials on account of their being destructive to or
checking the increase of the injurious animals. Examples. — Certain carnivorous and

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insectivorous birds, reptiles and amphibia; parasitic and predaceous insects, acari, Myriapoda, etc.

Animals survey For Food

Livestock and aquatic animals provide roughly 1.3 billion dollars of the global population with
income, nutritious food, clothing, fertilizer, building materials and traction power.
Worldwide, 1,3 billion people depend on animals for their living.

Coelentera…………………………... Sea anemones are to be seen in most French fish markets

and are also eaten in Sicily, Trieste, and Istria (Actinia viridis and others).
Echinoderms……………………. Echinus (sea urchins), the ovaries of various species in all parts
of the world, especially in the West Indies and Adriatic Coast. Holothurians, known as “trepang,'
are dried and cooked by the Chinese, Neapolitans and others.
Platyhelminthes……………………………………Cestodes (tapeworms) are eaten by the
Chinese.
Annelida………………. Palolo worms (Eunice) are eaten in the Samoan Islands in large
quantities.
Mollusca……………………. Examples of all groups are eaten either raw or cooked by both
civilized and uncivilized people (oysters, Ostrea edulis, O. parasitica; clams, Mya arenaria,
species of Mactra and Venus and Razor shells, Ensis Americana; Ark shells, Arca and Codakia in
America and West Indies). Piddocks (Pholas) are eaten in Normandy; snails (Helix aspersa) in
France; Bulimus ovatus is sold as food in Rio Janeiro; whelks (Buccinum) and limpets (Patella) in
Europe; even sea slugs (Aplysia) are eaten in the South Sea lands.
Tunicates…………………………One species, Cynthia microcosmos, is eaten raw and cooked by
Adriatic fisherman.
Fishes……………………All kinds are eaten, even in civilized countries. Fish fins and fish maws
eaten by Chinese, and isinglass obtained from swim bladder.
Amphibians…………Frogs only are eaten both in Europe (Rana esculenta) and India (croaking
and spangled frog).
Reptiles…………………. Many lizards (Iguana tuberculata in West Indies, I. delicatissima in S.
America, water lizards, Varanus dracæna, in India, and others) are eaten by civilized man; also,
chelonians, as the green turtle, Chelone midas, and the hawksbill, C. imbricata. Alligators are
eaten by Indians, and crocodiles by Siamese. Snakes are eaten by Australian aborigines.
Birds…………………All kinds eaten except birds of prey and fish - eating birds. Eggs of some
wild species, as plovers and gulls. Nests formed by swiftlets (Collocalia fuciphaga and C.
francica) used for soups by Chinese

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Mammals…………………. All except the carnivora are eaten; but civilized man is more
selective than uncivilized man, and refuses as a rule to eat mammals not belonging to the
Ruminantia, excepting the pigs, bears, rabbits, sometimes horse, and occasionally his dog. The
manatee is eaten in West Indies; the fox bat (Pteropus edulis) in Malay; white whale
(Delphinapterus leucas) in Greenland and Siberia. Various marsupials - the koala (Phascolarctos
cinereus); wallabies and kangaroos (Macropus); rabbit- bandicoot (Peragale lagotis), etc.

Animals Pursued for their Economic Products

Porifera………………. Sponges (grass sponge, Hippospongia equina; wool sponges, H. equina,
Variety gossypina; Zimocca sponge; yellow sponge, variety corlosia, and others) are collected in
many parts, as West Indies, Florida, Mediterranean.
Coelentera……………. Red coral (Corallium rubrum) and Isis and Mopsea. For the gemstones.
Echinoderms………………. Starfish (Asterias vulgaris) are collected and used as manure (five-
finger manure) in some parts of Great Britain.
Hexapods…………………. Various insects are sought for by man for their products lac insects
(Coccide); “cantharides " (= dried beetles, Cantharides vesicatoria and others); oil extracted from
locusts in Algeria; galls (Cynips) for dyes, tanning and ink; beetles for their metallic elytra, used
as ornaments for embroidery (Chrysochus auratus, Buprestis vittata); ' ground pearl of Bahamas
produced by a scale insect, Margarodes formicarium. Honey from honey bees. Silk from
silkworm.
Molluscs………………. Many shells are collected for ornamental purposes cameos (Cassis
madagascarensis and others), Sepia for cuttle bone and sepia; pearl oysters (Aviculidx); cowries
(Cypræa moneta) are used as money by some uncivilized races; the byssus of Pinna for silk; pearls
and mother-of-pearl from pearl oysters, and purple pearls from Arca; others for dyes, as Aplysia
camelus in Portugal.
Fish………………………. Various sharks for their skin (shagreen); fish skins are used to clarify
beer, also isinglass. Glue is also made from fish skins in India. Cod liver oil from the cod (Gadus
morrhuæ). Fish bile used chemically in India. Fish scales, of the bleak (Leuciscus alburnus) and
dace (L. vulgaris), to make artificial pearls. Fish scales of the mahasir (Barbus tor) also used in
manufacture of playing cards in India.
Amphibians…………………Frogs for their skin for ornamental book - binding.
Reptiles…………………Many lizards and crocodiles are captured for their skins for ornamental
purposes; also turtles (hawksbill and green turtle) for tortoise shell.
Birds……………….The plumage of many wild birds for ornamental purposes -grebes
(Colymbids cristatus), skins used for muffs, trimmings, etc. .; gulls (Rissa tridactyla and others),
for hats and decoration ; Argus pheasant ( Argus giganteus) ; peacock feathers in China ; eagle
feathers in N. America ; jays, cockatoos, and parakeets for making artificial flies ; Eider ducks (
Somateria mollissima) for eider down in Greenland, Iceland, and Norway ; wild swans for swan
down ; bile of the peacock used medicinally in India. Ostriches are farmed for their feathers in
South Africa and at Nice. Swans also to provide feathers. Albumen prepared from the fowl’s eggs.

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Mammals……………...Most groups are sought for their (i) furs; (ii) skin and hide; (iii) bone and
horn; (iv) fats; and (v) scents. (vi) For furs — seal, bear, ermine, marten, pine marten, sable,
chinchilla, skunk, mink, neutria, caracal, wool. verine, marmot, musquash, genet, squirrel, Arctic
fox, moles, etc. Various marsupials - wallabies and kangaroos (Macropus), phalangers
(Trichosurus), and others. (ii) For skin and hide the wild pig, white whale (= porpoise hide) and
true porpoises (Phocæna com munis); buffalo and chamois; seal for black enamel leather. (iii) For
bone and horn - elephant and narwhal for ivory; oxen, deer, and buffalo for horn; whales (Balæna
mysticetus) for whalebone. (iv) For fat, soaps and oil-whales and porpoises, wild pigs and bears;
spermaceti from sperm whale. (v) For scents-musk from a gland in the skin of abdomen of male
musk deer (Moschus moschiferous) in India and used as a stimulant medicinally, and scent from
civets (Viverra); ambergris from sperm whale.

Animals which directly promote Man's operations as a civilized being, without

being captured, killed or trained by him
This is a remarkable group - remarkable because it is so small. The fact is that in more primitive
conditions of civilization man would recognize more clearly than he now does his indebtedness to
other animals, as, for instance, the fisherman looks to the sea - gulls for guidance. Highly civilised
man has almost completely separated himself from the ancient association with the animal world,
excepting where he has seized and domesticated or more or less trained the useful animal. The
scavenger animals and birds and the earthworms still act freely for man's benefit without
submitting to his yoke.
Nematodes………………. Various eel-worms (Anguillulidæ) hasten decay in plants
Annelids……………………The earthworms form surface soil and bury stones on the surface and
prepare the seed beds for plants.
Hexapods…………………Many insects act as scavengers in all parts of the world; the larvæ of
flies (Calliphora) feed upon and hasten decay of carrion; some carrion beetles (Silphidæ); dung
beetles (Cyprids and Dynastidæ); burying beetles (Necrophorus) also act as scavengers; humble
bees (Bombi) fertilize clover, and many other insects act as fertilizer
Fish………………Fish, especially carp, keep water free from insects and decaying matter, and
are used for such purposes in reservoirs.
Birds………………. Vultures, by destroying the flesh of dead animals and man.
Mammals……………. Rats feed upon carrion, as well as sound food; and also jackals and semi
wild dogs.

Animals which cause injury by Direct Attack to Man

Protozoa……………Malarial hæmamebidæ, coccidia, Amoeba coli, and Trypanosoma in the
blood.
Cnidarians………………Jelly -fish, by stinging man when in sea water.
Echinoderms…………. Spines of Echinus may penetrate the skin.

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 Economic Zoology

Platyhelmes…………Numerous tapeworms (Cestode) are parasitic in the intestines of man

(Tænia solium, Tænia saginata), and in their cystic or hydatid stage in the various organs and
connective tissue (Echinococcus hominis). Flukes (Trematoda) also occur as parasites in man.
Nematodes……………. Many species occur as parasites in the alimentary canal (Ascarids and
Ankylostomum), in the blood system and connective tissues (Filariæ), and cause disease (Elephan
tiasis); the Guinea worm (Filaria medinensis); Trichina spiralis.
Annelids…………. Land leeches attack man in Ceylon and India and elsewhere.
Arthropods………. Crabs and lobsters bite, also land -crabs (Gecarcinidæ). A few spiders
(Mygale) have poisonous bites; mites produce itch, etc., and the sting of scorpions is poisonous.
Centipedes (Scolopendra gigantea, S. morsitans) in tropical climates are poisonous and cause
painful wounds. Insects of the orders Diptera (flies) and Hemiptera Heteroptera (bugs) bite in all
parts of the world. Biting Diptera include: -mosquitoes (Culicidæ), sand flies (Simulidæ), gadflies
(Tabanidæ), stinging -flies (Chrysops, Stomoxys), tsetse- flies (Glossina). Diptera also live as
parasites in their adult stage (jigger -flea) and in the larval state in man (Dermatobia, Screw -
worm). Bugs of the genera Cimex and Conorhinus.
Mollusca…………. The bites of some are poisonous (Conusa aulicus in Moluccas, C. textilis in
South Sea Islands, and most other Toxiglossa.
Fish…………. Sharks and various poisonous fish, the latter (i) poisonous as food, Clupea thrissa,
C. venenosa; species of Scarus, Tetrodon, Diodon, Balistes, Ostracon, pike and burbot, and (ii) on
account of the poisonous wounds they may produce - weavers, stinging rays (Trygonidæ), species
of Synanceia and Thalassophryne.
Reptiles…………. Many snakes are poisonous (rattlesnake, cobra, fer de lance, blue adder, puff
adder, purple and short deatlı adders) and a single lizard (the Heloderma). Crocodiles and
alligators may devour man (the gavial, Gavialis gangeticus, Crocodilius vulgaris.
Mammals…………………. Most of the large carnivora (lions, tigers, bears, wolves) may cause
bodily injury to man and often devour him. Any large mammals such as rhinoceros, elephant,
deer, may attack and injure him.

Animals which Cause diseases By Acting as a Germ Carrier

Arachnids……………. Probably ticks (Ixodidæ) may distribute disease from animals to man.
Hexapods…………. All piercing -mouthed insects may either carry disease direct from man to
man or animals to man gadflies (Tabanidæ), Stomoxys and tsetse - fly (Muscidæ), sand flies
(Simulidæ); bugs (Cimex and Conorhinus); or they may act as intermediate hosts of parasites
(mosquitoes and malaria and filariasis). Germs may also be carried to food and drink by dung-
feeding flies from latrines and foul matter (typhoid).
Mollusca……………Some molluscs may carry germs, as oysters and cockles carry typhoid and
many snails are the carriers of Blood flukes.
Mammalia……………The imperfectly cooked flesh of various mammals may carry disease to
man, as the flesh of pigs (cysts of Tænia solium, and Trichina spiralis, thus producing tapeworm

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and trichinosis in man); the flesh of oxen (cysts of tapeworms, Tænia saginata); milk of cow and
other animals carries tuberculosis.

Animals Injurious to Furniture, Books, Drapery and Clothing

Arachnida…………. Acari (Glyciphagus) spoil furniture and are obnoxious.
Hexapods………………. Termites or white ants; wood-boring beetles (Xylobium and Anobium);
leaf-cutting bees (Megachilids); clothes moths (Tinea); Dermestids beetles attack soft goods;
cockroaches (Blattida) attack boots, also Anobium and by Chelifores or tailless scorpions in India,
also by Lepisma. Clothing also damaged in India by Anthrenus vorax.
Mammals…………. Mice and rats (occasionally).

Animals injurious to Man’s Food and Other Stores

Acarina……………… A few acari attack food - household mites (Glyciphagus); cheese mites
(Tyroglyphus); sugar mites (Glyciphagus).
Hexapods…………. Numerous insects attack man's food and other stores, bacon beetles
(Dermestes); cheese fly (Piophila); blow flies (Calliphora); cockroaches (Blattidæ); cigar beetles
(Lasioderma); drug beetle (Anobium paniceum); death -watch (Atropos divinatoria); silver fish
(Lepisma).
Mollusca……………. slugs attack corks.
Mammals…………. Rats and mice.
The value of biodiversity can be separated into two categories:

1. Ethical value or intrinsic value:

It is based for respect for life living word and sense of intrinsic value in nature and
concepts of divine creation. It also defines the existence value of animal beings. During the
1970s and 1980s, the criticism regarding the living conditions of farm and laboratory animals
was reexamined in other social debates, notably the discussions concerning the protection of the
(natural) environment and the ones concerning the development of new breeding techniques.
Due to this broadening of the issues, other objections against the use of animals for scientific or
economic reasons emerged. The instrumental use of the animals, it was said, is hard to reconcile
with their intrinsic (or inherent) value. In 1981 the Dutch government included the intrinsic value
argument in a statement concerning the protection of animals. Now a principle was formulated
that allowed for the possibility that, in some cases, the interests of animals might prevail over
and above those of science and industry. The interests of the animal involved health and well-
being as experienced by the animals themselves, independent from considerations concerning
their suitability for human use. It was now claimed that animals have an intrinsic value, that is
a good-of-their-own, and an interest in their own well-being.

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 Economic Zoology

Extrinsic value of an animal:

It can be more clearly defined as anthropocentric value, is comprised of direct and indirect
economic benefit to human. Biodiversity provides a range of goods from agriculture crops to
medicine and fibers, to which a direct value and cost can be assigned. This direct economic value
of natural environment can be decided into those associated with consumption and production,
consumptive use and productive use values e.g., the charm of wild animals, the production value
of a cow, or the sentimental value of your family’s cat.

i. Consumptive use value:

Consumptive use value is usually assigned to goods consumed locally that are neither
bought nor sold and country. People living off the land obtain the goods that they need for
survival from environment quality decline, for whatever reason, their standard of living would
obviously deteriorate. The values of nature product that are consumed directly such fire woods,
fodder and meat, in other words the products which are consumed directly without through the
market.
Consumptive use value seldom appears in National income accounts. Much of the fresh water and
marine harvest of organisms used for food depends on natural ecosystem rather than aquaculture,
wild fruits and vegetables, fibers beeswax and seaweed are important economically, wood, rubber,
and latex are tree products of great economic importance. Sustained production, rather than
ecosystem destruction, will ensure these products are available indefinitely.

Aesthetic value:

Aesthetic value is the value that an object, event, or state of affairs (most paradigmatically an
artwork or the natural environment) possesses in virtue of its capacity to elicit pleasure (positive
value) or displeasure (negative value) when appreciated or experienced aesthetically.
Environmental organizations in industrialized countries have long harnessed the visual and
symbolic power of charismatic, “cute” and otherwise visually attractive animals in campaigns
garnering public support for conservation causes.

Hexapods………...Mantis flies and some beetles are kept by the Italians and Chinese for fighting; also, a
grasshopper; and crickets also by Chinese. Butterflies are also used for ornamental purposes in the garden.

Reptilia……………Horned or Californian toads (Phrynosoma) are kept as pets in North and Central
America. The coral snake (Tortrix scytale) is used by native women in tropical America as an adornment
round their necks.

Fish………Fighting races of fish (Macropodus pugnax, var.) are bred by the Siamese. Goldfish and others
for ornamental purposes.

Birds…………………. Fowls (Aseels and Malays) are bred by the Malayans and other races for fighting,
and various game-fowls (Pile game, black -breasted reds, ducklings) in Europe for the same purpose. Great
varieties of birds are bred for their brilliant plumage and color and song - canaries, bullfinches, silver

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pheasants (Gennæus nycthemerus), golden pheasants (Chrysolophus picta), and others — and various
ornamental ducks, geese and swans, pea fowls.

Mammalia……………Race -horses, greyhounds, and whippets, bull dogs, pugs and fancy dogs. Dutch, lop -
eared, and other fancy rabbits. Cavies or guinea pigs. A special race of bulls is cultivated for fighting purposes
in Spain.

ii. Productive use value:

Productive use values are assigned to those goods harvest from the environment which are
bought and sold locally nationally or internationally. Major products include construction timber,
fuel wood, fish and shellfish, fruits and vegetables and seaweed. Indirect value of biodiversity
can be discussed under following headings:
Ecological value:

Ecological value every species plays a unique role in the ecosystem. Through this role it
maintains the ecological balance. Thus, the ecosystems don't get disrupted. So, even if we do not use
a plant or animal for making products in our industries, by virtue of its very existence in the wild it
provides us with many important services. These services maintain ecological balance and the
ecosystem.

Some of these services are:

• Waste Management:
Nature has a unique way of managing wastes. The waste of one organism becomes food for
another organism. So, wastes don't accumulate. For example, forests absorb greenhouse gases like
carbon dioxide during photosynthesis. This helps to reduce global warming. Forests also contribute to
precipitation due to transpiration. Many other plants and animals help to keep forests healthy. So, the
entire biodiversity contributes towards maintaining climate stability. Scientific value or Educational
value Biodiversity is of great scientific value. Many species of plants and animals are the subjects of
our research. We use many species for research and in turn get a lot of knowledge from their study.
Through research on plants, insects and animals we find better ways of making medicines, hybrid
plants, engineering designs and many other things that are of immense value to human beings. For
example, the design of Velcro is developed from cockleburs which cling fast to clothing as we walk
in the woods.

• Cultural and Spiritual value:

Many cultures of human beings are closely related to many species of plants and animals. For
example, Hindus identify owls as the transport of Goddess Lakshmi. Many religions identify
themselves as such plants and animals which renders to them a cultural or spiritual value.

• Option value:
There are many plants and animals which have not yet been discovered or even if they have been
discovered we do not know if they can be of any use to us. This untapped potential is referred to as

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option value. For example, there might be a plant or animal the future to find a cure for corner. If we
which we can use in destroy biodiversity then we lose this chance of finding a cure for cancer. Thus
biodiversity has great potential of being useful to us in the future.

Animals for food and products

• Production of animal source foods contributes to economic development by generating income

and employment for livestock keepers and actors along livestock value chains.
• In Africa and Asia, their production cannot be analyzed without considering the other functions of
livestock: livestock are an asset, a store of wealth for resilience and a factor of production in
mixed farms.
• Local livestock production increases the availability of animal source foods as a source of
proteins and micronutrients, necessary for a healthy population.
Production of Animal Source Foods and Economic Development:

The simplest, albeit approximate, way of looking at the relationship between livestock
production and economic development is through the contribution of livestock to the agricultural
gross domestic product (GDP). The contribution of livestock to the agricultural GDP varies greatly
across countries averaging ~25% for low- and middle-income countries compared with nearly 50%
for high-income countries. This reflects the fact that richer countries have larger and well-coordinated
livestock sectors. Limited data are available for agriculture and livestock in low- and middle-income
countries and that which is available is often unreliable.

Additionally, livestock-related interventions, activities supported, and financed by development

agencies, governments and/or the private sector to improve people’s well-being through livestock,
have an impact on economic development.

Economically harmful animals:

Animals provide many benefits to people. Many people interact with animals in their daily
lives, both at home and away from home. Animals provide food, fiber, livelihoods, travel, sport,
companionship, and education for people across the globe. Millions of households in the United
States have one or more pets. We might come into contact with animals in either urban or rural
settings, during travel, while visiting animal exhibits, or while enjoying outdoor activities.

However, animals can sometimes carry harmful germs that can spread to people and cause
illness – these are known as zoonotic diseases or zoonoses. Zoonotic diseases are caused by harmful
germs like viruses, bacterial, parasites, and fungi. These germs can cause many different types of
illnesses in people and animals, ranging from mild to serious illness and even death. Animals can
sometimes appear healthy even when they are carrying germs that can make people sick, depending
on the zoonotic disease.

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Zoonotic diseases are very common, both in the United States and around the world.
Scientists estimate that more than 6 out of every 10 known infectious diseases in people can be
spread from animals, and 3 out of every 4 new or emerging infectious diseases in people come from
animals. Because of this, CDC works 24/7 to protect people from zoonotic diseases in the United
States and around the world.

How do germs spread between animals and people?

Because of the close connection between people and animals, it’s important to be aware of the
common ways people can get infected with germs that can cause zoonotic diseases. These can
include:

• Direct contact: Coming into contact with the saliva, blood, urine, mucous, feces, or other body
fluids of an infected animal. Examples include petting or touching animals, and bites or scratches.
• Indirect contact: Coming into contact with areas where animals live and roam, or objects or
surfaces that have been contaminated with germs. Examples include aquarium tank water, pet
habitats, chicken coops, barns, plants, and soil, as well as pet food.
• Foodborne: Each year, 1 in 6 Americans get sick from eating contaminated food. Eating or
drinking something unsafe, such as unpasteurized (raw) milk, undercooked meat or eggs, or raw
fruits and vegetables that are contaminated with feces from an infected animal. Contaminated
food can cause illness in people and animals, including pets.
Effect of Animal Disease on the Economy:
Animal diseases have both direct and indirect medical and economic effects. These diseases
have a much broader effects on markets, poverty, and livelihoods, given the diversity of uses of
livestock and complexity of livestock value chains. This was demonstrated during the avian
flu epidemic of 2003-2004. Most affected during the outbreak was Vietnam, where 44 million birds
were destroyed.

The loss of human life can be catastrophic, as in the case of the “black” plague and the
“Spanish” influenza. Animal diseases can also cause negative indirect medical effects in terms of
nutrition. From an economic perspective, the illness and loss of life from zoonotic diseases decreases
productivity and hurts a country’s economy. Animal diseases that affect the economy, standard of
living and livestock are called trans-boundary animal disease.

What is a trans-boundary animal disease?

Trans-boundary animal diseases (TADs) are defined as animal diseases “of significant
economic, trade and/or food security importance for a considerable number of countries; which can
easily spread to other countries and reach epidemic proportions; and where control/management,
including exclusion, requires cooperation between several countries” Trans-boundary animal diseases
result in several kinds of economic impact. They cause livestock production losses, which may be
very high if the disease in question spreads very rapidly. Examples include foot- and-mouth

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disease, rinderpest, contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia, sheep and goat pox, peste des petits
ruminants, highly pathogenic avian influenza, Rift Valley fever, Newcastle disease, etc. They can
also result in considerable disruption to trade, causing particular concern in countries where export is
an important source of revenue for the livestock sector. The economic impact of a TAD can be
assessed at different levels and from the perspectives of different stakeholders.

For example:

• For the government or a regional coalition, it may represent a threat to national income, a
potential drain on budget, and an impediment to international trade.
• For livestock producers, traders, and the processors and retailers of livestock products, the
presence of a TAD may represent a threat to livelihood, a need to invest in prevention measures,
and a source of friction with state veterinary services.
• Animal health providers and the suppliers of vaccines and drugs may see a TAD as a source of
revenue from drug and vaccine sales.
• Consumers may perceive a TAD as a threat to health (if the disease is zoonotic), and may be
disadvantaged if a severe disease outbreak affects food prices or disrupts the food supply.
Impacts beyond the livestock sector
Human health:

Trans-boundary animal diseases can have direct and indirect impacts on human health. Direct
impacts occur when humans are infected by zoonotic trans-boundary animal diseases and become ill.

The costs of human clinical illness are visible, measurable and have been estimated in a number of
published reports. Indirect effects can occur if the presence of trans-boundary animal diseases
severely disrupts the food supply or the ability of families to access food. Zoonotic trans-boundary
animal diseases can have economic impacts if they cause mortality in people, or through illness
prevent them from doing the things that they would normally do, or oblige them to require medical
treatment.

Tourism, wildlife and biodiversity:

The presence of a zoonotic trans-boundary animal disease may have impacts on tourism, if
tourists are discouraged from visiting an infected area or restricted access to a country, this can
results to a loss of revenue for the tourist industry. In the event that a zoonotic disease in livestock
resulted in an epidemic of human disease, this could cause very widespread disruption of businesses
and the operation of public sector services.

Food security:

In the event that a zoonotic trans-boundary disease spreads, there would be a shortage in food
supply which can eventually lead to an increase in the prices of food. Whether it be the virus itself, or
the disease management, hundreds of thousands or potentially millions of animals are killed each

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year because of pathogenic outbreaks among herds. This is most alarming in the developing world,
where over 700 million people keep farm animals and up to 40 percent of household income depends
on them.

In this situation, where access to protein is already limited, animal diseases reduce the
availability of a critical source of protein. Because of the diverse uses of livestock in poorer countries
with less established veterinary services, livestock diseases have broader, more nuanced effects on
markets, poverty, livelihoods, and the food supply. Locomotion of animal diseases on an international
scale can be achieved in a number of ways. International trade is one vector that can have a serious
impact. Worldwide, poultry exports have increased by 520 percent, from 2.2 million tonnes a year in
the late 1980s, to 13.6 million tonnes a year in the late 2000s. This means millions of potentially
infectious birds traverse international borders at rapid rates, leaving ample opportunity for infectious
diseases to ‘hitch a ride’ from one location to another. At both the local and national levels, trade
across borders creates a new, very direct dissemination of infection and a new challenge for public
health.

What makes livestock, and in turn the food supply, especially susceptible to animal diseases
all over the world is the increasing use of industrialized farming. These farms continue to grow in
size and crowdedness. In the past livestock was spread out among thousands of small family run
farms; this is no longer the case. More than half of the world’s pigs and chickens are raised on
industrialized farms, and more than 40 percent of the world’s beef is produced in feedlots where
hundreds of thousands of animals are raised in close quarters. Large, cramped populations allow for
more virulent viruses to continue to thrive.

Public concerns over food safety are heightened during outbreaks of any disease in food-
producing animals. If an animal is affected by a particular disease, tissues from the animal, including
its meat or milk, are a potential source of human infection if allowed to enter the food chain. More
commonly, however, animals can be infected with zoonotic pathogens but show little or no signs of
clinical disease. These ‘carrier’ animals are more difficult to detect either on the farm or at the
slaughterhouse, so eradication is more of a problem. Many of these organisms live in the intestinal
tract of healthy animals and can spread to humans through fecal contamination of the environment or
of products such as milk during milking or eggs during laying. In addition, small amounts of
intestinal contents may contaminate the carcass after slaughter and be present on raw meat.

Cross-contamination of other foods can occur if they come into contact with a contaminated
product either directly, during storage or preparation, or indirectly via humans, work surfaces,
utensils or other objects. Fruit or vegetables that have been irrigated or washed in untreated water that
is contaminated with animal feces can also be a source of human infection.

Animals in scientific research:

An animal which has more or less similar physiological and body composition with various
biological systems as human beings, which are tiny, easy to handle, less expensive and co-operative

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are called as laboratory animals. Mice, Rats, Hamster, Guinea Pigs, Rabbits, Monkeys and
Transgenic Fly are popular Laboratory animals. Laboratory animals are classified as:

• Conventional animals:
Animals derived and grown in general environment but free from diseases communicable to human
like mycobacteria, Dermatophytic fungi, Pasteurella and Sarcopts scabiei.

• Gnotobiotic animals:
Animals with known microbes such as virus, bacteria, fungi and protozoa is said to be gnotobiotic
animals. This animal has to be bred in controlled environment in the equipment called isolator. They
are foundation stocks for producing specific pathogen free animals. Gnotobiotic rats & mice are used
to study carcinogenesis, immunology, toxicology, nutrition etc.

• Germ free animals: (Specific Pathogen Free Animals)

An animal which is made free from specific or particular microbe is known as SPF animals. An
animal which don’t have any demonstrable microbe is known as germ free animal. This can be
achieved by killing the mother with cervical dislocation and removing the fetus by hysterectomy
without any anaesthetic in an isolator. Young ones must be reared in an isolator in germ free
environment. The feed and water also must be provided after sterilization.

These animals are useful;

to study role of microbes in nutrition.

to study physiology without infection.

to conduct biological, toxicological & microbiological assays.

Research animals are animals that humans use solely for scientific and product testing. They
are used in medical and veterinary investigations and training; in the testing of drugs, cosmetics, and
other consumer products; and in educational programs. The Scientific American estimates that as
many as one hundred million animals per year (mostly mice and rats) may be used in research,
testing, and medical and veterinary training programs in the United States. Millions more research
animals are kept as classroom pets or teaching aids to educate children in schools.

The Gallup Organization includes a question about laboratory animals in the morality poll it
conducts each year. The poll conducted in May 2006 showed that 61% of Americans surveyed find
"medical testing on animals" to be morally acceptable, whereas 32% find it morally wrong. Another
5% said the morality depends on the situation, and 2% had no opinion. These numbers were virtually
unchanged from those obtained in annual polls conducted since 2001.

The USDA’s 2017 annual report on animal use at research facilities shows a decrease in the
number of animals used in U.S. laboratories. The report revealed that a total of 932,954 animals
covered by the Animal Welfare Act (AWA) were held and used in labs last year, compared to

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958,256 last year, a decrease of less than three percent. Nearly 40% of AWA regulated animals used
in research experienced pain and distress. Twenty-two percent of all regulated animals used in labs
are guinea pigs, by far the most used animal in research and testing, followed by rabbits (17%) and
hamsters (11%). Since 2016, the numbers of dogs in labs increased 12%, rabbits over 16%, and sheep
19%. Additionally, nearly 20% of all animals held in labs fall into either the “all other covered
species” category, like gerbils, bats, ferrets, and chinchillas or the “Other Farm Animals,” like goats
and horses. It is important to note that only animals covered by the AWA are included in this report.
Since fish and rats, mice, and birds, bred for research, do not fall under the umbrella of the AWA,
labs are not required to count them. AAVS estimates that more than 93% of animals used in U.S. labs
are excluded from the AWA. Unlike the U.S., the European Union and Canada provide regulatory
and legal protection for these animals.

PARASITIC PROTOZOAN
Parasite:
A parasite is an organism that lives at the expense of another organism the host. Parasites
generally do not kill the host but may harm the host indirectly by spreading pathogens. This may
affect the host's behaviour, metabolism or its reproductive activity.

Protozoan:
The name ‘proto-zoa’ literally means ‘first animals’ and early classification systems grouped the
protozoa as basal members of the animal kingdom. However, they were recognized as a discrete
assemblage on the basis of their unicellularlity and were assigned to the taxon Protozoa. Protozoa are
usually single-celled and heterotrophic (using organic carbon as a source of energy), typically
microscopic which exist as structurally and functionally individual organisms. All protozoans are
unicellular eukaryotes and therefore possess a “true,” or membrane-bound, nucleus.Protozoa are
diverse and the only feature common to all protozoans is that they are unicellular eukaryotes.

Fig.Protozoa

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Parasitic Protozoan:
Parasitic protozoa are single-celled heterotrophic organisms that have the ability to invade the
tissues and cells of humans and other animals.They can cause a range of medical outcomes, from
non-threatening to serious disease.

Fig.Parasitic Protozoans

History:
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe protozoa (Vorticella convellaria)
under a microscope which he made..He called them animalcules . Between 1674 and
1716,he described, in addition to free-living protozoa, several parasitic species from animals, and
Giardia lamblia from his own stools.He is known as the “Father of Microscopy” and “Father of
Microbiology”. Gold fuss coined the term Protozoa in 1818 which in Greek means first
animals(Proto=first, zoans=animals). Hyman and other zoologists preferred to call them
as acellular animals.

Total count of Protozoans :

There are 65000 described species of protozoans. Approximately 10,000 of the described
living species of protozoans are parasitic in vertebrate and invertebrate hosts.Parasitic protozoa infect
most vertebrate and invertebrate species and have developed the capacity to live in the host and
infect them.This range from forms that are never pathogenic to those that cause some major
diseasesof tropical countries such as malaria,sleeping sickness,chagas disease and leishmaniasis
which together threaten over one-quarter of the world’s population.

About 21000 are free living in aquatic and terrestrial habitat.There are approximately 6,900
flagellate species(1800 parasitic,5100 free living),11,550 amoebae species(250 parasitic,1130 free
living),7,200 ciliate species(2,500 parasitic,4700 free living and 5,600 sporozoan species(all
parasitic).There are undoubtedly thousands more still unnamed.

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General Characteristics:
Following are the general characteristics of parasitic protozoans:

Grade of Organization:
The grade of organization is protoplasmic.Single cell performs all the vital activities thus the single
cell acts like a whole body.

Body Structure:
They are unicellular having a eukaryotic cell.The metabolic functions are performed by some
specialized internal structures.

▪ They mostly have a membrane-bound nucleus in the cell.Some have micr and macro nucleus.
▪ The nucleus has diffused appearance due to scattered chromatin,the vescular nucleus contains
a central body called endosome.Endosome of apicomplexans have DNA,whereas amoeboids
lack DNA in their endosome.
▪ Ciliates have micronucleus and macronucleus.
▪ The plasma membrane encloses the cytoplasm and other locomotory projections like
flagella,pseudopodia and cilia.
▪ Contractile vacuole is present for osmoregulation.
▪ Food vacuoles are present.
▪ Some of the genera have a membranous envelope called a pellicle which gives a definite
shape to the cell.In some of the protozoans,epibiotic bacteria attach to the pellicle by their
fimbrie.
▪ The cytoplasm is differentiated into outer ectoplasm and inner endoplasm,ectoplasm is
transparent and endoplasm contains cell organelles.

Fig.Body Structure

Size and Shape:

The size and shape of parasitic protozoa vary greatly from microbial(1 micrometre) to large
enough and can be seen by naked eye.They lack a rigid cell wall so they are flexible and found in
various shapes like spherical,oval or flattened.

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Habitat:
Protozoa are found in the aquatic environment.They live in freshwater or oceans and usually
moist damp places.Some are free living or parasitic in plants and animals.Mostly they are aerobic but
some are anaerobic and present in the rumen or human intestine.

Some of the species are found in extreme environmentslike hot springs.Some of them form resting
cyst to overcome dry emvironments.

Locomotion:
Most of the parasitic protozoans have flagella,cilia or pseudopodia.Sporozoa which do not have
any locomotory structure,have subpellicular microtubules,which help in the small movement.Bpdy
symmetry is symmetrical,radial or bilateral.

Fig.Locomotion
Nutrition:
All protozoans are heterotrophic.Nutrition is holozoic,saprozoic or parasitic.They ingest their food
by phagocytosis.Some of protozoan groups have a specialized structure called cytostome for
phagocytosis.The ingested food comes to the food vacuole and gets acted on by lysosomal
enzymes.The digested food gets distributed throughout the cell.

Respiration:
Exchange of respiratory gases takes place by diffusion through the general body surface.Respiration
in parasitic protozoans is anaerobic.

Excretion:
Excretion occurs by diffusion across general body surface or by contractile vacuoles.Contractile
vacuoles serve mainly for osmoregulation and are common in freshwater forms.

Reproduction:
Parasitic protozoa reproduce sexually and asexually.In asexual reproduction,they multiply by
binary fission,longitudinal fission,transverse fission,plasmotomy or budding.Fission involving
nuclear division and replication of organelles yields two organisma similar in size.Budding produces
two organisms.In plasmotomy,a multinucleate organism divides into several daughter cells,with each
containing a number of nuclei.

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Fig.Asexual Reproduction
In sexual reproduction,they reproduce by conjugation and syngamy.Syngamy involves fusion of
two gametes,which may be morphologically similar isogamy or different anisogamy.Autogamy is
observed in certain ciliates and parasitic flagellates.

Fig .Sexual Reproduction

Transmission:
There are several ways of transmission of parasitic protozoan.

Life Cycle:
The life cycle of parasitic protozoans is complex because it alternates between dormant cyst stage
and proliferating vegetative stage such as trophozoites.
▪ Cyst Stage:
.The cyst stage can survive harsh conditions without water and nutrients.It can remain outside the
host for a longer duration and get transmitted.

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▪ Trophozoite Stage:
The trophozoite stage is infectious and they feed and multiply during this stage.

Hosts of Parasitic Protozoan:

Parasitic protozoans need two hosts in their life cycle.These two hosts included in the life cycle of
parasitic protozoans belong to different animal groups.The two hosts are designated as:

▪ Definitive Host:
Definitive host is the primary host.The definitive host is the one which harbors the adult parasite
and where the parasite reproduces sexually.

▪ Intermediate Host:
The other host is called intermediate host. The intermediate host is the host which harbors the
larval stage or the asexual forms of the parasite. Insects such as mosquitoes, ticks, and sandflies
animals; and fish are usually the intermediate hosts of parasitic protozoans that cause human diseases.

Fig.Definitive and intermediate host

Transmission:
There are several ways of transmission of parasitic protozoans.

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1. Direct Transmission:
Direct transmission of trophozoites is through intimate body contact,sexual transmission such as
trichomonas species flagellates causing trichomoniasis in humans and bovine infertility in cattle.

2. Faecal-oral Transmission:
Environmentally resistant cyst stages passed in faeces of one host and ingested with food/water
by another host such as Entamoeba histolytica,giardia duodenalis and balantidium coli.All form
faecal cysts which are ingested by new hosts leading to amoebic dysentry,giardiasis and
balantidiasis.

Fig.Faecal-oral Transmission

3. Vector-borne Transmission:
Transmission of trophozoites is taken up by blood-sucking arthropods or insects and passed to new hosts

when they next feed such as Trypanosoma bruceiflagellates is transmitted by tsetse flies to humans where

they cause sleeping sickness.Plasmodium species are transmitted by mosquitoes to humans where they

cause malaria.
4. Predator-Prey Transmission:
Transmission of zoites encysted within the tissues of a prey animal such as herbivore being eaten by a

predator carnivore which subsequently shed spores into the environment to be ingested by new prey

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animalsFor example:tissue cysts of the sporozoan Toxoplasma gondii being ingested by cats and tissue

cysts of the microsporanThelohania species being ingested by crustaceans.

Fig. Life Cycle of Toxoplasma Gondii

Somatoplasm and germplasm are not differntiated.Hence parasitic protozoans are immortal except
from natural death.

Classification:
Classification of protozoa is done on the basis of mode of locomotion.

Fig.Classification of Protozoa

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Sarcomastigophora:
Sarcomastigophora is a phylum of the kingdom Protista that consists of a wide variety
of unicellular and colonial organisms. Members of this group move by means of one or more flagella
or pseudopods. However, some species have been shown to alternate between amoeboid and
flagellate stages during the different stages of their life cycle.A majority of species in this group are
free-living and can be found in aquatic environments across the world. Some also exist as parasites of
animals and humans and are capable of causingdiseases.

Some of the species that belong to the phylum Sarcomastigophora include:

❖ Gonyaulax catenella

❖ Noctiluca
❖ Globigerina
❖ Trypanosoma
❖ Entamoeba histolytica
❖ Euglena
❖ Babesia
❖ Trichomonas

Fig.General life cycle of Sarcomastigophora

Classes of Sarcomastigophora:
The phylum Sarcomastigophora is further divided into two classes that include:

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❖ Sarcodina

❖ Mastigophora

Sarcodina:
Also referred to as the “Amoebas”.Sarcodina consists of over 13,500 species that move and feed
by means of pseudopodia. For this reason, cytoplasmic streaming can be observed during locomotion
or when the organism is gathering food (or environmental matter like mineral particles).Members of
the species have an outer shell covering the cell body (e.g. in Rhizopods) others exist as naked
amoebae (e.g. Amoeba proteus).

Examples:
❖ Amoeba proteus

❖ Babesia

General Features:
• Naked amoebas have a contractile vacuole.
• Some of the species have an ectoplasm located beneath the plasma membrane and
surrounding the endoplasm.
• Pseudopodia vary in appearance such as cylindroid, hemispheroid or fan-shaped.
• Some species are flagellated at a given stage of their life cycle.
• Some species (e.g. some members of Entamoeba) are parasitic and can be found in the
digestive tract of human beings and other animals.Free-living species feed
on bacteria, protozoa, algae, and rotifers.

Reproduction:
• In Sarcodina, asexual reproduction through binary fission is the primary mode of
reproduction. For the most part, this has been shown to occur through simple binary fission
where the cell divides to produce two daughter cells.

• In this type of reproduction, the plane of division is not easily recognized. In some species,
reproduction is through multiple fission. Here, the nucleus undergoes repeated divisions
resulting in a multinucleate organism. The cytoplasm is then cleaved with the parent body
ultimately breaking up to release more than two daughter cells.

• Sexual reproduction is not common for many of the species under the subphylum Sarcodina.
However, it has been shown to occur through a process known as conjugation in some
species. During conjugation, two mating types of the same species join temporarily and
exchange nuclear/genetic material.

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Mastigophora:
The word "Mastix" is derived from a Greek word meaning whip-like.Currently 4000 species of
mastigophora have been identified.Members of the subphylum Mastigophora (particularly the
trophozoite forms) are characterized by the presence of flagella and are therefore also referred to as
“Flagellates.Some of the species like “Noctiluca” are significantly large growing up to 1500 um in
length (1.5 mm) while others like “Monads” only grow to about 3um in length. General morphology
varies from spherical to cylindrical depending on the organism.

Many of the species have a single flagellum, some species may have several flagella used for
locomotion.For members of this subphylum, the flagellum is particularly useful given that it allows
them to move around more efficiently in their environment and invade new areas thus reducing
competition within a given territory.

The majority of the species of mastigophora are parasitic in nature.Such as:

❖ Giardia lamblia
❖ Trichomonas vaginalis
❖ Leishmania
❖ Trypanosoma

Fig .Examples of Mastigophora

General Features:
Some of the general features of this class include:

• Cell body is covered by a thin layer of cuticle/pellicle.

• Shape is spherical to ovoid.
• Measures 1.5 micrometre in length and 1.2 micrometre in width.The vertebrate host and
invertebrate host.Promastigotes and amastigotes.
• Nutrition may be holophytic, saprozoic or holozoic.
• Majority of species have a single nucleus with only a few being multinucleated.
• Have a contractile vacuole.

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 Economic Zoology

• Some species can form pseudopodia at a given stage of their life.

• They need two hosts the definitive host and intermediate host for their life cycle.
• They cause diseases in animals and in humans.Such as Leishmania causes Leishmaniasis
disease in humans.
Reproduction:
Reproduction is asexual by means of longitudinal binary fission.While studies have shown that
leishmania which causes leishmaniasis has sexual reproduction.

Sporozoa:

Also referred to as “Apicomplexa” gathers several species of obligate intracellular

protozoan parasites classified as Sporozoa or Sporozoans, because they form reproductive cells
known as spores. Many sporozoans are parasitic and pathogenic species, such as

❖ Plasmodium (P. falciparum, P. malariae, P. vivax)

❖ Toxoplasma gondii
❖ Pneumocysts carinii
❖ Coccidian
❖ Babesia
❖ Cryptosporidum (C. parvum, C. muris)
❖ Gregarian

Currently, the group is suggested to contain over 65,000 species with varying morphological
characteristics. Given that they are strictly parasitic, members of the subphylum are responsible for a
variety of diseases in human beings e.g. Malaria, Babesiosis, and Cyclosporiasis.
Plasmodium species are the causing agents of malaria in humans and animals and affects
approximately 300 million people around the world, with an estimative of one million new cases each
year.

Types of Sporozoan:
Sporozoans have also been grouped based on general spore-morphology.The four groups of Sporozoa
based on general spore morphology include:

• Apicomplexan:

Form unique oocysts that contain the sporozoites (infective forms of the parasites).

• Microsporan:
Form unicellular spores that contain coiled polar tubes.
• Haplosporidian:
Produce unicellular spores lacking polar filaments within the tissues of aquatic invertebrates.
• Paramyxean:
Characterized by spore-within-spore arrangements .

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 Economic Zoology

General Features:
• They all are exclusively parasitic.
• They depend on gliding, twisting, and bending to move.They do not have cilia or flagella for
locomotion.
• They are simple and do not have many of the organelles found in other eukaryotes.
• Sporozoa have been shown to have micropores.
• They need two hosts the vertebrate host and invertebrate host.
• Schizonts of Plasmodium and other parasites are capable of phagotrophy (engulf food particles
through phagocytic nutrition.
• Within the host cell, sources of nutrition for the organism include dissolved cytoplasm, dissolved
food material, and tissue fluids.

Reproduction:
Asexual reproduction occurs by multiple fission.Sexual reproduction also occurs. All members
are parasitic, parasitizing hosts throughout the animal kingdom. Some species can cause important
diseases.

Fig.Life Cycle of Sporozoans

Cnidospora:

A subphylum of protozoa which form complex spores containing threads (polar filaments) which
can be extruded, and function in attachment. They are parasites in a range of vertebrate and
invertebrate hosts.

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 Economic Zoology

Cnidosporidian Species:
The approximately 1,100 known species are characterized by walled spores with one to four
hollow polar filaments. The spore has a multicellular origin—i.e., the cells that produce the spore
capsule and the polar filaments before they degenerate may be considered somatic cells with specific
functions. Observations indicate that the polar filament is a hollow tube through which the
sporoplasm, the infective stage, travels from the spore to a tissue cell of the host where it grows into a
plasmodium (a mass of cytoplasm with many nuclei). They all are parasitic without any locomotory
structure. Zygote gives rise to one or more trophozoites without sporogony.

Parasitic Species:

Microsporidiosis is an emerging infectious disease caused by a eukaryote from phylum

Microsporidia. Microsporidians are capable of infecting both humans and animals depending on the
species . For human beings, the most affected population is the immunocompromised. Microsporida,
parasites of arthropods including insects (see microsporidian); and Myxosporida, fish parasites.

General characteristics:
• The animals belonging to this subphylum are parasitic.
• Special kind of locomotory organelles are absent in these animals.
• Nucleus is monomorphic
• Sexual reproduction is by syngamy.
• Spores are present with one or more polar filaments.
• Polar filaments are special and unique features of these animals.
• When these spores infect a host, the polar filament is discharged and it gets attached to the host tissue.

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 Economic Zoology

Classes:
The subphylum was divided Into two classes, the Myxosporidea (now classified as higher-animals,
i.e. Metazoa) and the Microsporidea (now classified as fungi).

Class 1: Myxosporidea
The spores of the animals of this class are large and develop from several nuclei. These are generally
extracellular parasites. The spores of this class have two polar filaments and have two to three valves
Ex: Myxobolus.

Fig.Myxosporidea

Class 2: Microsporidea The spores of the animals of this class are small and are developed
from only one nucleus. These spores have single valve. These are generally intracellular parasites.
Many of the animals of this class have a single polar filament. Ex: Nosema bombycis.

Fig.Microsporidea

Ciliophora:
The phylum Ciliophora consists of single-celled organisms within the subkingdom Protozoa that
move by means of cilia. Also known as ciliated protozoans.

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 Economic Zoology

Ciliophorans species:
Currently, there are over 7,500 described species within the group. However, it is suspected that
there are many others yet to be identified. Some of the species are free-living organisms found in
different habitats around the world while others exist as parasites of vertebrates, invertebrates, and
some are parasitic.

Free living species:

Ciliates feed on bacteria and are often an indicator of good-quality sludge and generally seen in
young to medium age sludge. They are important because they eat the bacteria in the sludge and help
to clarify the effluent.

Parasitic species:
Parasitic Ciliophora take benefit from their host and also cause harm and disease. In human
beings, the species Balantidium coli is an example of a parasitic ciliate that causes disease. Measuring
between 50 and 200 um in length, the organism can invade the colonic mucosa of the gastrointestinal
where it causes diarrhea and dysentery. Here, however, it’s worth noting that human beings are
accidental hosts of the ciliate (pigs are their primary hosts).In aquatic habitats, Trichodinidae among
other ciliates are parasites of fish.

Examples:
Some examples of the phylum Ciliophora include:

• Spirostomum ambiguum
• Strombidium lagenula
• Paramecium caudatum
• Paramecium aurelia
• Spirostomum minus

General Features:
Phylum Ciliophora species (ciliates) are single-celled organisms. They greatly vary in size and
shape depending on the species.

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 Economic Zoology

Structure:
Like many other protozoa, phylum Ciliophora species do not have a cell wall. However, they have
a flexible cell membrane that consists of amphipathic lipids. The membrane encloses a number of
organelles that include two nuclei. In addition to the cell membrane, ciliates also have a flexible
pellicle. It mainly consists of protein and other components and is located below the cell membrane.

Shape:
Some of the species have an ovoid to ellipsoid shape with rounded posterior and anterior ends.
Sonderia species are good examples of ciliates with this morphology. Some of the other distinct
shapes include kidney-shaped ciliates , loop-shaped ciliates, funnel and worm-shaped species and
pear-shaped species with one pointed end.

Cillia/Motility:
One of the defining characteristics of all phylum Ciliophora species is the fact that they all have
hair-like structures known as cilia. Here, however, it’s worth noting that cilia may be absent at certain
stages of the organism’s life cycle. Cilia are generally used for motility.

While many phylum Ciliophora species move by means of cilia, some are not highly mobile and
remain attached to various substrates. These ciliates are known as stalked ciliates and exist as
solitary or colonial organisms.

Fig.Paramecium

Basal bodies:
Like cilia, basal bodies are important microtubules found in phylum Ciliophora species. The
number of basal bodies varies between different species in the group. For instance, whereas an
average-sized Tetrahymena may have 900 basal bodies distributed at different parts of the cell body,
a large Paramecium cell could have as many as 5,000 basal bodies. In a Paramecium, the longest
basal bodies (about 600 nm in length) are located around the oral apparatus while the shorter ones
(about 330 nm) can be found at the posterior part of the organism.

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 Economic Zoology

Ingestion and digestion of food:

Some of the parts involved in the ingestion and digestion of food material include the oral groove,
buccal overture, the cytostome, and food vacuoles. Through the beating action of cilia, many phylum
Ciliophora species are able to move water over the surface of the cell which allows them to draw in
food particles.

Mode of Nutrition:
In marine and freshwater habitats, Ciliophora feed on bacteria, some algae, and smaller protists.
However, as part of the food chain, they are also a source of food for many other higher organisms in
their surroundings.

Habitat:
Different groups within the phylum Ciliophora have different lifestyles and can therefore be found
in different habitats. While the majority of species can be found in aquatic environments, some are
terrestrial and can be found in soil. Some species are parasitic while others form symbiotic
relationships with their hosts.

Reproduction:

Phylum Ciliophora reproduces sexually and asexually. Whereas asexual reproduction occurs through
binary fission, sexual reproduction involves conjugation between two individual cells.
Conjugation/mating allows for the exchange and fusion of haploid micronuclei to produce a zygote
nucleus. These cells then separate and divide to produce new daughter cells with genetic material
from the two parents.

Life cycle:

The macronuclei are destroyed during the sexual mode of reproduction. However, they are again
formed by micronuclei after new daughter cells are formed.

Some ciliates form cysts that allow them to survive harsh environmental conditions. For these cells,
the cyst becomes part of their life cycle.

Some of the species that form cysts are members of free-living Colpodida and parasitic Balantidium
(B. coli).

Class:

Phylum ciliophora has only one class that is ciliates.

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 Economic Zoology

Class 1: Ciliatea: The locomotory organelles of these animals are numerous hair-like cilia. One or
more contractile vacuoles are present in these forms. The nucleus is dimorphic including both macro
nucleus and micronucleus. Ex: Paramoecium, Vorticella, Balatidium.

Fig.Balantidium Coli

Diseases in Cattle:
The most important protozoan diseases are trypanosomiasis of cattle,horses,dogs and
cats,anaplasmosis and theileriosis of cattle and buffaloes,trichomonosis of cattle and coccidiosis of
cattle,goat,sheep and chicken.Coccidia and Cryptosporidium are parasitic protozoa that cause
infection in young animals particularly calves leading to scour which is frequently fatal if untreated.

HUMAN DISEASES
Protozoan parasites that are infectious to humans represent a significant threat to health and cause
more than a million deaths annually. They also threaten the lives of billions world-wide and are
associated with significant morbidity and large economic impacts. Three of the most important
human diseases caused by protozoan parasites have disability adjusted life years (DALY’s) in the
millions and have far reaching global distributions.

These are given below:

• Malaria
• African Trypanosomiasis
• Leishmaniasis
• Toxoplasmosis

Malaria
Malaria is caused by protozoa of the genus Plasmodium. Malaria is spread to humans by the bite of
female mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles. Plasmodium is a genus of parasitic protozoa that belongs
to the phylum Apicomplexa. There are more than 200 species of Plasmodium but only a few of them
are known to cause malaria in humans.

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 Economic Zoology

• Plasmodium falciparum
• Plasmodium vivax
• Plasmodium ovale
• Plasmodium malariae
• Plasmodium knowlesi

Plasmodium falciparum: This is the most deadly species of Plasmodium that causes malaria in
humans, responsible for the majority of malaria-related deaths worldwide. It is primarily found in
sub-Saharan Africa but can also be found in parts of South Asia and South America. P. falciparum is
transmitted by the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. Symptoms of infection include
fever, chills, headache, and flu-like symptoms. If left untreated, P. falciparum malaria can lead to
severe anemia, cerebral malaria, kidney failure, and even death.

Plasmodium vivax: This species is the most widespread of the malaria parasites and is found in
many parts of Asia, Latin America, and Africa. It is also transmitted by the bite of infected female
Anopheles mosquitoes. Symptoms of infection are similar to P. falciparum but can also include
relapses of the disease due to the parasite's ability to form dormant liver stages called hypnozoites. P.
vivax is less deadly than P. falciparum, but it can cause severe complications if left untreated.

Plasmodium ovale: This species is less common than P. falciparum and P. vivax and is primarily
found in West Africa. It is also transmitted by the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes.
Symptoms of infection are similar to other species of Plasmodium but can also include relapses due
to the formation of hypnozoites. P. ovale can cause severe anemia and other complications if left
untreated.

Plasmodium malariae: This species is less common than P. falciparum and P. vivax and is found in
many parts of the world, including Africa, Asia, and South America. It is also transmitted by the bite
of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. Symptoms of infection are usually mild and can include
fever, chills, and headache. P. malariae can cause chronic infection that can last for many years and
can lead to kidney failure in some cases.

Plasmodium knowlesi: This species is primarily found in macaques in Southeast Asia, but it can also
cause human malaria. It is transmitted by the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes.
Symptoms of infection are similar to other species of Plasmodium but can also include severe and
rapidly developing complications, such as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), kidney
failure, and severe anemia.

Definitive Host& Intermediate Host

Malaria is caused by the Plasmodium parasite and is transmitted to humans through the bites of
infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. The life cycle of the Plasmodium parasite involves two hosts:
the mosquito, which acts as the definitive host, and the human, who acts as the intermediate host. In

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 Economic Zoology

the mosquito, the Plasmodium parasite undergoes sexual reproduction and produces sporozoites,
which are injected into a human host when the mosquito bites. Once inside the human host, the
sporozoites travel to the liver, where they multiply and mature into merozoites. The merozoites then
enter the bloodstream, where they invade red blood cells and begin to replicate, causing the
symptoms of malaria. Therefore, the definitive host of malaria is the female Anopheles mosquito,
while the human is the intermediate host.

Effect of Plasmodium on Intermediate host

The effect of Plasmodium on the intermediate host (mosquito) of malaria can vary depending on the
species of Plasmodium and the mosquito species involved. In general, however, Plasmodium
infection can have several effects on the mosquito:

Reduced lifespan: Plasmodium infection can reduce the lifespan of the mosquito. This is thought to
be due to the energy expended by the mosquito in fighting off the infection.

Reduced fecundity: Plasmodium infection can also reduce the number of eggs laid by the mosquito.

Altered behavior: Plasmodium-infected mosquitoes may exhibit altered behavior, such as reduced
feeding or increased restlessness.

Increased susceptibility to other infections: Plasmodium-infected mosquitoes may be more

susceptible to other infections, which could further reduce their lifespan and fecundity.

Mortality rate of Malaria

The mortality rate of malaria has fluctuated over the years due to various factors such as changes in
treatment methods, availability of preventive measures, and changes in the prevalence of the disease
in different regions of the world. Here is a general overview of the mortality rate of malaria in the
different years:

In 2000, the estimated global mortality rate of malaria was around 839,000 deaths.

Over the following years, there was a significant decrease in malaria mortality rates due to increased
efforts in prevention and treatment. By 2015, the global malaria mortality rate had fallen to around
438,000 deaths.

However, there was a slight increase in the malaria mortality rate in the following years. In 2019, the
global malaria mortality rate was estimated to be around 409,000 deaths, which was an increase from
2018.

It is important to note that the malaria mortality rate varies greatly by region. Sub-Saharan Africa has
the highest burden of malaria, accounting for around 94% of all malaria cases and deaths globally. In
2019, the African region accounted for 384,000 malaria deaths, which was around 94% of global
malaria death.

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 Economic Zoology

Life Cycle of Malaria

The life cycle of malaria involves both a mosquito vector and a human host. There are several stages
in the life cycle of malaria:

Transmission: Malaria is transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected female Anopheles
mosquito.
Liver stage: Once the malaria
parasite (Plasmodium) enters the
human body, it travels to the liver
and begins to multiply. This stage
is called the liver stage and can
last from 7-10 days.
Blood stage: After leaving the
liver, the parasites enter the
bloodstream and infect red blood
cells. This stage is called the
blood stage and is responsible for
the symptoms of malaria. The
parasites multiply inside the red
blood cells and then rupture the
cells, releasing more parasites into the bloodstream.
Mosquito stage: When a mosquito feeds on an infected person, it ingests the malaria parasites along
with the blood. The parasites then develop inside the mosquito for about 10-14 days.
Sporogony: During the mosquito stage, the parasites undergo a process called sporogony, where they
multiply and differentiate into male and female gametocytes.
Fertilization: When the mosquito bites another person, the male and female gametocytes are ingested
along with the blood. Inside the mosquito's gut, the gametocytes undergo fertilization, forming a
zygote.
Ookinete stage: The zygote develops into an ookinete, which penetrates the gut wall of the mosquito
and forms an oocyst.
Sporozoite stage: Inside the oocyst, the parasite multiplies and develops into thousands of
sporozoites, which migrate to the mosquito's salivary glands.
Transmission: When the mosquito bites another person, it injects the sporozoites into the person's
bloodstream, continuing the cycle of infection.

The entire life cycle of malaria can take anywhere from 7-30 days, depending on the species of
Plasmodium and the environmental condition.

Symptoms of Malaria

Malaria is a parasitic disease that is transmitted through the bites of infected mosquitoes. The
symptoms of malaria typically appear between 7 and 30 days after infection and can include:
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 Economic Zoology

• Fever
• Chills
• Headache
• Nausea and vomiting
• Muscle and joint pain
• Fatigue and weakness
• Sweating
• Abdominal pain
• Cough
• Diarrhea
In severe cases, malaria can also cause complications such as anemia, respiratory distress, cerebral
malaria (a severe form of the disease that affects the brain), and organ failure.

Treatment of Malaria

The treatment of malaria depends on several factors, including the type and severity of the disease,
the age and health status of the patient, and the presence of any other medical conditions. The most
commonly used medications for treating malaria include:

• Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs)

• Chloroquine
• Quinine
• Primaquine
• Atovaquone
• Doxycycline, Monodox
Prevention of Malaria

The following are some ways to prevent malaria:

Use insect repellents: Use insect repellents containing DEET or picaridin on exposed skin and
clothing. These are effective in repelling mosquitoes that carry the malaria parasite.
Wear protective clothing: Wear long-sleeved shirts, long pants, and socks to protect yourself from
mosquito bites, especially at dusk and dawn when mosquitoes are most active. Use
mosquito nets: Use mosquito nets while sleeping, especially if you are traveling in a malaria-
endemic area. Make sure the net is properly treated with insecticide. Take
antimalarial medication: If you are traveling to an area with a high risk of malaria, your doctor may
prescribe antimalarial medication. Make sure to take the medication as directed and for the
recommended duration. Eliminate breeding
sites: Eliminate mosquito breeding sites by draining standing water and avoiding stagnant water
around your living area. Seek medical care: Seek
medical care immediately if you experience symptoms of malaria, such as fever, chills, and flu-like
symptoms. Early diagnosis and treatment can help prevent serious complications.
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 Economic Zoology

Economic Importance of Plasmodium:

Plasmodium is a genus of parasitic protozoans that causes malaria in humans and other animals.
Malaria is a significant global health problem, particularly in developing countries where it is a
leading cause of morbidity and mortality. The economic importance of Plasmodium can be
understood from several perspectives:

Healthcare Costs: Malaria imposes significant healthcare costs on affected populations. The costs of
diagnosing and treating the disease, including hospitalization, medication, and laboratory tests, can be
prohibitively expensive for low-income families and individuals.

Economic Losses: Malaria also has a significant impact on the economy, particularly in areas with
high rates of infection. The disease can lead to missed workdays, reduced productivity, and lower
educational attainment, all of which can contribute to lower economic growth and development.

Tourism Industry: Malaria is a significant barrier to the development of the tourism industry in
many countries. Tourists are less likely to visit areas with high rates of malaria infection, leading to
reduced revenue for the local economy.

Research and Development: The study of Plasmodium and the development of effective treatments
and vaccines is an area of significant research and development. This research has led to the
development of new drugs and treatments that have saved countless lives and improved health
outcomes for affected populations.

In summary, the economic impact of Plasmodium is significant, particularly in developing countries

where it is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality. Efforts to control and eradicate the disease can
have significant economic benefits, including improved healthcare outcomes, increased productivity,
and economic growth.

African Trypanosomiasis
African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness, is a parasitic disease that affects humans
and animals in sub-Saharan Africa. It is caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei, which
is transmitted by the tsetse fly. There are two types
of African trypanosomiasis: the first is caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, which is found
in Western and Central Africa and is responsible for over 95% of reported cases. The second is
caused by Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, which is found in Eastern and Southern Africa and
accounts for the remaining cases.

Definitive Host & Intermediate Host

The definitive host of sleeping sickness, also known as human African trypanosomiasis, is the tsetse
fly (genus Glossina). The tsetse fly becomes infected with the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei
when it feeds on the blood of an infected human or animal. The intermediate host of sleeping sickness

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 Economic Zoology

is typically a mammal, such as a wild animal or domestic livestock. The parasite can live and
multiply within the bloodstream of the intermediate host, and it may be transmitted to humans or
other animals through the bite of an infected tsetse fly. Some of the most common intermediate hosts
of sleeping sickness include cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, and antelopes.

Effect of Tsetse Fly on Intermediate Host

The intermediate host in the transmission of African trypanosomiasis is typically a wild or domestic
animal, such as cattle, goats, and pigs. Tsetse flies preferentially feed on these animals and can have a
significant impact on their health. When the tsetse fly bites an infected animal, it ingests the
trypanosome parasite and subsequently transmits it to another animal during subsequent feeding. The
trypanosome parasites can cause a range of symptoms in the intermediate host, including fever,
weakness, weight loss, and anemia. The severity of the disease can vary depending on the species of
trypanosome parasite involved and the susceptibility of the host.

In addition to the direct impact on the health of the intermediate host, the presence of tsetse flies can
also have economic consequences. Infected animals may suffer from reduced productivity, such as
decreased milk or meat production, and may require costly treatments. In some cases, entire herds of
animals may need to be culled to prevent the spread of the disease.

Overall, the presence of tsetse flies can have a significant impact on the health and productivity of
intermediate hosts, with consequences for both human and animal populations in affected regions.

Mortality rate of African Trypanosomiasis

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the number of reported cases of sleeping
sickness has been decreasing over the past decade, with just 977 cases reported in 2019. However, the
mortality rate of sleeping sickness can vary depending on the stage of the disease and the
effectiveness of treatment. In the early stage of the disease, the mortality rate is relatively low, at
around 5%. However, if the disease progresses to the late stage, when the parasite has entered the
central nervous system, the mortality rate can be as high as 50% if left untreated. Effective treatments
for sleeping sickness are available, and with early detection and treatment, the mortality rate can be
greatly reduced.

Life Cycle of African Trypanosomiasis

African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness, is a parasitic disease caused by the
protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei. The life cycle of the parasite involves two hosts: a
mammalian host (usually humans) and a tsetse fly. Here are the stages of the life cycle of African
trypanosomiasis:

• The tsetse fly becomes infected with Trypanosoma brucei when it feeds on the blood of an
infected mammalian host.
• The parasite multiplies and develops in the midgut of the tsetse fly.

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 Economic Zoology

• After a few weeks, the mature parasites migrate to the salivary glands of the tsetse fly.
• When the infected tsetse fly bites a mammalian host to feed on its blood, it injects the
parasites into the bloodstream of the host.
• Once inside the mammalian host, the parasites multiply and spread throughout the body.
• The parasites then invade the central nervous system, causing neurological symptoms and
sleep disturbances, which give the disease its name.
• Infected mammals, including humans, become a source of infection for other tsetse flies when
they are bitten.
• The tsetse fly becomes infected with the parasite again when it feeds on the blood of an
infected mammalian host, restarting the life cycle.
The life cycle of African trypanosomiasis is complex and involves two hosts, which makes
controlling the disease challenging. Treatment typically involves medications to kill the parasites, but
prevention through control of the tsetse fly population is also an important strategy.

Symptoms of African Trypanosomiasis

The symptoms of African trypanosomiasis are generally divided into two stages, which differ in
terms of the severity and progression of the disease:

Early or acute stage: This stage lasts for a few weeks or months and is characterized by the
following symptoms:

• Fever
• Headache
• Joint pain and muscle aches
• Itching or swelling at the site of the bite by the infected tsetse fly
• Enlargement of lymph nodes
• Fatigue
• Irritability
• Swollen eyelids
Late or chronic stage: If left untreated, the infection progresses to this stage, which can last for
several years and is characterized by more severe symptoms such as:

• Changes in behavior, personality, and sleep patterns

• Confusion and difficulty concentrating
• Slurred speech
• Seizures
• Weakness and paralysis
• Tremors and shaking
• Difficulty walking and coordinating movements
• Sensitivity to light and noise
• Coma

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 Economic Zoology

It's important to note that not everyone infected with Trypanosoma brucei will develop symptoms,
and the severity and progression of the disease can vary depending on a variety of factors such as the
strain of the parasite and the individual's immune system response.

Treatment of African Trypanosomiasis

The treatment of African trypanosomiasis depends on the stage of the disease and the species of the
parasite involved. There are two forms of the disease: the early stage (also known as the
hemolymphatic stage) and the late stage (also known as the meningoencephalitic stage). In the early
stage of the disease, the parasites are found in the blood and lymphatic system. The primary
treatment for this stage is pentamidine, which is administered intravenously. Other drugs that may be
used include suramin and eflornithine. In the late stage of the disease, the parasites have crossed the
blood-brain barrier and are found in the central nervous system. The primary treatment for this stage
is melarsoprol, which is administered intravenously. However, this drug has significant side effects
and can be fatal in some cases. An alternative treatment is eflornithine, which is administered
intravenously and is less toxic than melarsoprol.

It is important to note that early diagnosis and treatment are critical in the management of African
trypanosomiasis. If left untreated, the disease can be fatal.

Prevention of African Trypanosomiasis

Prevention of African trypanosomiasis involves several strategies, including:

Avoiding tsetse fly bites: To avoid being bitten by tsetse flies, people should wear protective
clothing, such as long-sleeved shirts and trousers, and use insect repellents on exposed skin. People
living in areas where the disease is prevalent should also sleep under insecticide-treated bed nets.

Controlling tsetse fly populations: Controlling tsetse fly populations can be done through various
methods, including the use of insecticide-treated targets, insecticide-treated cattle, and the use of
sterile insect techniques.

Screening of blood donors:

Screening of blood donors for
African trypanosomiasis can
help prevent transmission
through blood transfusions.

Early diagnosis and

treatment: Early diagnosis
and treatment of African
trypanosomiasis is important
to prevent the spread of the disease. Treatment typically involves the use of drugs such as
pentamidine, suramin, and melarsoprol.

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 Economic Zoology

Health education: Educating people in endemic areas about the disease and its transmission can help
prevent new infections. This can involve teaching people about the importance of avoiding tsetse fly
bites, and the early signs and symptoms of the disease.

Inspect vehicles before entering. The flies are attracted to the motion and dust from moving
vehicles.

Avoid bushes. The tsetse fly is less active during the hottest part of the day but will bite if disturbed.

Use insect repellent.

Economic Importance of Tsetse Fly

The tsetse fly is a significant economic concern in many African countries, particularly in sub-
Saharan Africa. The fly is the primary vector for trypanosomiasis, a disease that affects both humans
and livestock. Trypanosomiasis causes significant economic losses due to reduced agricultural
productivity, decreased milk and meat production, and loss of draft animals. In addition to the direct
economic impact of trypanosomiasis, the presence of tsetse flies can also limit economic
development by reducing the feasibility of livestock-based agriculture in affected areas. This can
result in lower income levels and limited access to food and other resources, particularly for rural
communities.

Efforts to control tsetse fly populations are ongoing in many parts of Africa, with strategies ranging
from the use of insecticides to the deployment of sterile male release techniques. These efforts aim to
reduce the economic burden of trypanosomiasis and facilitate economic development in affected
areas.

Leshmaniasis
Leishmaniasis is a disease caused by an intracellular protozoan parasite (genus Leishmania)
transmitted by the bite of a female sandflies mainly of genera Phlebotomus and Lutzomyia.

Organisms affected:

Leishmaniasis most often affects people living in rural areas of tropical regions or areas with
inadequate sanitation. People with HIV and other conditions that weaken their immune system are
more likely to get sick from a Leishmania infection. Dogs (especially foxhounds in the eastern part of
the United States), coyotes, foxes, and rodents can be affected and harbor the parasite. Cats and
horses can occasionally become infected.

Occurrence and Mortality rate:

Leishmania exists in over 90 countries around the world. Different types of leishmania are found in
different parts of the world. Experts use the terms “Old World leishmaniasis” and “New World
leishmaniasis” depending on where it’s found. It is endemic in Asia, Africa, the Americas, and the

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Mediterranean region. Worldwide, 1.5 to 2 million new cases occur each year, 350 million are at risk
of acquiring the disease, and leishmaniasis causes 70,000 deaths per year.

Forms of Leishmaniasis:

1. Visceral Leishmaniasis
It is also known as kala-azar, is fatal if left untreated in over 95% of cases. It is characterized by
irregular bouts of fever, weight loss, enlargement of the spleen and liver, and anaemia.
It is caused by L.infantum and L.donovani.
2. Cutaneous Leshmaniasis
It is the most common form and causes skin lesions, mainly ulcers, on exposed parts of the body.
It is caused by over 15 different species of leshmania.

3. Mucocutaneous Leshmaniasis
It leads to partial or total destruction of mucous membranes of the nose, mouth and throat. It is
caused by 20 species of leshmania. These are primarily ulcers in their mouth and nose or on their
lips. Other symptoms may include:
• Runny or stuffy nose
• Nosebleeds
• Difficulty breathing
Life cycle:

1. The sand flies inject the

infective stage (i.e.,
promastigotes) from their
proboscis during blood
meals.
2. Promastigotes that reach the
puncture wound are
phagocytized by
macrophages and other types
of mononuclear phagocytic
cells.
3. Promastigotes transform in
these cells into the tissue
stage of the parasite (i.e.,
amastigotes) which multiply
by simple division and
proceed to infect other
mononuclear phagocytic
cells.
4. Sand flies become infected
by ingesting infected cells

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during blood meals.

5. In sand flies, amastigotes transform into promastigotes, develop in the gut.
Treatment:

Antiparasitic drugs, such as amphotericin B, treat this condition. Your doctor may recommend other
treatments based on the type of leishmaniasis you have.

1. Cutaneous leishmaniasis
Cutaneous ulcers will often heal without treatment. However, treatment can speed healing, reduce
scarring, and decrease risk of further disease. Any skin ulcers that cause disfigurement may require
plastic surgery.

2. Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis
These lesions don’t heal naturally. They always require treatment. Liposomal amphotericin B and
paromomycin can treat mucocutaneous leishmaniasis.

3. Visceral leishmaniasis
Visceral disease always requires treatment. Several medications are available. Commonly used
medicines include sodium stibogluconate ,amphotericin B, paromomycin, and miltefosine.

Prevention:

Follow these steps to help prevent being bitten by a sand fly:

• Wear clothing that covers as much skin as possible. Long pants, long-sleeved shirts tucked into
pants, and high socks are recommended.
• Use insect repellent on any exposed skin and on the ends of your pants and sleeves. The most
effective insect repellants contain DEET.
• Spray indoor sleeping areas with insecticide.
• Sleep on the higher floors of a building. The insects are poor fliers.
• Avoid the outdoors between dusk and dawn. This is when sand flies are most active.
• Use screens and air conditioning indoors when possible. Using fans might make it more difficult
for the insects to fly.
• Use a bed net tucked into your mattress. Sand flies are much smaller than mosquitos, so you need
a tightly woven net. Spray the net with insecticide containing pyrethroid if possible.

Economic importance:
Leishmaniasis is a poverty-related disease that causes a significant socioeconomic burden to
affected households. Visceral leishmaniasis is fatal if untreated, yet illness costs may lead to
delays in accessing care. Skin manifestations of leishmaniasis cause a psychological burden and
even longer treatment trajectories. Compared with other diseases, treatment of leishmaniasis is
very expensive ranging from 30 to 1,500 U.S. dollars (USD) for the drugs alone, and this is
considered a major contributor to poverty of affected individuals.
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Toxoplasmosis
Toxoplasmosis is caused by infection with the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular
parasite.

Organisms affected:

The infection produces a wide range of clinical syndromes in humans, land and sea mammals, and
various bird species.

Occurrence and Mortality rate:

T.gondii has been recovered from locations throughout the world, except Antarctica. Toxoplasmosis
is usually more prevalent, especially in moist, warm and low altitude regions. This fact is associated
with longer viability of T. gondii sporulated oocysts in a warm and humid areas. Approximately
200,000 cases of congenital toxoplasmosis occur a year. Approximately one-third of humanity is
infected with T. gondii worldwide although this varies markedly between populations.

Life Cycle:

The only known definitive hosts for Toxoplasma gondii are members of family Felidae (domestic
cats and their relatives).

1. Eggs are passed in cat stool. Many eggs are passed but usually for only 1 to 2 weeks. After 1 to 5
days in the environment, eggs become able to cause infection.

2. Other animals (such as wild birds, rodents, deer, pigs, and sheep) may consume the eggs in
contaminated soil, water, plant material, or cat litter.

3. Shortly after the eggs are consumed, they release forms of the parasite that can move (called
tachyzoites).

4. Tachyzoites spread throughout the animal’s body and form cysts in nerve and muscle tissue.

5. Cats become infected after eating animals that contain these cysts.

6. People can become infected by eating undercooked meat containing these cysts.

7. People can also become infected if they eat food, water, or other materials (such as soil)
contaminated with cat stool or when they touch a pet cat’s litter and then touch their mouth.

8. Rarely, people are infected when they have a blood transfusion or organ transplant that contains the
parasite.

9. Rarely, the infection is spread from mother to fetus.

10. In people, parasites form cysts in tissues, usually in muscle and the heart, brain, and eyes.

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Women who were infected before pregnancy typically do not pass the parasite on to their fetus unless
their immune system has been weakened (for example, by HIV infection), reactivating the infection.
Infection in the fetus is more severe if the fetus is infected earlier in pregnancy.

At birth, newborns usually do not have symptoms, but they may have a number of problems
including; Small head (microcephaly), Brain inflammation, Jaundice (a yellow color of the skin or
eyes), Enlarged liver and spleen, Inflammation of the heart, lungs, or eyes, rash.

Treatment:

Most healthy people recover from toxoplasmosis without treatment. Persons who are ill can be
treated with a combination of drugs such as pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine, plus folinic acid.

Prevention:

To reduce risk of toxoplasmosis from the environment:

• Avoid drinking untreated water.

• Wear gloves when gardening and during any contact with soil or sand because it might be
contaminated with cat feces that contain Toxoplasma. Wash hands with soap and water after
gardening or contact with soil or sand.
• Teach children the importance of washing hands to prevent infection.
• Keep outdoor sandboxes covered.
• Do not eat undercooked meat. Before cooking wash the meat properly.

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Effect on Intermediate hosts:

Sheep and goats are highly susceptible for infections with T. gondii and this protozoan parasite is
considered a major cause of reproductive losses in small ruminants worldwide. Toxoplasmosis has a
similar or even greater importance as an abortive disease in goats. In addition, toxoplasmosis is a
relevant zoonosis and infection in small ruminants may play a major role in its transmission to
humans. Toxoplasma gondii is one of many parasites that manipulate the phenotype, in particular the
behaviour, of their hosts to increase the chance of their transmission from intermediate to definitive
host by predation. However, T. gondii is a very common parasite that frequently infects even humans
in both developing and developed countries. It has spectacular effects on the behaviour of mice and
rats; in particular it is able to convert the innate fear that rodents have of cat odours into an attraction
to them. Probably the most interesting recent findings in Toxoplasma research is the discovery of two
genes for tyrosine hydroxylases in the T. gondii genome. These enzymes catalyse the rate-limiting
step in the synthesis of dopamine in the brain tissue and their expression in T. gondii tissue cysts in
the host’s brain can explain a variety of psychological and psychiatric symptoms observed in subjects
with acute or latent toxoplasmosis as well as many ethological changes in infected animals.
Disturbance in the concentration centration of dopamine in certain parts of the brain is considered to
play an important role in the development of schizophrenia and that an increased dopamine
concentration influences the ability to recognize novelty in mammals, including humans.

Economic Importance:

Chickens are considered one of the most important hosts in the epidemiology of T. gondii infection
because their infected tissues are an efficient source of infection for cats that excrete the
environmentally resistant oocysts. Moreover, T. gondii infection in chickens are potential public
health risks especially in free-range chickens (FR) as FR chickens are one of the best indicators
for soil contamination with T. gondii oocysts because they feed from the ground. However mostly
T. gondii infection in poultry is asymptomatic. The clinical signs of toxoplasmosis in poultry
include anorexia, emaciation, reduce eggs production, ataxia and even mortality rate may be as
high 50% which is seldom observed. Goats are raised for meat, fiber, and milk and they are very
important for the economy of several countries, particularly in Asia and Africa. India and China have
the largest population of goats. . In Europe, most goats are of dairy breeds, and are stall fed, often on
commercial diet. In Africa goats are still pastoral. In India, goat is considered poor man’s cow and the
number per household is small, and most are stall fed.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF PROTOZOA:

Protozoa includes acellular microscopic animals which have occupied almost all possible
ecological habitats o the earth. For example, they live in water, in moist surface of soil, in air and
even as commensals and parasites in animals and pslants.
Some of them are beneficial because they are helpful in sanitation, provide food, make oceanic
ooze and help in the study of various biological phenomena, while any of them are harmful to man

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because they cause many serious diseases in man and other domestic animals such as cattle, poultry
and fishes.

Beneficial protozoa
Helpful In Sanitation:
There are some purifying bacteria found in polluted water, living on various waste organic
substances which they decompose. Numerous holozoic protozoa, however, feed on such bacteria,
thus helping purification of water. These protozoa play an important part in the sanitary betterment
and improvement of the modern civilized world in keeping water safe for drinking purpose.
Planktonic Protozoa As Food:
Protozoa floating in the plankton of the
sea form one of the first links in the
numerous and complicated food chains
that exist in the oceans of the world.
Clams and young fish feed extensively on
aquatic insect larvae, small crustaceans,
worms etc., all of which take protozoa as
food.
Thus, protozoa directly or indirectly
form the food of fish, clams and other animals, which in their turn are consumed by man. Diatoms
and dinoflagellates, forming a large part of plankton, are the world’s original synthesizers of organic
foodstuffs producing nearly 90% of all organic food. According to laboratory researches, they can
produce eighty times as much food as the most efficient protein producing crops now grown by man.
For example, a single acre of land can annually produce 40 tons of these microorganisms as
compared with half ton of soya-beans or two hundred fifty pods of beef. Naturally, this tremendous
food manufacturing potential of planktonic protozoa promises great possibilities fr the world’s future
food requirements.
Commensal Protozoa:
The commensal protozoans are those which live on or in the body of other animals and derive some
benefit from the relationship.
They may be of following two types:
1. Ectocommensal Protozoa:
The ectocommensal protozoa live on the surface of the body of host. Various ciliates and
suctorians lead an ectocommensal life on molluscs, arthropods, fishes, frogs, etc. The bodies of such
simply serve as substratum for these ectocommensals.
2. Endocommensal Protozoa
The endocommensal protozoana live inside the body of animals. For example, Trichomonas,
Giardia, etc.,( Mastigophora), Entamoeba coli (Rhizopoda), Nyctotherus, Balantidium and Opalina
(Ciliate), live as endocommensals within the alimentary canal of man, frogs, cockroaches and others.
They feed on bacteria and so have beneficial effect.
Symbiotic Protozoa:
Some protozoans are found in symbiotic relationship with other organisms. This association is
usually beneficial to both the individuals. The two partners become so dependent on each other that
one cannot get along without the other and their separation results in the death of both.

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Most outstanding examples of symbionts among the Protozoa are several intestinal flagellates
(Trichonympha, Colonympha etc.) of termites and wood roaches. According to Cleveland, these
flagellates are extremely vital for the very existence of their hosts. They digest cellulose converting it
into soluble glycogen substances for the use of the hosts.
Zoological Importance of Protozoa:
The protozoans have been found as an ideal group of animals for cytological, cytochemical,
physiological, biochemical, and genetical studies, because of small size, simple organization, quick
reproduction and easy availability.

Commercial Uses of Protozoan Skeletons:

The skeletons of dead foraminifera and radiolaria sink to the sea bottom and form the oceanic
ooze. They solidify and convert into rock. Such sort of strata of oceanic ooze is white chalk cliffs of
Dover and England, and stone between Paris, Cairo and North America.

A large number of Paris buildings are built of the limestone which is exclusively composed of the
shells of genus Hiliolina. Similarly pyramids of Egypt are constructed by limestone deposits of
Nummulite shells. Sometimes, the skeletal deposits are used as decorative agents and as abrasives.

Amoeba Enhancing The Agriculture Technique:

Amoeba maintains the normal flow of nutrients in the soil by feeding on the surpklus of bacteria
present in the soil and subsequently by digesting and excreting the bacterial wastes, so boosting the
various agricultural techniques.
In an ecosystem’s food chain, the amoeba is regarded as a key consumer. Instead of producing its
own food like plants do, this sort of organism buys it from other microbes or, in certain species,
through photosynthetic activity. Additionally, it is crucial to remember that all fod webs start at the
microscopic level, and amoebas are among the simplest living things tat are crucial in the beginning.
Bio-controls of Pest:
The protozoa subphyla sporozoan and onidospora contains numerous entomophilic protozoans and
most promising examples in biological insect pest control. They control harmful insects by persisting
in their bodies.

Harmful Protozoa
Almost all harmful protozoans are found as parasites in both plants and animals including man and
causes various fatal and dangerous diseases.

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Pathogenic Protozoa:
Some Protozoa cause diseases in man as well as animals and these are termed pathogenic Protozoa.
They occur in all classes of protozoa.

Pathogenic Sarcodines:
These are two common genera of parasitic amoebae, Entamoeba and Endamoeba, which live in the
intestine of man and of other animals. Only two species of Entamoeba are known to be seriously
pathogenic E. histolytica of man and other mammals and E. invadens of reptiles. E. histolytica is
responsible for amoebic dysentery or amoeliasis in man, which occurs in about 130% Indian
population.

Pathogenic Sporozoans:
The class Sporozoa is exclusively of parasitic forms. Though most of sporozoans are harmless, yet
some genera like Plasmodium, Eimeria, Isopora and Babesia include pathogenic species. Four species
of Plasmodium, namely P. vivax, P. malariae, P. ovale and P. falciparum cause malaria in man.
P.cynanomolgi in monkeys, by P. verghei in trees and rats and by P. gallinaceum in jungle fowl of
Asia.

Pathogenic species of Eimeria cause coccidiosis in chickens and rabbits. E. canis in dogs, E. felina in
cats, E. bovis in cattle and E. intricate in sheep and goats. Isospora, is intestinal parasites of man and
other animals. Species of Babesia are intra-erythrocytic parasites of various verebrates e.g. Babesia
bigemina of cattle causes the lethal haemoglobinuric fever, red water fever or Taxas fever. B. equi in
horses, B. rodhani in rodents, B. felis in cats, B. motasi in goats, cause malignantjaundice, anaemia
and fever in their specific hosts.

Pathogenic Ciliates:
Balantidium coli are the only important ciliate pathogenic parasite. It is found in the intestine of man
and often in frogs.

Pathogenic Flagellates:
Pathogenic parasitic flagellates include the genera Leishmania, Trypanosoma, Histomonas,
Trichomonas and Giardia. Three pathogenic species of Leishmania have been known to cause severe
disease in man, causing Kala-azar, and L. braziliensis causes infection of nasopharynx and skin
lesion.

These are transmitted by sandflies of the genus Phlebotomus. Another parasitic species of
Trypanosoma in mammals cause worst diseases i.e. fatal African sleeping sickness. T. Rhodesiense,
is other common pathogenic species. Of the parasitic species of Trichomonas, is the causative
organism of vaginal trichomoniasis or vaginitis in human females. T. foetus causes trichomoniasis of
cattle in U.S., and T. gallinae is pathogenic in doves, pigeons turkeys and chickens.
Destruction Of Wooden Articles:
Some flagellates like Trichonympha and Colonympha live in the gut of the termites and help in the
process of cellulose digestion. In the absence of these flagellates the termites will die or change their
diet. Thus such protozoa indirectly help in distraction of wooden articles and books.

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Reduction in Fertility Of Soil:

It has been observed that about 200-300 species of protozoa are present in soil. These protozoa feed
on nitrogen-fixing bacteria thus reduce the fertility of soil.

Water Pollution:
Whereas some protozoa are helpful in water sanitation, others become responsible for water
contamination or pollution. The protozoa of faecal origin belong to this latter category. Some free-
living protozoa (e.g. Uroglenopsis) also pollute water by producing aromatic and oily secretions with

objectionable odours, which render water unfit for human consumption.

Some bioluminescent dinoflagellates, such as Noctiluca Gymnodinium and Gonyaulax, living in sea,
sometimes multiply so extensively as to turn the water red with their bodies. The phenomenon is
known as blooming and is the cause of “red tides”, often experienced in the sea.

Outbreaks of this “red water” often give a foul and disagreeable odour to the ocean water. Large
concentrations of these flagellate protozoans may even lead to destruction of fish and poisoning of
edible mollusks, such as clams, oysters and mussels, etc., making them unfit for human consumption.

Figure: Red Tides

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All above facts reveal that the protozoans are economically significant as they are both useful and
harmful to human beings.

VECTORS OF HUMANS AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS

INTRODUCTION
Vector:

Vectors are living organisms that can transmit infectious pathogens between humans or from
animals to humans. Many of these vectors are bloodsucking insects, which ingest disease-producing
microorganisms during a blood meal from an infected host (human or animal) and later transmit it
into a new host, after the pathogen has replicated. Often, once a vector becomes infectious, they are
capable of transmitting the pathogen for the rest of their life during each subsequent bite/blood meal.

Examples: A classic example is the Anopheles mosquito which acts as a vector for the disease
malaria by transmitting the malarial parasite plasmodium to humans. In this case plasmodium is
harmless to the mosquito (its intermediate host) but causes the disease malaria in humans (its
definitive host).

Types of Vectors:

i. Biological Vector:

“A biological vector is an organism that transmits the causative agent or disease-causing organism
from the reservoir to the host.” Biological vectors are those carrier organisms (invertebrate animals)
in which the parasites (disease agents) increase their numbers by multiplication or transformation
inside the body of the carrier-organisms.

For Example: Female Anopheles mosquito is regarded as the biological vector ofPlasmodiumsp.
(malarial parasite).

ii. Mechanical Vector:

There are certain vectors where the parasites (germs) are attached to the outside of their body,
such as in legs and thus transmit the germs or parasites from one host to another without involving
any developmental stages of the parasites in their body. These types of vectors are known as
mechanical vectors and are found in housefly, cockroach etc. So they are known as mechanical
vectors.

Vector borne diseases:

Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding
arthropods such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue
fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
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1. Mosquitoes:
Mosquitoes are large arthropods group with 3,100 species occurring in the world. Only about
hundred of them are vector of human diseases.

Morphology of mosquitoes:

Like all true insects, mosquitoes have three major body parts: head, thorax and abdomen.

Head: Pair of large compound eyes, needle like structure called proboscis, antennae and palp (Organs
between the antennae that sense odour) are present on head region.

Thorax: Pair of wings, six legs (three pairs) and halter (small wing-like organ used for steering while
flying) are present on thorax region.

Abdomen: The abdomen is composed of ten body segments last two segments are modified into
genitalia where eggs are released from the female.

Mosquitoes can be divided into two subfamily groups:

1. Anopheline subfamily including the most important mosquito genera Anopheles.

2. Culicine subfamily including the most important genera Aedes, Culex, and Mansonia
Both male and female mosquitoes feed on sugary secretions such as nectar from plants. The female
mosquitoes require a blood meal to supply protein for their egg production and therefore uses their
knife-like mouthparts to extract blood from humans or animals. The female mosquito easily identifies
the host through odour, carbon dioxide, and heat from the humans or animals. It infect diseases due to
transmission of viruses and parasites. When a mosquito carrying viruses, parasites or worms which
causes diseases bites a person, it transmits them saliva into the skin of a person. It is believed that
mosquitos originated in South Africa 46 million years ago. The spread of mosquitoes gradually
continued to spread all over the world.

1. Anopheline mosquitoes:
Anopheline subfamily including the most important mosquito genera Anopheles. Of the
approximately 460 species of Anopheline mosquitoes known, over 100 can transmit the plasmodium
which cause malaria. Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium malariae species
that pose the greatest threat. These parasites infect not only humans but also other vertebrates, from
reptiles and birds to mammals. Some species of Anopheles can also act as the vectors of the filariasis
causing parasites, Wuchereria bancrofti. They are most active at dawn and dusk. They are also active
during the night.

History of Anopheles mosquito:

Anopheles is a genus of mosquito first described and named by J. W. Meigen in 1818.

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Morphology of Anopheles mosquito:

Anopheles mosquitoes can be distinguished from other mosquitoes by the palps (sensory organ near
the mouthpart), which are as long as the proboscis, and by the presence of discrete blocks of black
and white scales on the wings. Theses mosquitoes have an air float. These mosquitoes make a
peculiar sound.

Habitat and distribution:

The vector anopheles mosquito prefers clean, unpolluted water. Anopheles mosquitoes are found in
fresh- or salt-water marshes, mangrove swamps, rice fields, grass ditches, the edges of streams and
rivers, and small, temporary rain pools. Anopheles mosquitoes are found throughout the tropics and
sub-tropics. In Africa, a small number of highly dominant malaria vector species cover large areas.

2. Culicine subfamily mosquitoes:

The Culicine sub-family where the important genera Aedes, Culex and Mansonia belongs. Several
diseases are transmitted by the Aedes such as yellow fever, dengue, heart worm and chikungunya and
Japanese encephalitis, West Nile fever and St. Louis encephalitis, by Culex. All these mosquitoes are
involved in the transmission of filariasis.
i. Aedes Mosquitoes:
History:
The Aedes mosquito is a vector for transmitting arboviruses. Aedes mosquito bite vigorously and
fearlessly to many person that’s why it is also called tiger mosquito.Aedes aegypti described by
Linnaeus in 1762 and Aedes albopictus by Skuse in 1894.
Morphology of Aedes mosquitoes:
Adult Aedes mosquitoes are distinguished from other types of mosquitoes by their narrow and
typically black body, light and dark scales on the abdomen and thorax, and alternating light and
dark bands on the legs. Females are further distinguished by the shape of the abdomen, which
usually comes to a point at its tip, and by their maxillary palps are shorter than the proboscis.
These mosquitoes do not have air float. These mosquitoes make a less sound.
Habitat and Distribution:
Ae. aegypti (Linnaeus) is distributed in urban areas and usually breeds in indoor and outdoor
settings. They can lay eggs in any small, artificial, or natural container that holds water. Aedes
aegypti, originating from African forests, is currently found in most tropical and subtropical
regions worldwide. While Ae. albopictus originating from South Asia forest has invaded all the
five continents during the past 30–40 years.

ii. Culex Mosquitoes:

Culex, a large group of mosquitoes also known as common house mosquitoes. They are most
active at dawn and dusk. They are also active during the night.
History:

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 Economic Zoology

In 1823, the American entomologist Thomas Say described Culex (Latin for “gnat”)
quinquefasciatus, which he collected along the Mississippi River. Originally written as “C. 5-
fasciatus,” the name refers to 5 (“quinque”) black, broad, transverse bands (“fasciatus” or
“fasciae”) on the mosquito's dorsal abdomen.
Morphology of Culex mosquitoes:
Colour varies; mostly grey with white, silver, green or iridescent blue scales. They have a longer
siphon, which is lighter in colour. Their body also hairy compared to Aedes. Their wings do not
have black and white bands. Moreover, Culex mosquito does not make a sound when flying.
Habitat and distribution:
Culex mosquitoes distributed worldwide in tropical and temperate regions, apart from extreme
northern latitudes. They feed at night on humans and animals and are found in indoors and
outdoors. Several species of Culex mosquitoes breed in any dirty water in urban and rural areas
and some are in rice fields in Asia.
iii. Mansonia Mosquitoes:
27 species belong to the genus Mansonia. Mansoniaafricana and Mansoniauniformis are vectors
in the transmission of Wuchereria bancrofti and causing lymphatic filariasis. The biting activities
of these two species occurred in both the day and night- time.
Morphology of mosquitoes:
Mansonia adults are different from all other mosquitoes by the presence of their unique broad,
asymmetrical scales on the wings, which have mixed dark and pale. Mansonia mosquitoes are
big, black, or brown mosquitoes.
Habitat and distribution:
They breed in ponds and lakes containing certain aquatic plants. Most species are present in
tropical regions, few species are also found in northern regions.

Mosquitoes borne diseases:

Malaria:

Malaria is an acute febrile illness caused by Plasmodium parasites, which are spread to people
through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. Anopheles mosquitoes, which bite
mammalian hosts mainly between dusk and dawn. Plasmodium, which infects red blood cells in
mammals (including humans), birds, and reptiles, occurs worldwide, especially in tropical and
temperate zones. Alphonse Laveran, a French army doctor, described the malarial parasite and
proposed that it caused malaria in 1880. But the final piece of the puzzle was put into place by a
British physician, Sir Ronald Ross who was working in India in 1897 when he observed the
development of oocysts in mosquitoes that had been fed on infected individuals. Ross's description of
the complete life cycle of the malaria parasite won him the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1902.
People who get malaria are typically very sick with high fevers, shaking chills, and flu-like illness.
There is a vaccine for children which was developed and tested in Ghana, Kenya, and Malawi in a
pilot program. The RTS, S/AS01 vaccine is effective against Plasmodium falciparum malaria, which
causes severe disease in children.

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Dengue:

Dengue fever virus is a virus of the family Flaviviridae the family that also includes the West Nile,
yellow fever, and Zika viruses Dengue viruses are spread to people through the bite of an infected
Aedes species (Ae. aegypti or Ae. albopictus) mosquito. The symptoms of dengue is fever with
nausea, vomiting, rash, pains, bleeding from the nose or gums, vomiting blood, or blood in the stool,
feeling tired and restless. It does not spread directly from person to person. Pets and livestock cannot
transmit the dengue virus. The first confirmed documented outbreak of dengue was in 1779 across
Asia, North America, and Africa simultaneously. Dengue has become a global problem since the
Second World War and is common in more than 120 countries, mainly in Southeast Asia, South Asia,
and South America. The first confirmed outbreak of dengue fever in Pakistan was in 1994, but a
sudden rise in cases and the annual epidemic trend first occurred in Karachi in November 2005. In
2019, the FDA (Food and drug administration) approved a vaccine called Dengvaxia to help prevent
the disease. It is approved for children ages 9 - 16 who have previously had dengue and live in areas
where dengue is common. These mosquitoes live in tropical, subtropical, and in some temperate
climates.

Rift Valley fever:

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is an acute viral hemorrhagic fever that is most commonly seen in
domesticated animals (such as cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, and camels) and can also cause illness in
people. The disease is caused by RVF virus (RVFV), a member of the genus Phlebovirus in the
order Bunyavirales. Some related Bunyavirales viruses can also cause illness in people, such as
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) virus. RVF was first reported in livestock in Kenya’s
Rift Valley in the early 1910s. It is generally found in regions of Eastern and Southern Africa where
sheep and cattle are raised, but exists in most of Sub-Saharan Africa. The virus can be transmitted
from domestic animals to humans mainly through direct contact with blood, excreta, meat or
secretions of infected animals and consumption of raw milk. Although RVF often causes severe
illness in animals, most people with RVF have fever, weakness, back pain, and dizziness. However, a
small percentage (8-10%) of people with RVF develop much more severe symptoms, including eye
disease, hemorrhage (excessive bleeding), and encephalitis (swelling of the brain).

Lymphatic Filariasis:

Filariasis is a parasitic infection with a type of roundworm of the family Filariodidea. Under a
microscope, the filarial worms look like threads. The adult worms only live in the human lymph
system.Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi, Brugia timoriare three types of worms.An estimated
90% of LF cases are caused by W. bancrofti (Bancrofti filariasis). Lymphatic filariasis disease that is
thought to have existed as early as 1500B.C. in early Egyptian civilization. The connection between
microfilariae and lymphatic filariasis was made in the late 1860s, and the transmission method via the
mosquito vector was determined in 1900.Filariasis is most common in tropical climates. Countries in
Asia, Africa and South America have higher cases of filariasis infection. The condition is rare in
North America.Symptoms of this diseases are inflammation, swelling or fever. Filariasis can also lead

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to lymphedema (fluid retention) or hydrocele (swelling in the scrotum).There is no vaccine or cure

for filariasis. Medication can kill many of the worms and keep you from spreading the infection to
someone else. Treatment can also reduce filariasis symptoms.

Economic importance of mosquitoes:

Governments and organizations around the world spend billions of dollars on mosquito control
measure such as insecticides and bed nets. These measures can be expensive.

Due to malaria, there were an estimated 228 million cases in 2018 and 229 million cases in 2019
globally. In 2020, there were 241 million reported due to malaria. There were 247 million global
cases of malaria in 2021. Pakistan was currently facing the worst floods of its history in 2022. From
January through August 2022, more than 3.4 million suspected cases of malaria were reported in
Pakistan compared with the 2.6 million suspected cases reported in 2021.

Almost half of the world’s population, about 4 billion people, live in areas with a risk of dengue.
Each year, an estimated 390 million dengue infections occur around the world, resulting in up to
36,000 deaths. According to a WHO report 22,938 dengue fever cases were reported in Pakistan in
2017, more than 3,200 in 2018, 24,547 cases in 2019 and 3,442 cases in 2020. From 1 January to 25
November 2021, a total of 48,906 cases including 183 deaths. The year 2021 saw a rise in the cases,
particularly in Lahore and the twin cities (Rawalpindi and Islamabad). Due to flood dengue cases
increase in Pakistan.

In September 2000, an outbreak of RVF was reported in Saudi Arabia. It was then also found in
Yemen. These were the first cases of Rift Valley fever identified outside of Africa. There is no any
data available about RVR occurrence in Pakistan. The disease first came to global attention during an
outbreak in Egypt in 1977–78, involving at least 200,000 human infections. The most notable RVF
epizootic occurred in Kenya in 1950-1951, resulting in the death of an estimated 100,000 sheep. It
estimates that 120 million people are infected with this parasite and 1.3 billion are living at risk of
infection each year globally. Infection can cause severe disease in both animals and humans. The
disease also results in significant economic losses due to death and abortion among RVF-infected
livestock.

Due to Lymphatic filariasis, in 2020, 863 million people in 50 countries were living in areas that
require preventive chemotherapy to stop the spread of infection. The global baseline estimate of
people affected by lymphatic filariasis was 25 million men with hydrocele and over 15 million people
with lymphedema. At least 36 million people remain with these chronic disease manifestations.

Mosquito control method:

There are several ways dengue mosquitoes can be controlled or eliminated. These methods are:

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1. CHEMICAL CONTROL whereby chemical insecticides are used to kill the mosquitoes, such as
by fogging. Chemical insecticides can also be applied directly to mosquito breeding sites or resting
sites (indoor and outdoor spray) to kill the larvae and adults respectively.

2. SOURCE REDUCTION by removing containers, tires etc. in which water can collect and
mosquitoes can lay their eggs.

3. ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL to eliminate the breeding by altering the environment to make

it unfavorable for mosquitoes to breed. One noted example is sub-soil drainage, where drains are
buried to make them inaccessible to mosquitoes.

4. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL using parasites, predators, pathogens, and symbionts of mosquitoes.

The most successful biocontrol agents to date are fish and the bacteria known as Bacillus
thuringiensisisraelensis (Bti) and Bacillus sphaericus (Bs). Biological control has the advantages of
safety to the environment and other non-target organisms, and there is much less risk of mosquito
resistance developing.

5. PERSONAL PROTECTION whereby a person can be protected from mosquito bites using
repellent, mosquito coil, mat, or clothing.

2. Aquatic Snail:
Snails are found in the phylum Arthropoda and class Gastropoda. Around 80% of Mollusks are
Gastropods, and some 75% of Gastropods are aquatic, dwelling in fresh water and in oceans.

Morphology of aquatic snail:

Aquatic snail has two tentacles on its head that look like an insect’s antennae. Water snails has eyes
at the base. Water snails have shell to protect themselves from predators. The mouth is found at the
end of the proboscis and has a radula that can cut, tear, or scrape food. The operculum, found on the
foot, is a hard "trap door" which helps the snail to protect itself from predators and desiccation.

Habitat:
Snail is found in every continent excluding the Antarctic and in nearly all aquatic habitats, including
ponds, streams, lakes, and rivers. Many freshwater snails are amphibious, so they can also be found
in moist soil, or among plants found near bodies of water. North America has approximately 500
species of freshwater snails

Snail borne disease:

The Planorbidae is a freshwater snail family of the subclass Pulmonata. Planorbidae snails are the
intermediate host for the trematode parasite of the Schistosoma genus, which is responsible for
schistosomiasis also known bilharzia. The infectious form of the parasite, known as cercariae,
emerge from the snail into the water. You can become infected when your skin comes in contact with
contaminated freshwater. This is a disease of both humans and cattle. Most infections are caused by

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Schistosoma mansoni, S. haematobium, or S. japonicum. The German Parasitologist Theodor

Maximilian Bilharz and Carl Theodor Ernst first discovered a Schistosoma in 1851 during an autopsy
performed at Qasr-El-Ainy Hospital in Cairo. Bilharz at that time was the chief of the surgery at the
Qasr-el-Ainy Hospital and Schistosoma was firstly named Distomum haematobium. The name was
proposed by David Friedrich Weinland in 1858 because of the male worm morphology and was
adopted by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. Schistosomiasis is prevalent
in tropical and subtropical areas, especially in poor communities without access to safe drinking
water and adequate sanitation. Most people have no symptoms early on, but left untreated,
schistosomiasis can cause more serious health problems. Children who are repeatedly infected can
develop anemia, malnutrition, and learning difficulties. After years of infection, the parasite can also
damage the liver, intestine, spleen, lungs, and bladder.

Economic importance of snail:

Parasitic infections kill millions of livestock, which strongly affect rural development and poverty
alleviation in developing countries. A creature belonging to the “small but deadly” category is the
freshwater snail, which is responsible for more than 200,000 deaths a year. Due to aquatic snail,
in 2006 200 million people infected. In 2010, approximately 238 million people were infected with
schistosomiasis, 85 percent of whom live in Africa. Worldwide, the Global Burden of Disease Study
issued in 2010 estimated 12,000 direct deaths. In 2012, 249 million people were in need of treatment
to prevent the disease. WHO (World health organization) in 2014 estimated more than 200,000
annual deaths related to schistosomiasis. As of the latest WHO record, 236.6 million people were
infected in 2019. Estimates show that at least 251.4 million people required preventive treatment in
2021. In many of the affected areas, schistosomiasis infects a large proportion of children under 14
years of age. An estimated 600 to 700 million people worldwide are at risk from the disease because
they live in countries where the organism is common. S. haematobium, the infectious agent
responsible for schistosomiasis, infects over 112 million people annually in Africa alone. It is
responsible for 32 million cases of dysuria, 10 million cases of hydro nephrosis, and 150,000 deaths
from kidney failure annually, making S. haematobium the world's deadliest Schistosoma.
Schistosomiasis is also a disease of veterinary importance, the morbidity in livestock can be severe
and lead to loss of meat, milk and breeding opportunities.

Snail control method:

Eliminating the snails that are required to maintain the parasite’s life cycle. Avoid swimming in
freshwater when you are in countries in which snail diseases occurs. Swimming in the ocean and in
chlorinated swimming pools is safe. Drink safe water. Although snail borne disease is not transmitted
by swallowing contaminated water, if your mouth or lips come in contact with water containing the
parasites, you could become infected. Because water coming directly from canals, lakes, rivers,
streams, or springs may be contaminated with a variety of infectious organisms, you should either
bring your water to a rolling boil for 1 minute or filter water before drinking it. Iodine treatment alone
will not guarantee that water is safe and free of all parasites. Problem with control of snail is that the

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chemicals used to eliminate snails in freshwater sources may harm other species of animals in the
water and, if treatment is not sustained, the snails may return to those sites afterwards.

3. Flies
Sand fly:
Sand fly, any insect of the family Phlebotomidae (sometimes considered part of the family
Psychodidae) of the order Diptera.

Habitat:
The aquatic larvae live in the intertidal zone of coastal beaches, in mud, or in wet organic debris.
Sand flies breed in safe places which are rich in organic matter e.g. cracks, rodent burrows, animals.

Morphology of Sand flies:

Sand fly adults are small flies only about 3 mm long and are golden, brownish or gray colored. They
have long, piercing mouthparts that are well adapted for sucking blood from their selected host. Sand
flies hold their hairy-looking wings in a vertical V-shape when at rest. The six legs on the adults are
extremely long, being longer than the insect’s body.

Sand-fly borne disease:

Leishmaniasis

Leishmaniasis is caused by infection with Leishmaniasis parasites, which are spread by the bite of
infected sand flies. There are several different forms of Leishmaniasis in people. The most common
forms are cutaneous Leishmaniasis, which causes skin sores, and visceral Leishmaniasis, which affects
several internal organs (usually spleen, liver, and bone marrow). Symptoms include fever, weight
loss, enlargement (swelling) of the spleen and liver, and abnormal blood tests. People may have low
blood counts, including a low red blood cell count (anemia), a low white blood cell count
(leukopenia), and a low platelet count (thrombocytopenia). In 1903, William Leishman and Charles
Donovan discovered the pathogen independently from the autopsy material of two soldiers from
Calcutta and Madras, respectively. Sir Ronald Ross named the parasite as Leishmaniadonovani.The
settings in which Leishmaniasis is found range from rain forests in Central and South America to
deserts in West Asia. More than 90 percent of the world's cases of visceral Leishmaniasis are in
India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sudan, and Brazil.

Economic importance of sand-fly diseases:

There are no vaccinations to prevent Leishmaniasis. Since many people can get infected with
Leishmania without developing symptoms, it can be hard to know how common Leishmaniasis is.
Experts estimate that there are 1.5 million to 2 million people worldwide who develop symptoms
per year. Current estimates show an annual global incidence of 0.2–0.4 million cases of visceral

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Leishmaniasis (VL) and 0.7–1.2 million cases of cutaneous Leishmaniasis (CL). Compared with
other diseases, treatment of Leishmaniasis is very expensive ranging from 30 to 1,500 U.S. dollars
(USD) for the drugs alone, and this is considered a major contributor to poverty of affected
individuals. Over 90% of VL occurs in poor rural and suburban areas in six countries: Bangladesh,
Ethiopia, Brazil, India, Sudan, and South Sudan. Unlike VL, CL is more widespread and occurs in the
Americas, the Mediterranean, and western Asia. Globally, 70–75% of CL cases occur in 10 countries:
Afghanistan, Algeria, Brazil, Iran, Peru, Ethiopia, North Sudan, Costa Rica, Colombia, and Syria.

Black Flies:
Black flies are also called turkey gnats and buffalo gnats. Entomologists call them true flies (order
Diptera) in the family Simuliidae. There are more than 1,800 species in the family worldwide.

Morphology of Black flies:

Black flies are usually black or dark grey, with gauzy wings, stout antennae and legs, and rather short
mouthparts that are adapted for sucking blood. Only females bite and are sometimes so abundant that
they may kill chickens, birds, and other domestic animals.

Habitat and distribution:

Black flies are common in humid, wooded regions in summer months and can be found throughout
semitropical regions year round. Black flies are most active around sunset during June and July.
Black flies are found in many parts of the US and Canada,

Onchocerciasis:

Black flies are the vector for onchocerciasis. Onchocerciasis, or river blindness, is a neglected
tropical disease (NTD) caused by the parasitic worm Onchocerca volvulus. It is transmitted through
repeated bites by black flies. The disease is called river blindness because the black fly that
transmits the infection lives and breeds near fast-flowing streams and rivers, mostly near remote rural
villages. A physician from Guatemala, Dr. Rodolfo Robles (1878-1939), conducted studies on
patients with onchocerciasis, which led to the discovery in 1915 that the disease is caused by O.
volvulus. In honor of this important research contribution, onchocerciasis is also called 'Robles
Disease’. The infection can result in visual impairment and sometimes blindness. Onchocerciasis can
cause skin disease, including intense itching, rashes, or nodules under the
skin. Onchocerca infections are found in tropical climates.

Economic importance of Black flies:

Between 1974 and 2002, disease caused by onchocerciasis was brought under control in West Africa
through the work of the Onchocerciasis Control Programmer (OCP), using mainly the spraying of
insecticides against black fly larvae (vector control) by helicopters and airplanes. This was later

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supplemented by large-scale distribution of ivermectin - the drug since 1989. The OCP relieved 40
million people from infection, prevented blindness in 600 000 people, and ensured that 18 million
children were born free from the threat of the disease and blindness. On 5 April 2013, the Director-
General of WHO issued an official letter confirming that Colombia has achieved elimination of
onchocerciasis. Colombia was the first country in the world to be verified and declared free of
onchocerciasis by WHO. This has been followed by Ecuador in September 2014, Mexico in July
2015, and Guatemala in July 2016. However, infected individuals still require treatment with
ivermectin once yearly for 10 to 15 years. The Global Burden of Disease Study estimated that in
2017 there were at least 20.9 million people are infected worldwide, of which 14.6 million had skin
disease and 1.15 million had vision loss.

Tsetse fly:
The bloodsucking tsetse fly is about 6 to 15 millimeters long and its mouth points forward. It makes
its home in the tropics of Africa, and prefers shady places in wooded areas. It hides in tree trunk holes
and between tree roots. Tsetse fly causes Sleeping sickness (African trypanosomiasis).

Morphology of Tsetse Fly:

Tsetse flies usually range from 6 to 15 mm (0.2 to 0.6 inch) in length. Tsetse flies are rather drab in
appearance. Their color varies from yellowish brown to dark brown, and they have a grey thorax that
often has dark markings. The abdomen may be banded. While resting, the wings are held flat over the
back, folded one over the other. A bristle like appendage (arista) on each antenna bears one row of
long, branched hairs on its upper edge, differentiating the tsetse fly from all other flies.

Habitat and Distribution:

The tsetse flies live only in rural areas. Visitors to cities and other urban areas are usually not at risk.
The disease is found mainly in tropical Africa. The greatest risk of getting it is in Angola, Central
African Republic, Chad, Congo, Malawi, Tanzania, Sudan, Uganda and Zambia. Both species of
Trypanosoma are transmitted from human to human through the bite of the tsetse fly which is only
found in rural parts of Africa.

African trypanosomiasis:
African trypanosomiasis, also called sleepingsickness, is a disease caused by a parasite. It gets its
nickname ‘sleeping sickness’ because symptoms can include a disturbed sleep pattern. People can get
this parasite when an infected Tsetse fly bites them. Tsetse flies are found in sub-Saharan Africa.
Travelers spending a lot of time outdoors or visiting game parks in these areas can be bitten by tsetse
flies and get infected. They are named for the areas of Africa where they are found. West African
sleeping sickness is caused by the parasite Trypanosomabruceigambiense. This long-term (chronic)
infection can last for years. East African sleeping sickness is caused by
Trypanosomabruceirhodesiense. It’s a short-term (acute) illness that may last several weeks to
months.In 1734, the English naval surgeon John Aktins (1685–1757) published the first accurate
medical report on African sleeping sickness. Each person may have slightly different symptoms. But
symptoms tend to happen within 1 to 4 weeks of infection. At first, they may include fever, skin

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lesions, rash, swelling, or swollen lymph nodes on the back of the neck. There is no vaccine or drug
against African trypanosomiasis.

Economic impact of teste fly:

Only 8–10 species of tsetse fly are considered of economic (agricultural–veterinary) or human
sanitary importance.
Tsetse flies occur in 38 African countries infesting a total area of 10 million km2 in sub-Saharan
Africa. Sixty million people are continuously exposed to the risk of infection but only 3–4 million of
these people are covered by surveillance. Although the World Health Organization estimates the
disease prevalence at 300,000–500,000, this probably represents only 10–15% of the actual number
infected as screening is poor due to a decline in health service and surveillance coverage.
Many agricultural and veterinary experts consider AAT as the single greatest health constraint to
increased livestock production in sub-Sahara Africa. Direct annual production losses in cattle are
estimated at USD 600–1200 million. Estimates of the overall annual lost potential in livestock and
crop production have been as high as USD 4750 million. Moreover, tsetse prevents the integration of
crop farming and livestock keeping, which is crucial to the development of sustainable agricultural
systems. In sub-Saharan Africa, the availability of productive livestock would be required to
significantly improve agriculture and is considered a prerequisite to alleviate hunger, food insecurity
and poverty. The presence of tsetse and trypanosomosis can therefore rightfully be considered one of
the major root causes of hunger and poverty in sub-Sahara Africa. This is exemplified by the
remarkable correlation and overlap between the 38 tsetse-infested countries and the 34 heavily
indebted poor countries in Africa.
Current losses due to trypanosomiasis in cattle are about 4.5 billion dollars (U.S.) per year, with
about 3 million cattle deaths major epidemics of human trypanosomiasis continue to affect people
from Angola to Sudan.

Prevention and Control:

• Inspect incoming fruits and vegetables for signs of rot and small flies, and cover them upon
receipt.
• Store produce under refrigeration when possible, or in sealable plastic tubs.
• Rinse out empty bottles and cans, and clean garbage containers daily. Use plastic liners.
• Keep garbage areas clean and away from the building when possible; close receptacles with
tight-fitting covers.
• Keep the exterior dumpster pad free of spillage and debris.
• Repair areas damaged by water.
• Eliminate standing water, weeds, and tall grass near the facility.
• Clear clutter and items stored on the ground.

While the use of pesticides is usually not the best means of managing flies problems, sometimes
chemical control can be a valuable component of an integrated fly management program. Pesticide-

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releasing fly strips can be placed in attics and smaller, unoccupied enclosed rooms where filth flies
are a problem. Contact (non-residual) pesticides labeled for fly control can be applied as a space
treatment (“fogged”) to kill adult flies. This type of control provides only temporary relief, however,
and cannot be relied upon to eliminate the problem. Residual pesticides – those that remain active for
some time – can be applied to outdoor surfaces where flies rest, such as the outside surfaces of barns,
stables, restaurants and houses. Some pesticide bait formulations are also available for outdoor fly
control, including use around dumpsters.

4. Fleas :
Fleas (order Siphonaptera) are a type of wingless parasite found worldwide. They feed off the blood
of humans and animals such as dogs and cats. Since fleas use a wide range of hosts, diseases can be
transferred from one host to another. Over 2,500 species and subspecies of fleas exist worldwide.
Approximately 94% of all flea species are reported to feed on mammals. These insects are known to
vector the pathogens causing plague, murine typhus, and feline leukemia. The dog flea has been
reported on many mammalian hosts including dogs, cats, rabbits, rats, gray foxes, red foxes,
woodchucks, and humans.

Morphology of Fleas:
Size: Adult fleas typically are about 1/8 inch long, oval, and reddish-brown.
Body: They are wingless, and their bodies are very thin, so thin that they can move freely through fur
or feathers of their host. They possess very large hind legs that are used for jumping
Proboscis: A slender proboscis (beak) that extends forward when the flea takes a blood meal. At rest,
the proboscis projects downward and backwards between the legs, but it cannot be seen without the
aid of a microscope.
Head is small and the abdomen is large. Flea larvae look like tiny worms about 2–5 mm long, with a
whitish body and pale-colored hairs.

Common Types of Fleas:

Cat Flea

The cat flea (Ctenocephalidesfelis) is an extremely common parasitic insect whose principal host is
the domestic cat, although a high proportion of the fleas found on dogs also belong to this species. As
humans began domesticating cats, the prevalence of the cat flea increased and it spread throughout
the world.Cat fleas are capable of transmitting plague and murine typhus to humans, and cat scratch
Disease though such reports are rare. There are also varied allergic responses to their bites, depending
upon the sensitivity of the host. Cat fleas serve as the intermediate host to an intestinal parasite, the
dog tapeworm (Dipylidium caninum), which is transmitted to the pet when a flea carrying a tapeworm
cyst is ingested. Mostly, fleas simply act as a nuisance, since they feed on any warm-blooded animal.

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History of Cat Flea:

Galileo Galilei was the first to observe the flea with a microscope (1624), but the credit of depicting
it with a stunning drawing goes to the British Robert Hooke in 1665.

Morphology of Cat Flea:

They are about one to three mm in size, reddish-brown to black in color, wingless and are laterally
compressed. They possess powerful hind legs which allow for running and jumping through hair, fur,
and feathers. Adult cat fleas require fresh blood to produce eggs. This is the only stage in the cat flea
life cycle when the fleas live on the pet. Adults live four to 25 days.

Habitat and Distribution:

Flea live in high grass, sand, sheds and debris – places where they can find shade and humidity.
These areas, such as the grass underneath a shrub, provide the perfect conditions. Although it exists
worldwide, the cat flea is most commonly found in the United States, in and around homes with pets.

Rat Flea:
The oriental rat flea Xenopsyllacheopis is a member of the family Pulicidae in the order
Siphonaptera. Of the nearly 2,500 species of fleas known from around the world few are as
infamous as the oriental rat flea. This species is best known as one of the carriers of the plague
bacterium Yersinia pestis, which is responsible for killing large numbers of people, including nearly a
third of the human population of Europe during the Middle Ages, thus influencing the trajectory of
human history. In addition to its role as a vector of the plague bacterium, this species can vector other
human pathogens such as Rickettsia typhi, the bacterium that causes flea-borne typhus, and at least
two different tapeworms.
History of Rat Flea:
The Oriental rat flea was originally collected and identified in Egypt in 1903 by N.C. Rothschild
and Karl Jordan.

Morphology of Rat Flea

The Oriental rat flea has no genal or pronotal combs.The flea's body is about one tenth of an inch
long (about 2.5 mm). Its body is constructed to make it easier to jump long distances. The flea's body
consists of three regions: head, thorax, and abdomen. The head and the thorax have rows of bristles
(called combs), and the abdomen consists of eight visible segments.

Habitat and Distribution:

This species of flea can be found worldwide, wherever its favorite host animal is found. Fleas are
prevalent in major cities and urban areas where certain human habitats attract rats (think city sewer
systems). They prefer tropical and subtropical habitats and are rarely found in cold areas. Rat flea
having been carried all over the world by humans. Native species of fleas are found in polar,
temperate, and tropical regions.

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Diseases of fleas:
Plague
It is transmitted by the oriental rat flea in areas of the world where the rat flea vector and rats that
harbor the disease are found. Most U.S. cases occur in rural areas of the western United States.
Plague is a disease that mostly infects humans and mammals. The three great plague pandemics had
different geographic origins and paths of spread. The Justinian Plague of 541 started in central Africa
and spread to Egypt and the Mediterranean. The Black Death of 1347 originated in Asia and spread to
the Crimea then Europe and Russia. The third pandemic that of 1894, originated in Yunnan, China,
and spread to Hong Kong and India, then to the rest of the world. People infected with plague usually
develop acute febrile disease with other non-specific systemic symptoms after an incubation period of
one to seven days, such as sudden onset of fever, chills, head and body aches, and weakness,
vomiting and nausea.

Flea-borne typhus:
It is also known as murine typhus – transmitted by the bacteria-infested feces of infected cat fleas
when the bacteria enter the body at the time of a flea bite or from scratching the area of the bite. Most
cases in the United States are reported from California, Texas, and Hawaii. Flea-borne typhus is
spread to people through contact with infected fleas. Fleas become infected when they bite infected
animals, such as rats, cats, or opossums. When an infected flea bites a person or animal, the bite
breaks the skin, causing a wound. The first reliable description of typhus appears in 1489 AD during
the Spanish siege of Baza against the Moors during the War of Granada (1482–1492). These
accounts include descriptions of fever; red spots over arms, back, and chest; attention deficit,
progressing to delirium; and gangrenous sores and the associated smell of rotting flesh. During the
siege, the Spaniards lost 3,000 men to enemy action, but an additional 17,000 died of typhus. Sign
and symptom may include fever, body aches and muscle pain, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, and
stomach pain.

Bartonellosis (cat scratch disease):

It is transmitted to humans from the bites of the oriental rat flea and cat flea. Most infections usually
occur after scratches from domestic or feral cats, especially kittens. CSD occurs wherever cats and
fleas are found. Bartonella henselae was first discovered in a patient suffering from Cat Scratch
Disease, though not identified, in the 1950s by Debre et al. The bacteria is found and can be isolated
from erythrocytes of cats as well as lymph nodes of humans. The most common symptoms include
Fever, Enlarged tendons, lymph nodes the develop 1-3 weeks after exposure and a scrab or pustula at
scratch site. In the United States, most cases of CSD occur in the fall and winter. Illness is most
common in children under the age of 15.

Prevention’s
• There is no vaccine to prevent flea-borne typhus.
• Reduce your risk of getting flea-borne typhus by avoiding contact with fleas.

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• Keep fleas off of your pets. Use veterinarian-approved flea control products for cats and dogs
such as flea collars, oral medication or spot-ons. Permethrin should not be used on cats. Animals
that are allowed outside are more likely to come in contact with fleas and could bring them inside.
• Do not allow dogs or cats that roam free in endemic areas to sleep on your bed.
• If you live in an area with plague, don’t let your pets roam free outside.
• If you think something exposed you to plague, ask your healthcare provider whether you should
take antibiotics to prevent getting sick.

Biological Control
Flea populations are naturally regulated by a hosts efficient grooming techniques and by natural
predators, such as predatory mites, pseudo scropions, beetles, and ants, that feed on the adult and
larvae. Nematodes are a biological control that can help if you have a significant number of fleas
outside your home. Nematodes of the genus Steinernema feed on many insects, including immature
fleas. To use nematodes to manage fleas, apply them to soil in areas where your pet spends time. The
nematodes need about 20 percent soil moisture in order to survive, so spray the area with water every
few days.
Economic Impact of flea:
All organisms, including fleas, are part of the food chain. Whether they are consumed by animals,
microorganisms or fungi, they help keep nutrients flowing through the system of life.
Blood-sucking parasites are vectors for pathogens. They may help spread disease to re-balance
populations that are out of control. For example, Black Death was spread by fleas.
Human cases of flea-borne typhus are reported worldwide, but mainly in tropical and coastal areas. In
the United States, most cases occur in Texas, California, and Hawaii, with an average of about 300
cases every year. In California, flea-borne typhus is considered endemic (always present) in areas of
Los Angeles and Orange counties, but sometimes cases are also reported from other parts of
California.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), through April 17, 2020, the Democratic
Republic of the Congo (DRC) has reported 56 cases of bubonic plague, including two deaths.
The outbreak is currently focused in two health areas– Russia and Lokpa where the latter makes up
95% of cases reported this year.
During 2021, a total of 138 suspected cases including 14 deaths (CFR 10.1%) were reported.
Plague can be a very severe disease in people, with a case-fatality ratio of 30% to 60% for the
bubonic type, and is always fatal for the pneumonic kind when left untreated. Fleas are immediate
hosts for helminthes (tapeworms) that parasitize domestic animals.
Occasionally a severe infestation of fleas can cause the death of goats, lambs or calves due do
anemia.
Sand flea disease is the most frequent parasitic infection in many resource-poor communities. In
animals like dogs, pigs, or ruminants, the infection has severe consequences with, for example,
reduced milk production when the skin of the udder is affected.

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5. Triatoma Bug:
Triatoma bugs are large, dark brown or black true bugs, belonging in the insect Order Hemiptera.

Morphology of Bug
Triatoma bugs have some parts that make them easier to recognize. They have a 'cone-shaped' head,
thin antennae, and thin legs. The bugs have brown or black wings, sometimes with a ring of red, orange,
or yellow stripes on the edge. They’re usually ½- to 1-inch-long, about the size of a penny. They’re also
called cone-nosed bugs, bloodsuckers, cinches, and kissing bugs.
Like mosquitoes and ticks, kissing bugs need blood to live. They usually suck it from animals, including
dogs, but sometimes they bite people. They hide during the day and come out at night to eat.

History
In 1909, Brazilian doctor Carlos Chagas discovered that these insects were responsible for the
transmission of T. cruzi to many of his patients in Lassance, a village located on the banks of
the river in Minas Gerais (Brazil). Poor people living there complained of some insects they
called barbeiros that bite during the night.
Habitat and Distribution
These bugs typically live in the wall or roof cracks of homes and peridomiciliary structures, such as
chicken coops, pens and warehouses, in rural or suburban areas.
Triatomines are natural vectors of Chagas disease. They are typically found in the southern United
States, Mexico, Central America, and South America (as far south as southern Argentina). Eleven
different species of triatomine bugs have been found in the southern United States.
Most of the time, kissing bug bites is harmless. But they sometimes can cause two kinds of problems:
Allergic Reactions
Some people are allergic to kissing bug saliva. The skin near the bite might become red, swollen, and
itchy. The most serious risk is anaphylactic shock. That’s when your blood pressure drops and you
have trouble breathing. It can be deadly if you don’t get emergency treatment.

Diseases of triatoma bug:

Chagas Disease:
Chagas disease is caused by the parasite Trypanosomacruzi, which is transmitted to animals and
people by insect vectors and is found only in the Americas (mainly, in rural areas of Latin America
where poverty is widespread).Carlos Chagas discovered American trypanosomiasis, also named
Chagas disease (CD) in his honor, just over a century ago. He described the clinical aspects of the
disease, characterized by its etiological agent (Trypanosomacruzi) and identified its insect vector.
Initially, CD occurred only in Latin America and was considered a silent and poorly visible disease.
Symptoms are generally mild or go unnoticed, including:Swelling at the site of the bug bite/ contact
with the bug feces, Flu-likesymptoms, such as fever, body aches, fatigue and headache, muscle pain,
abdominal pain, enlarged spleen or liver and swollen glands.
Symptoms may start years or even decades after the initial infection. They include:chest pain.

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heart palpitations, shortness of breath, difficulty passing stool, dizziness, fainting, fatigue and sudden
death.

Prevention’s
If you live in areas of transmission, there are several things you can do to help prevent Chagas
disease. These include:
Use insecticide spray around houses and other structures.
Clean your home frequently.
Use nets around beds to keep the bug away from your face.
Be sure your food is thoroughly cleaned and fully cooked.
There is no vaccine or medication that protects against Chagas disease.
If you travel to an area where Chagas disease occurs, you should take the proper precautions. Consult
a health care provider or visit a travel health clinic preferably 6 weeks before you leave.

Biological Control
To kill the parasite, Chagas disease can be treated with benznidazole or nifurtimox. Both medicines
are nearly 100% effective in curing the disease if given soon after infection at the onset of the acute
phase, including the cases of congenital transmission.
Screening of blood donations for Chagas is another important public health tool to help prevent
spreading the disease through blood transfusions. Early detection and treatment of new cases,
including mother-to-baby (congenital) cases, will also help reduce the burden of disease.

Economic Impact:
Chagas disease remains a serious public health problem worldwide, having serious economic and
social repercussions. The infection is endemic in South America and emergent in Europe and the
United States. This parasitic disease affects 6–7 million people worldwide, causing more than 7000
deaths each year. The cost of Chagas disease was USD 13.1 million in 2017.
Chagas disease generates a significant health burden for individuals and a large economic burden in
low- and middle-income countries in the Americas and in some high-income countries over recent
decade. Among the working-age population, the economic cost of illness-related productivity losses
as a result of lower productivity at work, lost workdays, and mortality can far exceed the Chagas
disease-related medical costs.
It is important to quantify the value of the labor productivity loss due to premature mortality in
measuring the economic burden of disease
Globally, CD prevalence decreased by 11.3% during the study period, from 7,292,889 cases
estimated in 1990 to 6,469,283 in 2019. Moreover, the global DALY rate of CD decreased by 23.7%
during the evaluated period, from 360,872 in 1990 to 275,377 in 2019.The World Health
Organization’s 2020 Goals for Chagas disease include access to antiparasitic treatment and care of all
infected/ill patients. Policy makers need to know the economic value of identifying and treating

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patients earlier. However, the economic value of earlier treatment to cure and prevent the Chagas’
spread remains unknown.
About 6–7 million people worldwide in 2022,mostly in Latin America, are estimated to be infected
with Trypanosomacruzi, the parasite that causes Chagas disease. Up to 30% of chronically infected
people develop cardiac alterations and up to 10% develop digestive, neurological or mixed alterations
which may require specific treatment.
Vector control and other strategies are key methods to prevent Chagas disease in Latin America.
Blood screening is vital to prevent infection through transfusion and organ transplantation all over the
world.
Globally, CD prevalence decreased by 11.3% during the study period, from 7,292,889 cases
estimated in 1990 to 6,469,283 in 2019. Moreover, the global DALY rate of CD decreased by 23.7%
during the evaluated period, from 360,872 in 1990 to 275,377 in 2019.

6. Tick:
Ticks are obligate ectoparasites that feed on the blood of their hosts. Ticks belong to the phylum
Arthropoda, class Arachnida. More than 900 species of ticks have been classified in the world.
Ticks not only cause physical damage to their hosts by sucking blood and injuring skin, but many of
these tick species also have the ability to transmit pathogens to their host. The population of ticks in
any region depends upon various factors such as climate, the presence of predators, and competitor
species.

Black legged tick:

Ixodes scapularis is approximately 3 mm in length. Females have a black head and dorsal shield, and
a dark red abdomen. Males are entirely black or dark brown. Both sexes have eight legs that are
black. Deer ticks, unlike other ticks, do not have festoons (ridges on the edge of the lower abdomen).

History:
Black-legged ticks were first collected in New England in the early 1920's from Naushon Island,
Massachusetts.

Habitat and distribution:

Blacklegged ticks are often found in areas with leaf litter, shrubby plants and forest grasses. The
geographic range of Ixodes scapularis, the deer tick or blacklegged tick, consists of North America as
a whole, also known as the Nearctic region. The climate in this region is favorable for their definitive
host, the deer, and therefore they can be found in most areas of the United States occupied by deer.
Lyme disease:
Ixodes scapularis is parasitic throughout its life on the white-footed mouse, small mammals and
birds, and the white-tailed deer. In addition to being a parasite, I. scapularis is also a vector of Lyme
disease, which is caused by Borrelia burgdorferi bacteria. It transmitted through the bite of a tick,
affects domestic animals (dogs, horses, and possibly cats) and humans. At least 4 known species of

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ticks can transmit Lyme disease. However, the great majority of Lyme disease transmissions are
due to the bite of a very tiny tick commonly called the deer tick, or black-legged tick. A German
physician, Alfred Buchwald, first described the chronic skin rash, or erythema migrans, of what is
now known to be Lyme disease more than 130 years ago. However, Lyme disease was only
recognized in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s.Typical symptoms in humans include fever,
headache, fatigue, and a characteristic skin rash called erythema migrans. If left untreated, infection
can spread to joints, the heart, and the nervous system. Dogs can display several forms of Lyme
disease, but the most common symptoms are lameness, swollen lymph nodes, joint swelling, fatigue,
and loss of appetite.
Brown dog tick:
Rhipicephalus sanguineus, the brown dog tick, is a medium sized (unfed adult females are 4-5 mm
long) yellowish-brown to reddish-brown tick with a dark, inornate brown scutum. Males are similar
in color but are slightly smaller in size. The larvae have six legs while the nymphs and adults have
eight legs.
Habitat and distribution:
This tropical tick is found worldwide and will feed on a variety of hosts, although in North
America Rhipicephalus sanguineus is found almost exclusively on dogs and in indoor environments.
It is established in warmer areas of the south-eastern United States. In Canada, locally sustaining
populations of this tick are not established outdoors, although it is occasionally found on dogs that
have travelled to warmer climates and in their residences and kennels.

Rocky Mountain spotted fever:

The brown dog tick (Rhipicephalus sanguineus) is well-recognized vector of many pathogens
affecting dogs and occasionally humans. Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) is a bacterial disease
spread through the bite of an infected brown dog tick. Rocky Mountain spotted fever is a serious tick-
borne illness which can be deadly if not treated early. The bacteria transmitted is Rickettsia
rickettsii. RMSF cases occur throughout the United States, but are most commonly reported from
North Carolina, Tennessee, Missouri, Arkansas, and Oklahoma. Rocky Mountain spotted fever is a
tick-borne disease first recognized in 1896 in the Snake River Valley of Idaho. It was originally
called “black measles” because of the look of its rash in the late stages of the illness, when the skin
turns black. It was a dreaded, often fatal disease, affecting hundreds of people in Idaho. Because of
the work started by Dr. Ricketts in the early 1900s, NIAID Rocky Mountain Laboratories (RML)
remains a thriving center for infectious disease research on tick-borne diseases, such as Lyme disease.
RML also continues to do research on rickettsial diseases. Early signs and symptoms are not specific
to RMSF (including fever and headache). However, the disease can rapidly progress to a serious and
life-threatening illness. Signs and symptoms can include Fever, Headache, Rash, Nausea, Vomiting,
Stomach pain, Muscle pain, Lack of appetite. RMSF can be life-threatening. Early treatment with the
antibiotic doxycycline can prevent death and severe illness.

Prevention:
Prevent illness by preventing tick bites, preventing ticks on your pets, and preventing ticks in your
yard. Protect yourself, your family, and your pets. Ticks can be active year-round, but ticks are most
active during warmer months (April-September).

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• Know where to expect ticks. Ticks live in grassy, brushy, or wooded areas, or even on animals.
Spending time outside walking your dog, camping, gardening, or hunting could bring you in close
contact with ticks. Many people get ticks in their own yard or neighborhood.
• Treat clothing and gear with products containing 0.5% permethrin. Permethrin can be used to treat
boots, clothing and camping gear and remain protective through several washings. Alternatively,
you can buy permethrin-treated clothing and gear.
• Avoid Contact with Ticks
o Avoid wooded and brushy areas with high grass and leaf litter.
o Walk in the center of trails.
• Check your clothing for ticks. Ticks may be carried into the house on clothing. Any ticks that
are found should be removed. Tumble dry clothes in a dryer on high heat for 10 minutes to kill
ticks on dry clothing after you come indoors. If the clothes are damp, additional time may be
needed. If the clothes require washing first, hot water is recommended. Cold and medium
temperature water will not kill ticks.
• Examine gear and pets. Ticks can ride into the home on clothing and pets, then attach to a
person later, so carefully examine pets, coats, and daypacks.
• Treat clothing and gear with products containing 0.5% permethrin. Permethrin can be used to treat
boots, clothing and camping gear and remain protective through several washings. Alternatively,
you can buy permethrin-treated clothing and gear.
• Check your body for ticks after being outdoors. Conduct a full body check upon return from
potentially tick-infested areas, including your own backyard. Use a hand-held or full-length
mirror to view all parts of your body. Check these parts of your body and your child’s body for
ticks:

▪ Under the arms

▪ In and around the ears
▪ Inside belly button
▪ Back of the knees
▪ In and around the hair
▪ Between the legs
▪ Around the waist
Economic Impact:
According to an estimate, every year, ticks and tick-borne pathogens cause the US $13.9–18.7 billion
loss. Annually, tick infestations result in a loss of almost 3 billion hides of cattle. Ticks and tick-
borne diseases (TBDs) cause substantial economic losses in bovines, particularly in tropical and
subtropical regions, where 80 % of the world’s total cattle population occurs, and can significantly
affect the livelihoods of resource-poor farming communities due to lower productivity of both beef
and dairy cattle in these regions. In the documented outbreaks (2013) of CCHF, fatality rates in
hospitalized patients have ranged from 9% to as high as 50%. The case fatality rates of OHF are low
(0.5% to 3%).
With an estimated 240,000 to 440,000 new cases of the tick-borne illness diagnosed every year, the
researchers found that Lyme disease costs the U.S. health care system between $712 million and $1.3
billion a year — or nearly $3,000 per patient on average — in return doctor visits and testing, likely

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to investigate the cause of some patients’ lingering symptoms of fatigue, musculoskeletal pain and
memory problems. These visits come after patients have finished their original course of antibiotics.

Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) is an emerging public health issue on some American Indian
reservations in Arizona. RMSF causes an acute febrile illness that, if untreated, can cause severe
illness, permanent sequelae requiring lifelong medical support, and death. We describe costs
associated with medical care, loss of productivity, and death among cases of RMSF on two American
Indian reservations (estimated population 20,000) between 2002 and 2011. Acute medical costs
totaled more than $1.3 million. This study further estimated $181,100 in acute productivity lost due to
illness, and $11.6 million in lifetime productivity lost from premature death. Aggregate costs of
RMSF cases in Arizona 2002-2011 amounted to $13.2 million.

7. Lice:
Lice (Phthiraptera) are a very diverse group of insects, exclusively adapted to parasitism. Several
thousand species have been described. Louse (plural: lice) is any small, wingless, dorsoventrally
flattened insects. They belong to Class Insecta. Lice generally have a high host-specificity, and
within a host species there is sometimes also specificity to certain body regions. They are widely
distributed across the globe.

Lice can be divided into two main groups:

• Sucking lice (Anoplura)

• Chewing lice (Mallophaga)

All active stages of lice are parasitic in warm-blooded vertebrates (birds and mammals). The two
groups differ in their feeding habits, with Mallophaga feeding on skin and skin products and
Anoplura generally feeding on blood.

Habitat and Distribution:

Chewing and sucking lice are found in all continents, including Antarctica. The distribution of lice is
roughly similar to birds and mammals on which they live. They are quite patchy or concentrated in
some areas. All species of lice spend their entire lives on the body of host. They require constant
temperature and moisture.

Anoplura:
Anoplura are important parasites of both humans and animals. Due to their blood feeding behaviour,
body lice can transmit a great variety of diseases, such as epidemic typhus (caused by Rickettsia
prowazekii), louse-borne relapsing fever (caused by Borrelia recurrentis), or trench fever (caused
by Bartonella quintana). Head lice and pubic lice are not known as vectors of pathogens, but head
lice can be involved in mechanical transmission of opportunistic bacteria. In animals, the presence of
sucking lice can cause irritation through the permanent blood feeding. Salivary components induce
severe itching which causes skin lesions due to intensive pruritus. Sucking lice are less biodiverse

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than chewing lice as they currently include around 550 species. Of these, only a few are parasitic in
humans and domestic animals.
Morphology:
Most of the general morphological features of sucking lice are similar to those of chewing lice. A
notable difference from chewing lice is that the head of sucking lice is slender and narrower than the
thorax. Sucking lice also lack maxillary palps. The mouthparts are adapted for blood feeding and are
only visible during feeding. All three thoracic segments are fused, and the thorax appears as one
single segment. The antennae are clearly visible and have three to five segments.

Louse-borne relapsing fever:

Louse-borne relapsing fever (LBRF) is a vector-borne disease caused by the spirochaete Borrelia
recurrentis, a human-restricted pathogen transmitted by the body louse Pediculus humanus humanus.
Borrelia recurrentis is transmitted from human to human by the body louse Pediculus humanus
humanus. Head lice, Pediculus humanus capitis, have been found to be infected, but their role as
vector has not been established. Louse-borne relapsing fever (LBRF) is an epidemic disease with a
fascinating history from Hippocrates' times, through the 6th century 'Yellow Plague', to epidemics
in Ireland, Scotland and England in the 19th century and two large Afro-Middle Eastern
pandemics in the 20th century. Symptoms include high fever, general malaise, chills and sweats,
headache, meningism, myalgia/arthralgia and non-specific gastrointestinal symptoms (nausea and
vomiting). Mycocutaneous symptoms include conjunctival injection, scattered petechiae and
erythematous rash. Cardio-respiratory symptoms such as tachycardia, mild tachypnea and non-
productive cough can occur. A single dose of antibiotic is effective in the majority of cases of louse-
borne relapsing fever but a longer treatment course is usually applied to minimize the probability of
recurrence. Antibiotics of choice are tetracycline, penicillin G, and erythromycin or chlorampheni
marsupialcol.

Mallophaga:
There are no Mallophaga species that are known parasites of humans. Moreover, as chewing lice are
highly host-specific, the species, which are parasitic for animals, will never infest humans, even
temporarily. The chewing lice are ectoparasites of birds and mammals, with a worldwide distribution.
They are quite a biodiverse group, with more than 2 600 known species. No species of chewing lice
are known to feed on humans. Most of the species are parasitic in wildlife but several are also known
from domestic animals and are divided into two main groups of veterinary importance: Amblycera
and Ischnocera.
Morphology:
In both groups (Amblycera and Ischnocera), the body is flattened dorso-ventrally and the head is
generally wider than the first segment of the thorax. The main difference between the two groups of
chewing lice is in the morphology of the antennae (four segments in Amblycera, located in a groove
lateral to the head; three-to-five segments in Ischnocera, free from the head and clearly visible) and of
the maxillary palps (present in Amblycera, absent in Ischnocera). The thorax is usually segmented

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into two or three parts. The abdomen (which has 11 segments) is elongated and is protected by
sclerotised plates which confer certain rigidity to the body, even when the abdomen is distended.

Canine Pediculosis:
There are two species of lice that infest dogs. Trichodectes canis, known as a chewing louse; that is, it
chews the skin of the dog it is infesting. Linognathus setosus, a sucking louse, one that sucks the
blood of the dog instead of chewing the skin. Both types of lice can be passed directly from one dog
to another through direct contact or through contact with contaminated objects, such as grooming
utensils or bedding. Symptoms seen in infested dogs include:

• Excessive itchiness and scratching

• A dry scruffy-looking coat
• Hair loss, most often around the ears, neck, shoulders, groin, and rectal area
• Anemia, particularly in puppies and small dogs and particularly with severe infestation.

There are a wide variety of shampoos, as well as insecticidal sprays and powders that are effective in
killing lice. In addition, products such as fipronil and selamectin can also be used. (They come in
various brand names.) It may be necessary to treat your dog more than once to kill the developing nits
as they hatch.

Prevention:

Maintain good hygienic practices, such as washing the body, clothes and bedding regularly, and
drying clothes and bedding in direct sunlight, which damages the lice and their eggs to some extent.
Change clothes and bedding at frequent intervals to reduce the number of body lice. Treat louse-
infested clothes and bedding with chemicals to kill the lice and their eggs (this is called delousing). In
infested situations like those in refugee camps, clothes and bedding should be deloused by trained
personnel with appropriate insecticides, such as 0.5% permethrin dust or DDT. You are not expected
to apply these chemicals. Treating clothing with liquid permethrin can provide long-term protection
against louse infestation. Note that close contact with patients should be avoided and delousing of the
patient’s clothes and bedding should be done immediately, to prevent transmission of infected body
lice from the patient to healthy people – including the health workers who are caring for them.

Economic Impact:
LBRF epidemics occurred frequently in Europe during the early 20th Century. Between 1919 and
1923, 13 million cases resulting in 5 million deaths occurred in the social upheaval that overtook
Russia and Eastern Europe. During World War II, a million cases occurred in North Africa. Today,
LBRF causes sporadic illness and outbreaks in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in regions affected by
war and in refugee camps. LBRF is commonly found in Ethiopia, Sudan, Eritrea, and Somalia. Illness
can be severe, with mortality of 30 to 70% in outbreaks.

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Vertebrate’s vectors

Types of vectors Disease transmitted Pathogens Principle host

Fishes Mycobacteriosis Mycobacterium Mainly humans
Fishes Erysipeloid Eeysipelothrix Birds and mammals
(mainly humans)
Fishes Group of diseases Streptococcus iniae Mammals, mainly
(arthritis, meningitis, humans)
endocarditis,
osteomyelitis)
Amphibians and Salmonellosis Salmonella Most of vertebrate
Reptiles species
Birds Avian Tuberculosis Mycobacterium avium Cats, dogs and humans
complex
Birds Cryptococcal Cryptococcus Domestic animals and
meningitis neoformans humans
Birds Histoplasmosis Histoplasma Cats, dogs and humans
capsuatum
Mammals Rabies Lysaviruses Mammals

Cats Cat Scratch disease Bartonella henselae Humans

Parrots Psittacosis Chlamydia psittaci Humans

VECTORS OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES:

SALMONELLA:
Salmonella is-a genus of rod-shaped (bacillus) gram negative bacteria of enterobacteriaceae. The two
species of salmonella are and Salmonella bangori. S. Enterica is the type species and is further
divided into six subspecies that include over 2,600 serotypes. Salmonella was named after Daniel
Elmer Salmom (1850–1914), American vetinery surgeons.
Salmonella species are non-spore forming, predominantly motile enterobacteria with cell diameters
between about 0.7 and 1.5 μm, lengths from 2 to 5 μm, and peritrichous flagella (all around the cell
body, allowing them to move). They are chemotrophs, obtaining their energy from reduction
reactions, using organic sources. They are also facultative anaerobes, capable of generating ATP with
oxygen ("aerobically") when it is available, or using other acceptors or fermentation ("anaerobically")
when oxygen is not available.

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History:

Salmonella was first visualized in 1880 by karl Eberth in the peyer’s patches and spleens of typhoid
patients, four years later, George theoder gafky was able to grow the pathogen in pure culture. A year
after that, medical research scientist Theobald smith discovered what would be later known
as salmonella enteritica (var. Choleraesuis). At the time, smith was working as a research laboratory
assistant in the veterinary division of the United States department of agriculture. The division was
under the administration of Daniel Elmer salmon, a veterinary
pathologist. Initially, salmonella choleraesuis was thought to be the causative agent of hog cholera, so
salmon and smith named it "hog-cholera bacillus". The name salmonella was not used until 1900,
when Joseph Leon lingiheris proposed that the pathogen discovered by salmon's group be
called salmonella in his honor.

Morphology of Salmonella:

Salmonella is gram negative rods, measuring 2-4 x 0.6 μm.Non-acid fast, Non-capsulated and non-
sporing bacteria. Most serotypes are motile with peritrichous flagella, S.Galinerum and S.
Pullorum are non-motile. Most strains of most serotypes produce type-I fimbriae.
• Antigenic structure of salmonella:
Salmonella possess following antigens:
I. Flagella antigen (h)
II. Somatic antigen (o)
III. Surface antigen (vi)- found in some species
Several strains carry fimbriae.Fimbrial antigens are not important in identification but may cause
confusion due to their non-specific nature and widespread sharing among enterobacteria.
Transmission:

Contaminated foods are often of animal origin, such as poultry, pork, beef, poultry, milk, or eggs,
but all foods, including vegetables may become contaminated. Many raw foods of animal origin are
frequently contaminated, but fortunately, thorough cooking kills salmonella.
Food may also become contaminated by the unwashed hands of an infected food handler, who did not
wash his or her hands adequately after using the bathroom. Salmonella may also be found in the feces
of some pets, and people can become infected if they do not wash their hands after contact with
animals.
Casual Agent:

Two species of bacteria from the genus salmonella: salmonella enteric, and S. Bongori. Within these,
there are over 2,300 strains which are grouped into ‘serovars’.

Species Affected:

Many species of domestic and wild animals including birds, reptiles, Amphibians, fish and
invertebrates can be infected with salmonella spp. The importance of each salmonella serovar (and
phage type) differs between the host species. Some salmonella serovars (and phage types) have a
broad host range and others are thought to be highly host-adapted. Infection is most commonly seen

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in poultry, pigs and reptiles. All species seem to be susceptible to salmonellosis but clinical disease is
more common in some animals than others. For example, disease is common in cattle, pigs and
horses, but uncommon in cats and dogs.
Livestock:

The control of salmonella spp. along the food chain is most effective when the Colonisation of living
animals with bacteria can be prevented.
Effect on wildlife:
Many infected animals will not show any clinical signs at all and clinical disease is uncommon in
healthy, unstressed adult birds and mammals. The prevalence of bacteria in most wild bird
populations is generally low although large-scale mortalities of birds using feeding stations have
become common in the United States and also occur with some frequency in Canada and Europe.

Effect on humans:

Salmonellosis is common in humans and is a major cause of food-borne illness throughout the
world. Most people recover from infection without treatment. Infection often causes gastroenteritis
but a wide range of clinical signs may be seen and death can occur in severe cases. The incidence and
severity of the disease is higher in younger children, the elderly and those with weakened immune
systems. The overall mortality rate for most forms of salmonellosis is less than 1%.

Economic Importance:

There is potential for significant economic losses to the livestock industry,with ruminants, pigs and
poultry particularly affected, due to illness and loss of infected animals and likely trade restrictions
imposed during and after an outbreak. Illness in humans can result in significant economic losses due
to the time lost from normal activities and medical costs incurred.

VECTORS OF BIRDS:
Mycobacterium-complex:

Mycobacterium avium complex (mac) contains several subspecies including Mycobacterium avium,
(often simply called M. avium), which is the principle cause of avian tuberculosis in wild, domestic
and captive birds. However, a number of other species of mycobacterium may be involved such as
the closely related M.intracellulare, or other species such as M. genavense(now realized to be
relatively common in zoo and pet birds and clinically indistinguishable from M. avium infection). In
general, M.avium seen as a slow growing, persistent, environmental organism with many related
strains of which only some prove to be pathogenic.

Morphology:

Mycobacterium are Gram-positive,catalase positive,non-motile,non-spore-forming rod-shaped

bacteria(0.2-0.6 micrometer wide and 1.0-10 micrometer long).The colony morphology of

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mycobacterium varies with some species growing as rough or smooth colonies.Colony color ranges
from white to orange or pink.

Species Affected:

The disease has been found in a wide range of avian hosts but is most commonly reported in wild
waterbirds, gregarious birds, raptors and scavengers, and those associated with agricultural premises.
The disease can be relatively common in poultry where densities of birds are high, hygiene poor, and
older stock are retained. The culling of poultry in commercial industrial flocks at a young age has all
but eradicated the disease from these units. M. Avium is also capable of infecting a wide range of
mammals, both domestic and wild, including humans, pigs, sheep, mustelids, cervids and bovids.
However, clinical disease is uncommon and may be associated with host immunocompromise.
Exposure to mycobacterium in the M.avium complex is of importance in cattle, where sensitisation
may affect tuberculin skin test results. Hence, in many regions where skin testing is used for bovine
tb- diagnosis. Interestingly, mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (also known as map)
is the causative agent of paratuberculosis or john’s disease, a chronic Enteritis disease of adult cattle,
sheep and goats.

Environment:

The causative bacteria can live in the environment and tend to prefer damp areas with low pH.High
levels of UV radiation will kill the bacteria and the majority of reports are from temperate zones
rather than hot arid areas. Vector(s):infected individuals provide the greatest single source of
infection, however, the causative organisms are tenacious and can be carried in mud and faeces on
Fomites such as shoes, tyres etc.

WHAT IS AVIAN TUBERCULOSIS?

Avian tuberculosis is an insidious, slowly developing, chronic bacterial disease of birds, usually
affecting older individuals. The causative organism (Mycobacterium-complex) and its relatives are
also capable of causing disease in a wide range of other non-avian taxa.

Symptoms:

Emaciation, depression and diarrhea along with marked tubercular nodules seen in spleen, intestine
and bone marrow.

• How is the disease transmitted to animals?

The most common route of infection is ingestion and large numbers of bacilli may be shed in faeces
from ulcerated intestinal lesions, thus contaminating the environment. High densities of animals lead
to build up of faecal material providing ideal conditions for the transmission of infection. Aerosol
inhalation either from a contaminated environment, or directly from lesions in the respiratory tract of
infected birds, has been suggested as the cause of pulmonary infections in domestic or captive birds,
but this is relatively unusual. Infection from an infected bird to young via the egg is also thought to be

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very unusual, and for practical purposes eggs can be seen as a good way to introduce avian TB-free
birds.

• How is the disease transmitted to humans?

Humans are generally very resistant to m. Avium infection, however, where there is an underlying
chronic lung condition or immunocompromise, humans may be at risk. M. Avium is a common
infection in people with HIV/aids in the developed world however these infections are thought to be
mainly environmental strains of m. Avium rather than those of animal origin.

Prevention and Control in Wetlands:

Environment for domestic stock, maintaining high standards of hygiene by good cleansing and
disinfection helps to minimize spread of m. Avium, although it is important to note that the bacteria
have a tough cell wall which makes them resistant to many disinfectants. The bacteria prefer a low
pH and increasing this may help reduce Environmental contamination e.g. by the addition of lime
(noting that changing pH will affect vegetation and associated invertebrate communities also).
Cutting back vegetation and turning soil to expose it to uv radiation will help to reduce environmental
contamination. Wildlife contact with domestic/captive birds should be avoided. High densities of
wildlife represent a risk factor for this disease and practices such as

Supplemental feeding of wildlife can contribute to this risk.

Economic impact:
Effect on Wildlife:

In most situations, the disease is likely to have relatively limited impact on wildlife other than as an
occasional cause of death. However, it has been a problem for several threatened species such as the
whooping crane grus Americana in north America, and the lesser flamingo phoeniconaias minor in
East Africa. It can be a problem where wild birds are attracted to wetlands where infected captive
birds are maintained. Overall, efforts should be made to prevent infection becoming established in
wild populations.

Effect on Livestock:

The greatest impact is on poultry flocks where control actions involve culling. Effect on humans
public health concerns are relatively limited although care should be taken if it is known that
infection is present, to reduce potential for opportunist infections. High risk (e.g.
Immunocompromised) individuals should take extra precautions in such situations.

HISTOPLASMOSIS:
Histoplasma capsulatum:Histoplasma capsulatum is a global fungal pathogen. Infection with
histoplasma capsulatum causes significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. This fungus is a

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dimorphic ascomycete that grows in its hyphen form in soil and bird and bat guano. Histoplasma
capsulatum is a species of dimorphic fungus. Its sexual form is called ajellomyces capsulatus. It can
cause pulmonary and disseminated histoplasmosis.

Morphology:

In its asexual form, the fungus grows as a colonial microfungus strongly similar in macro
morphology to b. Dermatitidis. A microscopic examination shows a marked distinction: h.
Capsulatum produces two types of conidia, globose macro conidia, 8–15 µm, with distinctive
tuberculate or finger-like cell wall ornamentation, and ovoid microconidia, 2–4 µm, which appear
smooth or finely roughened. Whether either of these conidial types is the principal infectious particle
is unclear. They form on individual short stalks and readily become airborne when the colony is
disturbed. Ascomata of the sexual state are 80–250 µm, and are very similar in appearance and
anatomy to those described above for b. Dermatitidis. The ascospores are similarly minute, averaging
1.5 µm.

Preventions & Treatment:

In the immunocompetent individuals, histoplasmosis resolves without any treatment. Medications are
used to treat severe cases of acute histoplasmosis and all cases of chronic and disseminated disease.
Typical treatment of severe disease first involves treatment with amphotericin b, followed by
oral itraconazole .

Symptoms:

Symptoms of histoplasmosis include: Fever, Cough, Fatigue (extreme tiredness), Chills, Headache,
Chest pain, Body aches. If symptoms of histoplasmosis infection occur, they start within 3 to 17 days
after exposure; the typical time is 12–14 days. Most affected individuals have clinically silent
manifestations and show no apparent ill effects. The acute phase of histoplasmosis is characterized by
nonspecific respiratory symptoms, often cough or flu-like. Chest X-ray findings are normal in 40–
70% of cases.

Transmission:

In the United States, the fungus that causes histoplasmosis mainly lives in soil in central and eastern
states, especially in areas around the Ohio and Mississippi river valleys. It’s also present in other US.
states, likely in small pockets that offer the right growing conditions (such as a large amount of bird
or bat poop). The fungus also lives in parts of central and South America, Africa, Asia, and Australia.
People can get histoplasmosis by breathing in the fungus from the air in these areas.

Economic Impact:

Histoplasmosis din the united states, an estimated 60% to 90% of people who live in areas
surrounding the Ohio and Mississippi river valleys (where histoplasmosis is common in the
environment) have been exposed to the fungus at some point during their lifetime. One study
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calculated the incidence of histoplasmosis in adults aged 65 years and older in the US. to be 3.4 cases
per 100,000 population. Rates were highest in the Midwest, with an estimated 6.1 cases per 100,000
populations. 2 in 12 states for which histoplasmosis surveillance data were available during 2011–
2014, state-specific annual incidence rates ranged from 0 to 4.3 cases per 100,000 population, and
average county-level incidence ranged from 0 to 39 cases per 100,000 population does not spread
from person to person. One study of patients who were hospitalized for histoplasmosis in the US
estimated the crude mortality rate to be approximately 5% for children and 8% for adults. Another
study found a six-month mortality rate of 4% among patients with symptomatic histoplasmosis. The
overall mortality rate for histoplasmosis is likely lower than these estimates because these studies did
not include patients who had less severe forms of the infection.

VECTOR BORNE DISEASES IN FISHES:

Mycobacteriosis:
Mycobacterium:

It is small bacillus that can withstand most disinfectants and often remains in its dormant state. To
survive, it needs oxygen: it is thus called an aerobic bacterium. Mycobacterium tuberculosis grows
slowly: it reproduces itself every 24 to 48 hours. This is extremely slow for bacteria.

Tuberculosis (TB), resulting from infection by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. Tb), is
a major and resurgent worldwide health problem. In recent times, it has been exacerbated by the
spread of HIV, which by weakening the immune system allows reactivation of latent disease.

Origin:

The origin of M. Tuberculosis, the causative agent of TB, has been the subject of much recent
investigation, and it is thought that the bacteria in the genus Mycobacterium, like other
actimomycetes, were initially found in soil and that some species evolved to live in mammals.

Types:

M. Marinum, M. Fortuitum and M.chelonae. Other species, including M. Shottsii, M. Abscessus, and
M. Poriferae.

Morphology of mycobacterium:

Mycobacteria are slender, non spore-forming, rod-shaped, aerobic, slow-growing, and free-living in
soil and water. These bacteria have a generation time of about 20 h, thus isolation and identification
may take up to 6 weeks (although a few species may grow in only 5–7 days).

Affect: Mycobacteriosis is a chronic progressive disease caused by several acid-fast bacteria of the
genus Mycobacterium affecting wild and cultured fish worldwide.

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Symptoms of mycobacteriosis:

Abscessus is usually red, warm, tender to the touch, swollen, and/or painful. Infected areas can also
develop boils or pus-filled vesicles. Other signs of M. Abscessus infection are fever, chills, muscle
aches, and a general feeling of illness.

History of mycobacteriosis :

On March 24, 1882, Dr. Robert Koch announced the discovery of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the
bacteria that cause tuberculosis (TB). Currently, there are over 170 recognized species of
Mycobacterium, the only genus in the family Mycobacteriaceae. Organisms belonging to this genus
are quite diverse with respect to their ability to cause disease in humans; some are strict pathogens,
while others are opportunistic pathogens or nonpathogenic. Mycobacterium spp. have been found to
infect over 150 species of fish.

Economic importance:

• Paratuberculosis (PTB) is a chronic disease which may lead to reduced milk yield, lower
animal welfare and death in cattle.
• The causative agent is Mycobacterium avium subsp. Paratuberculosis (MAP). The economic
consequences are particularly important incentives in the control and eradication of the
infection.

Group of diseases (arthritis, meningitis, osteomyelitis)

Arthritis:
Arthritis” literally means joint inflammation. Joints are places where two bones meet, such as your
elbow or knee. There are many different types of arthritis with different causes and treatments. In
some types, other organs, such as your eyes, heart, or skin, can also be affected.

Origin:

Scientists have discovered that bony fish have one more thing in common with humans than
previously thought: they can get arthritis too. It was commonly assumed that bony fishes lacked the
same kind of lubricated joints, called synovial joints that humans have, including our knuckles, knees,
and hips.

Fish best for arthritis:

Fatty fish varieties such as salmon, mackerel, sardines, and trout are high in omega-3 fatty acids,
which have been shown to have potent anti-inflammatory effects.

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Economic importance of Arthritis:

It is a serious disease resulting in enormous societal and personal costs. Pain from OA can result in
depression and other mood disturbances, functional disabilities, and work limitations. The overall
economic burden of OA in the US is estimated at almost $140 billion annually.Arthritis has a
profound economic, personal, and societal impact in the United States. In 2013, the total national
arthritis-attributable medical care costs and earnings losses among adults with arthritis were $303.5
billion or 1% of the 2013 US Gross Domestic Product (GDP).If your condition affects your ability to
work, you may be able to claim Employment and Support Allowance (ESA). You can claim ESA
while receiving Universal Credit and other benefits such as Personal Independence Payments (PIP),
but not while you are receiving Statutory Sick pay.

Meningitis:
Introduction:

Meningitis is an inflammation (swelling) of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal
cord. A bacterial or viral infection of the fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord usually causes
the swelling. However, injuries, cancer, certain drugs, and other types of infections also can cause
meningitis

Causative agent:

The viruses and bacteria that cause meningitis can be spread through

• Sneezing
• Coughing
Types of bacteria that cause meningitis:

❖ Meningococcal bacteria – there are several different types, called A, B, C, W, X, Y and Z

❖ Pneumococcal bacteria
❖ Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) bacteria
❖ Enteroviruses – viruses that usually only cause a mild stomach infection
❖ The mumps virus
❖ The herpes simplex virus – a virus that usually causes cold sores or genital herpes
Economic importance:

Meningitis is a characteristic clinical manifestation in Nile tilapia infected with Sta. Infected fish
show severe neurological clinical signs, such as eradicated swimming, exophthalmos, corneal
opacity, and histopathological examination shows suppurative meningitis.

Droplets of infected fluid can be spread and shared with sneezing and coughing. You do not have to
come into direct contact with an infected person to pick up this infection. Bacterial meningitis, the
most serious form of meningitis, can also be contagious, especially if it’s meningococcal meningitis.

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VECTOR BORNE DISEASES IN MAMMALS:

Rabies:
Introduction:

Rabies is a preventable viral disease most often transmitted through the bite of a rabid animal. The
rabies virus infects the central nervous system of mammals, ultimately causing disease in the brain
and death.

Rabies has been known since around 2000 BC. The first written record of rabies is in the
Mesopotamian Codex of Eshnunna (c. 1930 BC), which dictates that the owner of a dog showing
symptoms of rabies should take preventive measures against bites

Disease history:

Rabies is one of the oldest known diseases in history with cases dating back to 4000 years ago. For
most of human history, a bite from a rabid animal was uniformly fatal. In the past, people were so
scared of rabies that after being bitten by a potentially rabid animal, many would commit suicide.

Vector:

Foxes, skunks, raccoons, groundhogs, and bats are rabies vector species and can carry the rabies virus
without showing any of the typical symptoms. It is important to handle these animals with caution if
you need to rescue one. Use gloves, towels, or other thick materials.

Causitive agent:

The causative agent of rabies is rabies virus (RV), a negative-stranded RNA virus of the rhabdovirus
family. Neuroinvasiveness and neurotropism are the main features that define the pathogenesis of
rabies.

Economic importance:

Rabies transmitted by dogs is responsible for the loss of over 3.7 million DALYs (disability adjusted
life years) every year, with direct and indirect economic costs (PEP, animal tests, dog vaccination,
and livestock losses) totaling $8.6 billion per year.It cause many economic loses in many developing
country. Rabies transmitted by dogs is responsible for the loss of over 1.8 million DALYs.

Annual no. Of cattle deaths from rabies: 1100

Rabies incidence rate/100 000 cattle: 5

Livestock losses: Africa estimate

Total no. Cattle: 230 000 000

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Cat scratch disease:

Introduction:

Cat scratch disease (CSD) is a bacterial infection spread by cats. The disease spreads when an
infected cat licks a person’s open wound, or bites or scratches a person hard enough to break the
surface of the skin.

History:

Dr. Robert Debre, a French physician, is credited with being the first doctor to diagnose the disease.
He did so in 1931 for a 10-year-old boy with swollen lymph glands who was thought to have
tuberculosis. Since then doctors have detected thousands of cases throughout the world.

CSD was first described as a clinical syndrome in 1931, but it was not until 1983 that a bacterial
etiology was determined, and in 1992, the specific cause of CSD was identified. CSD is a feline-
associated zoonotic disease, with an estimated annual incidence in the United States of 22,000 cases
(1).

Causitive agent:

CSD is caused by a bacterium called Bartonella henselae. About 40% of cats carry B. Henselae at
some time in their lives, although most cats with this infection show NO signs of illness. Kittens
younger than 1 year are more likely to have B. Henselae infection and to spread the germ to people.

Vector:

Cat scratch disease is a common infection, particularly in children, and clinicians need to be aware of
its potential transmission to humans by arthropod vectors such as fleas and ticks in addition to animal
bites and scratches.

Economic importance:

The annual economic impact of toxoplasmosis in the United States is estimated to be $7.7 billion.
Most T. Gondii infections among humans occur in one of three ways: 1) by eating raw or
undercooked meat.

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ECTOPARASITES AND ENDOPARASITES OF CATTLE, POULTRY,

FISH AND MAN

INTRODUCTION:

ECTOPARASITES:

Ectoparasites are parasites that live on the body of hosts, which inhabit the skin or coat of the
host, get food ,water and shelter.and in return harms them.

The immune response induced, especially by ectoparasite saliva, may lead to allergic
reactions with flea allergic dermatitis being the most importantEctoparasite-infested pets may
be a source of infestation for owners.The direct health implications of ectoparasite infestation
can be more than skin deep: e.g. heavy blood-sucking arthropods can cause
anaemia.Ectoparasites are pathogens that usually infect only the superficial layers of the skin.
Although the term ectoparasites can broadly include temporarily blood-sucking arthropods
such as mosquitoes, this term is generally used more narrowly to refer to pathogens such as
ticks, fleas, lice, parasitic flies and mites that attach or burrow into the skin and remain there
for relatively long periods of time.

Epidermal parasitic skin diseases occur sporadic, endemic, or epidemic. The prevalence of
ectoparasitoses in the general population is low, but can become high in vulnerable groups. For
example, tungiasis usually affects less than 1% of the population in an endemic area, but in
economically disadvantaged communities prevalence in children can be up to 80 %. In some
indigenous populations in the Amazon rain forest, nearly all individuals have head lice. Stigma, lack
of access to health care and risk behavior are the reasons why epidermal parasitic skin diseases
frequently progress untreated and why in resource-poor populations severe morbidity is common. The
ongoing uncontrolled urbanization in many developing countries makes it likely that this group of
diseases will remain the overriding parasitic diseases for people living in extreme poverty.

Endoparasites

Endoparasites are parasites which live inside a host and generally inhabit areas such as the gut,
lungs, heart and blood vessels. Endoparasites are important because:

• They can cause severe disease to the host.

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• Many are highly resistant to environmental degradation and can cause widespread
.contamination of the environment if not controlled.

Endoparasites belong to one of two types:

• Helminths (Worms)
• Protozoa

Endoparasites are of two forms: intercellular parasites and intracellular parasites.

Intercellular parasites are those that inhabit the spaces of the body of the host. Examples of
intercellular parasites are nematodes, tapeworms, and other helminths. Helminths live in the
gut of their hosts.

Intracellular parasites are endoparasites that live within the cell of the host. Examples of
intracellular parasites are the protozoan Plasmodium, the causative agent of malaria. They
thrive inside the cells of their human host. Plasmodium species have different stages in their
life cycle. Within the definitive host (human), the sporozoite stage of Plasmodium species
occurs within the liver cells where the sporozoite gives rise to a merozoite or to a hypnozoite,
which then infects the red blood cell of the host.

Here we will discuss ectoparasites and endoparasites of cattle , poultry , fish and man . these
parasites belongs to crustacean, arachnids and helminthes.

1. Cattle Parasites

Ectoparasites of cattle:

Insects such as stable flies, house flies, horn flies, face flies, mosquitoes, horse flies, deer
flies, cattle grubs, and lice as well as ticks and mites are the major external parasites of dairy
animals in the United States. These pests cause obvious discomfort to livestock Most of the
approximately 1.49 billion head of cattle worldwide are susceptible to infestation with
diverse ectoparasitic fauna. Arthropods, mainly insects, mites, and ticks, represent the most
economically important group of cattle ectoparasites because of the direct effect associated
with heavy infestations on health and food production. Injurious ectoparasite infestations
impair the productivity of cattle and, in extreme
cases, result in mortality. This inflicts significant economic loss on cattle producers

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around the world. For example, estimates indicate that ectoparasitic flies and ticks
infesting cattle in Brazil cause US$6.86 billion in economic losses annually.

Many species of Diptera (two-winged insects, or true flies) are ectoparasites because they bite
to feed on blood, that is, hematophagous, or cause nuisance to the animals during the adult
stage, cause myiasis at the immature stages or larvae, invade living soft tissue, or transmit
pathogens to cattle as biological or mechanical vectors.12 Examples of common ectoparasitic
flies affecting cattle health and production causing economic damage are briefly reviewed.

1. FLIES
I. Horn and buffalo flies
Haematobia irritans, commonly known as the horn fly, is a cosmopolitan hematophagous
ectoparasite closely associated with cattle grazing in open pastures and
rangeland. Adults spend most of their life on the host and tend to congregate on the back
and shoulders of cattle or on their underbelly during the heat of the day. Persistent blood
feeding irritates cattle and can cause significant production losses.

Effect and control: Larvae breed in undisturbed dung pats, and adult populations build
up during the warmer
months of the year. Treatment is warranted when adult horn fly counts per animal
exceed 200. In northern Australia and Southeast Asia, the buffalo fly, Haematobia
exigua, is an economically important biting fly closely related to the horn fly.
Horn flies are mechanical vectors of bacteria causing bovine mastitis. Buffalo and
horn flies are intermediate hosts of spirurid nematodes causing bleeding sores from
stephanofilariasis in cattle. Several classes of ectoparasiticides and formulations
are used to treat infestations. Insecticide resistance is a problem among these biting
flies in several parts of their geographic range. Cattle-feed additives containing larvacides

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and insect growth regulators excreted in the dung that prevent the adult stage
are used to control Haematobia spp. populations.

General lifecycle of flies:

II. Stable fly

With a worldwide distribution, unique breeding habits, strong flying ability, and transient
host association to acquire a blood meal through a painful bite, the stable fly,
Stomoxys calcitrans, is a pestiferous ectoparasite of cattle.

Effect and control: Larvae breeding in moist decaying organic material from multiple
sources including crop residues, lawn clippings, silage, and animal bedding can result in
stable fly outbreaks. Stable flies tend to blood feed on the lower parts of cattle. The stable fly
can be a pest in open pastures or in confined cattle production facilities. Although considered
a poor vector, viruses, bacteria, and protozoans pathogenic to cattle have been recovered from
the stable fly. Sanitation in and around cattle-raising areas prevents fly population growth
locally.Ectoparasiticide treatment helps control adult flies.

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III. Face fly

Cattle in Europe, central Asia, and parts of Africa, the United States, and Canada are
hosts for the face fly, Musca autumnalis.

Effect and control : Ectoparasitism by face flies is associated with pastured cattle where,
as with the horn fly, fresh cattle dung provides the immature stages the nourishment to
develop.Adult flies consume secretions from the eyes and nostrils, and sanguineous fluid
from wounds around the host face. When face flies attempt to feed, the abrasive action of
their mouthparts can create superficial skin lesions and ocular irritation and damage. The
threshold of greater than 15 flies per face is generally accepted, and cattle with infestations of
20 or more flies on the face spend less time grazing and exhibit avoidance behavior. The face
fly is the mechanical vector of Moraxella bovis, causing infectious bovine
keratoconjunctivitis (IBK) or pinkeye. As fly feeding increases and cattle exhibit more
defensive behaviors, the spread of IBK is augmented. The face fly serves as the intermediate
host of Thelazia eyeworms, the causative agent of the laziasis . Ectoparasiticides to aid in the
control of the adults are often used in feed additives and are an effective means of preventing
heavy infestations.

Economic impact of flies on cattle: Flies are one of the distressing external parasites for
cattle. There are an innumerable variety of flies that negatively impact productivity. Moreover, flies
cause nuisance, pain, and constant disturbance with feeding, resting, and other daily activities. Some
species feed on cattle’s blood by piercing the skin with persistent biting. The bites can even lead to
sores on the head, resulting in a secondary infection and a high risk of spreading diseases among the
herd. The problem may worsen during summer when the population increases and impacts cattle’s
weight and milk production. Primarily there are three types of flies found in cattle, horn fly, face fly,
and stable fly. Horn flies feed on the cattle’s blood and is prominently settled on the back, shoulder,
and belly region. In contrast, face flies are non-biting flies that feed on secretion and are

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morphologically similar to house flies. Stable flies are blood-sucking flies that feed on the legs of the
cattle. Animals repeatedly stomp to avoid biting.

2. Lice
Lice, representing the insect order Phthiraptera, are relatively small (2.5–3.0 mm)
with a dorsoventrally flattened body, and are morphologically divided into sucking
and chewing groups.

Bovicola bovis, commonly known as the cattle biting louse, is

the chewing louse associated with cattle.

The main species of cattle sucking lice

are: Haematopinus eurysternus, or short-nosed cattle louse; Haematopinus quadripertusus,
or cattle tail louse; Linognathus vituli, or long-nosed cattle louse; and Solenopotes
capillatus, or little blue cattle louse. Lice complete all the stages of their life
cycle on the host. Sucking lice are hematophagous and typically have a narrow,
pointed head, whereas biting lice feed on skin and hair and have a broad head. Unlike
the cattle tail louse that can be more abundant in the summer, burdens are low on cattle with
other louse species during the summer months but typically increase during the winter and
early spring.

Effect and control: Heavy lice infestation is associated with signs of pruritus, can cause
severe anemia, and may also be an indicator of other underlying conditions in affected cattle.
Infested animals will scratch and rub the skin, trying to relieve themselves of the irritation.34
Dip or spray ectoparasiticide treatment of cattle can control lice infestations. Macrocyclic
lactones are also used but are more effective against sucking lice than chewing lice.
However, they are inactive against lice eggs, or nits, so additional treatments may be
required to ensure that newly hatched nymphs are killed. Ectoparasiticide application

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can be part of the schedule to treat lice and other parasites when cattle are prepared
for the winter months.

Lifecycle:
Body lice (Pediculus humanus corporis) go through three stages of development: the egg
(also known as a nit), the nymph, and the adult. The life cycle of body lice typically lasts
about one month.

Female lice lay their eggs on clothing fibers close to the skin, which hatch in 6-9 days. The
eggs are oval and about the size of a pinhead. The hatched nymphs feed on the host's blood
and pass through three stages before becoming adults. The first and second nymphal stages
last for 2-3 days each, while the third nymphal stage lasts for 4-5 days. After the third molt,
the lice become adults, which are about the size of a sesame seed. The adult lice have six legs
and are tan to grayish-white in color. Female body lice can lay up to 300 eggs in their
lifetime. The life cycle of body lice is influenced by temperature and humidity, and can vary
in length depending on these factors.

Economic limpact of lice and disease:

Sprays are one of the effective methods for fly control. The insecticide is applied to only specific parts
of the cattle, like the udder area. The timely use of spray with water emulsion is convenient.
Management of flies can be exhausting, especially during summer. However, one can efficiently get
rid of them using the above methods. It is essential to take proper care of your cattle as optimum
health decides the ultimate output of the cattle. Hence, Topicure advance is an effective spray to repel
flies and maggots and heal wounds potentially.

If producers notice their cattle rubbing, biting or scratching with irritation at their neck, shoulders and
rump — including the loss of hair in those areas — they could be experiencing a lice problem. Lice

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are a common annoyance to cattle, especially in the winter months. The energy sucking lice rob from
the animal can result in anemia, slowed recovery from diseases and decreased gain during infestation
3. Mites
Mites are arachnids in the subclass Acari and are approximately 1 mm long.. Mites have
the abdomen broadly joined to the thorax with little or no evidence of segmentation.
Adults and nymphs generally have 8 legs, and the larval stage has 6. The life cycle of
many species requires less than 4 weeks and in some it is as short as 8 days. All but a few
species of mites are minute and barely visible to the naked eye.

The most well-known species of Sarcoptidae that affect humans and cattles are Sarcoptes
scabiei, the cause of scabies.

LIFE CYCLE OF MITES

The life cycle of mites can vary depending on the species, but in general, it consists of several
stages: egg, larva, protonymph, deutonymph, and adult. Mites are arthropods and, as such,
undergo a process of metamorphosis, meaning they change their physical form as they grow
and develop.

The egg stage is the first stage in the life cycle of mites, where a female mite will lay eggs
either on or near the food source for the offspring. The eggs hatch into the larva stage, which
is typically the first feeding stage of the mite. After feeding, the larva molt into the
protonymph stage, which is also a feeding stage. The protonymph then molts into the
deutonymph stage, which is the final feeding stage before the adult stage. The adult stage is
where the mite is sexually mature and capable of reproducing.

The length of the life cycle can vary depending on the species and environmental conditions,
but in some cases, it can be completed in as little as a few days, while in others, it may take
several weeks or months.

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Animal Response and Economic Losses

Mange mites are very contagious, can spread rapidly and can have severe economic consequences on
animal health. The host reaction to burrowing and non-burrowing mites results in intense itching
accompanied by hair loss, which can predispose the host to secondary bacterial infection. Infestations
also cause defects in raw leather and losses to the tanning industry. Research has demonstrated that
cattle infested with P. ovis had lowered weight gains and feed efficiency, especially in feedlots and
crowded conditions.Cattle are infested with several species of mites which cause a skin disease called
mange. Mange is the collective name for allergic dermatitis caused by the infestation of mites.

These obligate ectoparasite are transmitted mainly by direct animal to animal contact, although they
can survive for about two weeks in the environment like posts. Mange presents as a skin condition
associated with irritation and scratching that leads to inflammation, exudation with crusts and scabs
forming on the skin. Untreated mange leads to thickening of the skin and loss of condition of the
animal. Mange is often seen in animals during the winter season. Mange can be a big welfare issue in
dairy herds if the treatment of lactating animals is withheld. Most infections are limited by the animal
grooming itself when husbandry conditions allow this and do not jeopardise animals’ natural
resistance to the disease.Keep animals well-nourished and in good condition, especially during the
winter months .

Preventions:
• Maintain a closed herd policy
• Quarantine and health check bought-in animals
• Investigate and treat immediately any skin conditions that cause irritation and scratching
• If mange is diagnosed, treat immediately and ensure that the infection has been eliminated
from the herd
• Speak to your neighbours and those who graze their animals communally with yours
• If communal grazing is unavoidable, joint efforts to control the disease with other communal
grazing users should be attempted. If this fails, regular checking of the animals for signs of
mange and treatment before introduction back to the farm should be carried out

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4. Ticks
Ticks are larger and close relatives of the mites in the arachnid subclass Acari. Their
obligate blood-feeding habit requires that ticks subvert innate and acquired host immune
responses through bioactive factors secreted in their saliva to remain attached
at the bite site for days at a time, sometimes on multiple occasions parasitizing the
same host.

Effect on cattle :Besides having direct effects on their hosts, ticks are also the
mostimportant parasitic arthropod group as vectors of pathogens affecting domestic animals
and wildlife. Ticks are remarkable in their vector ability to transmit diverse pathogens
including protozoa, bacteria, and viruses. Tick-borne pathogens are the causeof
transboundary cattle diseases.
Diverse groups of ectoparasitic arthropods cause significant morbidity and mortality in
cattle globally. Ectoparasites affect cattle health and production through the different
ways that they infest their hosts to obtain nutrients and complete their life cycle, and as
vectors of pathogens.
There are over 900 species of ticks
worldwide, but not all of them are known to
bite humans. Some common tick species
that are known to bite humans include the
black-legged tick (Ixodes scapularis), the
Lone Star tick (Amblyomma americanum),
and the dog tick (Dermacentor variabilis).

LIFE CYCLE OF TICKS

The life cycle of ticks typically consists of four stages: egg, larva, nymph, and adult. The
length of each stage and the number of blood meals required for each stage vary among
species, as well as in response to environmental factors such as temperature and humidity.

Egg Stage:
The female tick lays a batch of eggs, typically ranging from a few hundred to several
thousand, on the ground or on vegetation. The eggs hatch into larvae after a few weeks or
months, depending on the species and environmental conditions.

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Larva Stage:
Larvae are small and have only six legs. They crawl onto vegetation, where they wait for a
suitable host to brush by. Once a host is found, the larva attaches to the skin and feeds on
blood for several days before dropping off to molt into the next stage. Larvae typically feed
on small mammals, birds, or reptiles.

Nymph Stage:
Nymphs have eight legs and are larger than larvae. They also climb onto vegetation and wait
for a host to pass by. Once attached, the nymph feeds on blood for several days before
dropping off to molt into the adult stage. Nymphs may feed on a wider range of hosts,
including larger mammals and humans.

Adult Stage:
Adult ticks have eight legs and are the largest stage of the tick life cycle. Males and females
mate while on the host, and females may take several blood meals to produce eggs. Adult
ticks may feed on a wide range of hosts, including humans, dogs, and other mammals.

Ticks are capable of transmitting a wide range of diseases, including Lyme disease, Rocky
Mountain spotted fever, and tick-borne encephalitis. It is important to take measures to avoid
contact with ticks and to remove them promptly if they are found on the skin to reduce the
risk of tick-borne diseases.

DISEASE
Babesiosis, or tick fever, is a febrile disease of domestic and wild animals characterized by extensive
erythrocytic lysis leading to anaemia, icterus and haemoglobinuria, and which can be fatal. The

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disease is caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Babesia transmitted by a variety of tick species.
There are at least 14 distinct species of Babesia from various vertebrate hosts (Riek, 1968). In cattle,
Babesia bigemina is distributed through Central and South America, Europe, Africa, Australia and
Asia; Babesia bovis has been reported from Europe, Africa, Asia and the Far East; Babesia argentina
(which may be synonymous with B. bovis) is found in southeast Asia and Australia, and from Mexico
down through Latin America.

Control of disease:
The eradication of Texas cattle fever (caused by Babesia bigemina) was accomplished in the United
States by the elimination of the tick vectors Boophilus microplus and Boophilus annulatus.

Dectomax Injectable is highly effective at controlling all stages of cattle tick present on cattle at the
time of treatment.2-4 Some stages of cattle tick are more difficult to control. Larval ticks suck
relatively little blood and this makes them more difficult to kill with the ML class of chemicals which
only kill ticks after sucking a blood meal. Larval ticks are also harder to find on inspection of treated
cattle. The levels of Doramectin in the blood provided by Dectomax Injectable ensure an effective kill
against larval ticks and all other stages of cattle tick at the time of treatment.2 Dectomax Injectable
also provides persistent activity, preventing the development of viable egg laying cattle ticks for at
least 28 days after treatment.2,3.

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Endoparasites Of Cattles

With proper preventive and treatment methods, producers can control many
parasites.common important internal parasites are hair worms , lung worms, liver flukes and
coccidian e.t.c. calves are more susceptible to internal parasites because of low immunity.
1. Liver fluke
Flukes are a type of endoparasitic flatworms that can infect humans and other animals. They
belong to the class Trematoda and have a complex life cycle that often involves multiple
hosts, including snails and various vertebrates.There are many species of flukes that can
infect humans, including the following examples:

Clonorchis sinensis: also known as the Chinese liver fluke, this species can infect the liver
and bile ducts of humans and other mammals.

Schistosoma mansoni: this species causes schistosomiasis, a disease that affects the
intestines and liver.

Fasciola hepatica: also known as the common liver fluke, this species can cause liver
damage and other symptoms in humans and other mammals.

Paragonimus westermani: this species causes paragonimiasis, a disease that affects the
lungs and can cause symptoms such as coughing, fever, and chest pain.

Lifecycle of liverfluke :

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Disease and its impact :

Disease and effects:

Liver fluke is caused by a parasite Fasciloa hepatica. Fluke eggs, which are passed in the faeces of a
mammalian host, develop and hatch into motile ciliated miracidia - a process which takes nine days at
the optimal temperature of 22 to 26o. Development will not occur below 10o. These miracidia have a
short lifespan and must come into contact with the host (snail) within three hours.Fascioliasis is a rare
infectious disorder caused by parasites. These parasites are liver flukes that live in plant-eating
animals. Liver flukes can be found on water plants in certain parts of the world. When the parasite
invades the liver, bile passages may be blocked. A subdivision of Fascioliasis called Halzoun
Syndrome affects the throat (pharynx). This infection can usually be controlled and/or cured with
timely treatment.Chronic liver fluke ,Twin-bearing cows show the most severe signs due to the high
demands of two foetuses. Unlike infestation in sheep, peripheral oedema is a less common finding
with chronic fasciolosis in cattle. Severe infections may cause anaemia.Bulls, Infested bulls show
similar clinical signs as cows such as chronic weight loss and diarrhoea.

Economic losses:

Up to 40 million sheep and 6 million cattle in Australia graze pastures where liver fluke is
endemic. In 1999, it was estimated that graziers spent approximately $10 million a year on
fluke drenches alone; with lost production costing a further $50–80 million a year. More
recently, Lane and others (2015) estimated that the annual cost of fluke to the Australian
sheep industry alone was about 25 million dollars.Deaths account for only a part of this loss.
Other significant losses in livestock include: reduced production and quality of wool reduced
lambing percentages ,poor growth rate of lambs,increased costs for replacement stock
,reduced production and quality of milk in dairy cattle Liver fluke can develop to sexual
maturity in sheep, cattle, horses, pigs, goats, alpacas and deer.

Treatment
Triclabendazole is effective at killing all stages of triclabendazole-susceptible flukes from two weeks
old. Cattle may be slaughtered for human consumption only after 56 days from last treatment. Do
not administer to cows producing milk for human consumption. Intensive use or misuse of
preparations such as triclabendazole can give rise to drug resistance with reduced efficacy of the
preparation.

Prevention/control measures
In areas with endemic fasciolosis, control is founded upon strategic flukicide treatments outlined in
the veterinary herd health plan.

Where cattle are in-wintered a single dose of a flukicide, effective against appropriate stages, should
be given around housing time in accordance with the farm's veterinary herd health plan - this will

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highlight the most appropriate treatment for that specific farm. Housing avoids repeated treatment
which may select for resistant strains.

2. ROUND WORMS

Roundworms: Brown stomach worm (Ostertagia ostertagi), instestinal worms (Cooperia oncophora
and punctata, Nematodirus helvetianus).Roundworms are the most common class of internal
parasites in beef cattle and impacts can be insidious.

Effect in cattle: They cause depressed weight gains, poor feed efficiency, diarrhea in calves and
reduced milk production and reproductive inefficiency in cows.

Economic limpact: The largest academic assessment ofproduction impacts of internal

roundworm parasites occurred in North America in 2007. The study evaluated the economic impact
of parasite control, growth promoter implants, sub-therapeutic antibiotics, ionophores and b-agonists.
The study found that, of these practices, deworming had the biggest positive impact in cow-calf (23%
for weaning rates), stockers ($20.77 per head in breakeven prices) and the second highest benefit after
growth promoter implants at the feedlot (5.6% improvement in average daily gain and 3.9% reduction
in the feed-to-gain ratio).

LIFE CYCLE
The life cycle of roundworms can vary depending on the specific species, but the general life
cycle consists of the following stages:

Eggs - The adult female roundworms lay eggs in the host's intestine or in the environment.
The eggs are then passed out of the host's body through feces.

Larvae - The eggs hatch into larvae in the environment, and the larvae develop through
several stages.

Infective stage - The infective stage is when the larvae become capable of infecting a host.
This stage can vary depending on the species and can occur in the environment or in an
intermediate host.

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Host penetration - The infective stage of the larvae penetrate the host's skin or are
ingested by the host.

Maturity - The larvae migrate through the host's body to their final destination, which can
be the intestines or other tissues.

Reproduction - Once the larvae mature into adults, they reproduce, and the females lay
eggs, starting the cycle over again.

The specifics of the life cycle can vary depending on the species of roundworm, as some
require an intermediate host or multiple hosts to complete their life cycle. Additionally, some
roundworms can infect humans directly, while others require a different host, such as an
animal, to complete their life cycle.

2. LUNG WORMS

Lungworms (Dictyocaulus viviparous). Sporadic disease outbreaks.Lungworms in upper airways of

respiratory system cause nasal discharge, coughing and difficult breathing. It is a sporadic disease in
Canada but can be severe affecting both calves and adult cattle.

Lifecycle:

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Diseases and effect in cattle:

Lungworm infection is a parasitic infection of the respiratory tract in cattle, which can cause severe
disease outbreaks with coughing and respiratory distress. Death can occur in heavy infestations.
Other signs can include weight loss, and reduced milk yield in dairy cows.

Disease due to lungworm (also known as parasitic bronchitis, ‘hoose’ or ‘husk’) is most commonly
seen in young cattle during their first grazing season, usually in the late summer and early autumn,
and dairy calves and autumn-born suckled calves are most at risk. Outbreaks, however can be
unpredictable, and disease is being increasingly seen earlier in the year, and in older cattle.

Animals that are exposed to lungworms usually develop immunity to re-infection. However, a lack of
exposure in young cattle can result in clinical disease in older cattle. In order to maintain immunity,
further exposure to lungworm is important. Disease in older animals is being increasingly diagnosed
in AFBI both in those that have not previously been exposed, or in those whose immunity has
diminished due to not having been re-exposed.

Symptoms of disease:

• Shortness of breath
• Fever
• Coughing (particularly after excitement)
• In severe infestations, open mouth breathing
• Bacterial or viral pneumonia can also gain a foothold requiring intensive veterinary treatment
• Severe cases of lungworm infestation causes stunting of growth, poor thrive and chronic lung
damage, often leading to relapses as the animal gets older.

Treatment: Bimectin Injection, Bimectin Plus and Bimectin Pour On are all licensed to treat
lungworm in cattle. Bimectin Injection is licensed to treat lungworm in cattle, sheep and pigs.
Bimectin Paste is licensed to treat lungworm in horses.

Economic impact : Two lungworm outbreaks in dairy herds were investigated in order to
estimate the resulting economic costs. On the two farms, with 110 and 95 cows, total costs were
estimated at €159 and €167 per cow, respectively. Overall, milk production reduced by 15 to 20 per
cent during the outbreaks. Five cows died on one farm, while on the other farm seven cows died as a
result of the lungworm outbreak. On one farm, 51.7 per cent of the total costs was due to reduced milk
production and 33.1 per cent was due to disposal of dead animals. On the other farm, it was 36.3 and
50.9 per cent, respectively. The remaining 13 to 15 per cent of the total costs were due to extra
inseminations, laboratory diagnosis and treatments. The history and development of the outbreaks are
described. One lesson from these outbreaks is that recognising that potentially lungworm-naïve
animals are to be introduced into the adult herd allows for timely measures (for example, vaccination)
to prevent a lungworm outbreak.

3. Tapeworms (Monezia benedeni)

Tapeworms are several metres long and are common. Segments can often be seen in manure but are
not considered harmful.Coccidia (Eimeria bovis, Eimeria zuernii and othe Eimeria spp)

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Disease: Coccidiosis is caused by parasites that invade and destroy cells lining the intestine. It is
very common in Canada, causing acute dysentery and diarrhea, neurological signs, chronic diarrhea
and reduced growth. Disease most commonly occurs in 1-6 month old calves.

LIFE CYCLE OF TAPE WORM

The life cycle of tapeworms is complex and involves different stages and hosts. The general
life cycle of tapeworms can be described as follows:

Adult tapeworm: The adult tapeworm lives in the intestine of a definitive host, which is
usually a vertebrate animal such as a human or a pig. The tapeworm attaches to the intestinal
wall with its scolex, which is equipped with hooks or suckers.

Proglottids: The tapeworm grows by producing segments called proglottids, which contain
male and female reproductive organs. Each proglottid can release thousands of eggs.

Egg release;The eggs are released from the proglottids and are excreted in the host's feces.

Intermediate host: The eggs are ingested by an intermediate host, which can be a
herbivorous or omnivorous animal such as a pig, cow, or fish. Once inside the intermediate
host, the eggs hatch and release larvae, which penetrate the intestinal wall and migrate to
various organs and tissues, such as the muscles, liver, or brain.

Cysticerci: The larvae develop into a larval stage called cysticercus, which is a fluid-filled
sac containing a single scolex. The cysticerci can survive in the intermediate host for months
or years, depending on the species of tapeworm.

Definitive host: When the intermediate host is consumed by a definitive host, such as a
human or a predator animal, the cysticerci are released from the cysts and attach to the
intestinal wall, where they grow into adult tapeworms and start producing proglottids.

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The life cycle of tapeworms can vary depending on the species and the intermediate hosts
involved. For example, some tapeworms can use multiple intermediate hosts or can infect
humans as both the definitive and intermediate host. Proper cooking of meat and fish can help
prevent tapeworm infection by killing the larvae in the meat or fish.

Economic impact :
• Tapeworms can have a significant economic impact in both human and animal
populations. In humans, the most common tapeworm infection is caused by Taenia
saginata, also known as the beef tapeworm. This tapeworm can cause economic losses
due to reduced meat quality and quantity, as well as increased costs for veterinary
services and public health interventions.
• In livestock, tapeworm infections can cause reduced productivity and weight gain, as
well as liver and lung damage. In some cases, tapeworm infections can also result in
death. For example, Echinococcus granulosus, a tapeworm that can infect sheep, can
cause hydatid disease, which is a significant economic burden in areas where sheep
farming is a major industry.
• One study estimated that the economic burden of Taenia saginata infections in cattle
in Spain was €27 million per year, including costs associated with reduced meat
quality and quantity, animal treatment, and public health interventions. Another study
estimated that the annual economic burden of Echinococcus granulosus infections in
livestock in Romania was €1.25 million.

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4. Dicrocoelium dendriticum

Dicrocoelium dendriticum, the lancet fluke, dwells in the bile ducts of herbivorous animals. The
trematode Dicrocoelium dendriticum occurs in cattle, sheep and other ungulates in many
parts of the world, including western Canada. The trematode Dicrocoelium dendriticum
occurs in cattle, sheep and other ungulates in many parts of the world, including western
Canada.

Life cycle: If ingested by certain terrestrial snails, the parasite eggs release a larva (‘miracidium’)
that develops into asexually reproducing sporocysts. They then produce cercariae, which are
embedded in tough mucus and expelled in packets. When Formica ants feed on these mucus balls, the
cercariae penetrate into their body cavity. Nearly all cercariae encyst in the ant’s abdomen and
develop into infective metacercariae. Yet, one larva settles in a specific region of the ant’s brain
without forming a cyst wall. Once the metacercariae are mature, infected ants attach themselves to the
foliage of plants by their mandibles in the evening. Attachment ceases only in the morning with rising
temperature. This behavior exposes the infected ants to grazing herbivores and channels the encysted
metacercariae to their final host, while the ‘brain worm’, without a cyst wall, does not survive the
process of digestion.

Effect in cattle:
Infection of the definitive host is by ingestion of infected ants. Significant pathology
associated with D. dendriticum in sheep and cattle is believed to occur only very rarely and is
usually associated with very large numbers of parasites. Heavy infections with the immature
fluke may cause decreased appetite, listlessness and weight loss. Fluid, foul-smelling
diarrhoea, dehydration and death may result from these infections.
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Moderate infections with the immature fluke may cause reduced weight gains or milk
production, or ill-thrift. Immature fluke live in the small intestine of ruminants where they
attach themselves to the intestinal lining with powerful suckers. In large numbers, they
destroy part of this lining and cause acute inflammation of the intestine. Death can occur in
severe infections.
ECONOMIC LOSSES due to parasites in CATTLES; . According to already
conducted studies, a decrease in production is mentioned in quantity and percentage while
financial losses are expressed in the form of account with respect to per head, herd or for the
specific study area. The parasites cause the reduced production and financial losses due to
control, treatment and mortality costs. We calculated the average decrease in milk production
and organ condemnation as 1.16 L animal−1 day−1 and 12.95%, respectively, from overall
cattle parasitic infections. Moreover, the average calculated financial and percentage losses
were US$ 50.67 animal−1 year−1 and 17.94%, respectively. Economically important
parasitic diseases mentioned here are caused by specific spp. of protozoans and helminths
according to data collected from the literature. Protozoan diseases include tick-borne
diseases, coccidiosis, neosporosis, trypanosomiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Losses due to tick-
borne infections were encountered for decreased milk production, mortality, treatment and
control. Losses from coccidiosis were due to decreased weight gain, treatment costs and
mortality. While abortion losses were encountered in neosporosis. Trypanosomiasis caused
losses due to a decrease in milk yield.

2- POULTRY PARASITES

ECTOPARASITES OF POULTRY
The main external parasites that are problematic for poultry are mites and lice. Mite parasites feed on
the blood of chickens and can cause anaemia and possible death, while lice feed on dander and
feathers. The red mite causes the most problems in poultry.

1. Red mite:
Dermanyssus gallinae (also known as the red mite) is a haematophagous ectoparasite of poultry. It
has been implicated as a vector of several major pathogenic diseases.[1][2] Despite its common
names, it has a wide range of hosts including several species of wild birds and mammals, including
humans.[3][4] In both size and appearance, it resembles the northern fowl mite, Ornithonyssus
sylviarum.

life cycle of Red Mite: The typical life cycle of Red Mite is around 7 days. You can see in the
diagram below the full life cycle at each stage from egg to adult mite. It is important that chicken
keepers know the life cycle of Red Mites to understand how to tackle the adults, break the life cycle
and deter future infestations. The Nettex Total Mite Kill regime is a weekly programme for this
reason – to break the life cycle of those mites and to help prevent eggs forming into adults which there
lay more eggs and so on.

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Diseases:scabies, allergic reactions, and typhus fever. Scabies is a skin condition caused by
Sarcoptes scabiei, which burrows into the skin and causes intense itching and rash. Allergic
reactions can be caused by house dust mites, which can trigger asthma and other respiratory
symptoms. Typhus fever is caused by Rickettsia bacteria transmitted by mites, fleas, or ticks,
and can cause fever, headache, and other symptoms.

Treatment and preventative measures for red mite

Eradicating red mite can be difficult as the mite is very resistant. Hygiene is the most important factor
in prevention but no matter how effective the clean out is, reinfection is highly likely. Red mites are
very resilient to certain groups of chemicals. Before using specific products it is vital to contact your
veterinary surgeon who will advise you on the best products to use. Your vet will want to know:

Style of poultry unit

Age of poultry

Size of flock

System you use to feed and water chickens

Once the product has been chosen, it is important to bear in mind any egg or meat withdrawal.

If red mite has been diagnosed in a commercial unit then cleaning the unit as soon as possible with a
strong detergent is vital. Once the birds have gone, there will be a dip in temperature and mites can
detect this and so will move themselves deeper into gaps in the wall. After the initial clean another
clean should be given and then a final clean before any new birds are introduced.

It is vital to monitor red mite populations on a weekly basis, especially after restocking. The results of
these checks should be written down and become part of the long-term flock management plans. If
you find that your poultry are suffering severely with red mite, then further treatment should be
carried out. If you have any concerns, always seek veterinary advice.

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2. Lice
LICE INFESTATION Other Names: Pediculosis Lice are the most common ectoparasite
found in backyard and free-range flocks worldwide. They are small, flat, wingless six-legged parasites
which are host-specific. Lice spend their entire life cycle on the chicken. During this time, they
survive by eating feather parts, dead skin and blood.

Effect of lice on poultry: Chickens are normally relatively effective at keeping lice and other
ectoparasites off of their bodies. They accomplish this through dustbathing and preening (grooming)
their feathers daily. However, without an appropriate area to dustbathe and/or reduced ability to preen
(such as birds with beak deformities, those with trimmed or injured beaks, and injured or sick birds),
lice infestations are more likely to become an issue. Molting also greatly reduces louse populations.

Adult lice are large enough to be visible to the naked eye but can sometimes be difficult to see
depending on the color contrast to the bird's feathers and skin. However, when adult lice are exposed
to light they will scatter and hide. Their rapid movement will catch your eye. In severe cases, clumps
of cement-like clusters (of lice eggs) will be attached to the base of the bird's feathers. Common
Types of Poultry Lice

several different species of lice which are found on chickens. They differ in body shape,
color, and size. Each species has certain locations they prefer to inhabit on the chicken's body.
Chicken Head Louse: As adults, Cuclotogaster heterographus are 2.5 mm long with oblong grayish
bodies and triangular heads. They tend to live on the base of the feathers of the bird's head and neck.

• Fluff Louse: As adults, Goniocotes gallinae are 1.5 mm long with round, yellow bodies. They
are found within the feather fluff along the bird's back, abdomen, and vent. Eggs are found in
clusters near the base of feathers.
• Brown Chicken Louse: As adults, Goniodes dissimilis are 3.5 mm long with reddish brown
bodies. They can be found throughout the chicken's body and live on the skin and feathers.
Eggs are found in clusters near the base of feathers.
• Wing Louse: As adults, Lipeurus caponis are 2 m long with slender, grayish bodies. They are
typically found on the bird's skin and undersides of the large wing and tail feathers. Eggs are
found in clusters near the base of feathers. Chicken Body Louse: Menacanthus stramineus are
one of the most common species of poultry lice found in backyard and free-range chickens
worldwide. They are 3.5 mm long with yellow to brown colored bodies. This species live
close to the skin and found around the bird's vent, breast, head, and underneath the wings.
Eggs are found as cemented clusters along the base of feathers
• . Shaft Louse: Menopon gallinae are commonly found in backyard and free-range flocks
worldwide. They are 2.3 mm long with pale yellow bodies. They live on the shafts of newly
grown feathers along the bird's breast and thigh areas.

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Eggs of lice;
Eggs are found cemented individually at the base of feather shafts or along feather barbs. Lice have a
life span of about a month. During that time, one female louse will lay from 50 to 300 eggs (referred
to as "nits"). Lice eggs look like whitish, oval capsules which are cemented in clusters or individually
to the base or barbs of the feathers. The eggs are often easier to find then the lice, since the eggs will
glisten in reflected light, particularly before they hatch. Most lice eggs require 4 to 7 days to hatch and
then 10 to 15 days to reach adulthood. Hatched eggs will remain attached to the feathers and appear
grayish and flattened in appearance. Not all members of the flock will necessarily have lice. However,
the presence of some lice on most birds or of egg clusters attached to one or more birds is enough
cause to assume that the entire flock has lice.

Treatment:
Treatment involves removal of the eggs (if present) and application of an insecticide. Removal of the
eggs is important because they are resistant to insecticides. It can be made easier by soaking the bird
in a bath first, or by coating them with a softening agent such as NuStock or similar product. There
are many commercial insecticide products available on the market for treatment of lice. However, just
make sure to read the product label to ensure that it specifically states its effectiveness against lice (as
there are some products intended for mites and fleas only, and not effective for lice).

Effects on poultry
Louse-negative hens averaged 11.17 percent greater production than louse positive hens. It was
concluded that body lice cause a loss in egg production and that it is economically worth. The
mortality rate was 3.7 percent lower in the louse-negative than in the louse-positive pens. However
the difference was not significant. Louse-negative hens averaged heavier body weights than louse-
positive hens after 5 to 6 months of their first laying year. Based on these findings the authors find
that lice infestation in poultry has economic significance. Lice consume dead cells of skin and tissue
fluids, while other suck blood .According to, Jungmann,1970, these lice also cause hyperchromic
anaemia reducing haemogloben and erythrocyte values. Lice infestation causes weight loss at the rate
of about 711 gms per birds and decrease the egg yield at the rate of about 66 egg per bird in a year .
De Vaney (1975) studied the effects of heavy infestations of M. stramineus on the egg production,
body weight, feed consumption, egg size, and clutch size of caged White Leghorn hens. In addition,

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influence of lice infestation was also judged at three distinct phases viz. at the point of lay, at the
height of production and at the declining of egg production. The average egg size for infested and
control hens were calculated for each test. The author found, there was a significant difference in egg
production by the 26th week.
Decrease in feed consumption, body weight and size of egg was evident with increasing lice
population on the body. Lice infestation also can cause lameness.. Amblyceran lice may cause
irritation of the skin, restlessness, overall weakening and cessation of feeding. Loss of weight and
inferior laying capacity, and skin lesions that may become site of secondary infections.

3. Scaly leg mite

Scaly leg mites (Knemidocoptes mutans) are a relatively common ectoparasite found in adult
backyard chickens, turkeys, and pheasants worldwide. These mites are extremely tiny (not
visible to the naked eye) and will spend their entire lives (10 to 14 days) burrowing tunnels
underneath the cornified epidermis of the chicken’s skin. K. mutans are normally found on
the chicken’s legs and top of their feet, but on occasion may invade the comb, wattles, neck
and/or beak. The tunneling action of the mites is damaging to the chicken’s skin tissue,
resulting in hyperkeratotic lesions which appear as thickened, scaly skin, raised non-uniform
scales, white crusting and seepage of tissue fluid.

Life cycle

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Disease:
This is a condition caused by a mite called ‘Knemidocoptes Mutans’ which burrows under
the skin on a bird’s legs to feed on the keratin. The tunnelling causes irritation with leg scales
becoming thickened, as the keratin seeps from the leg tissue, and eventually becoming
encrusted and lifting away from the leg. The legs will appear lumpy with large gaps visible
between the individual scales.This is generally not considered a painful condition, but can
cause discomfort.

Symptoms
• Raised uneven or lifted scales on legs.

• Thickened rough skin.

How can I tell if bird is infected?

There are certain types of lesions that occur in birds with this infection. The lay term for
knemidokoptic mange is "scaly leg and face disease." Large amounts of honeycombed-
looking scales and crusts can be seen on the bird's beak, cere (the area on the face for the
nasal openings), eyes, and/or legs. Severely affected birds generally have very long, crusty
upper beaks and thick, crusty toes. The infestation can also involve the skin around the eyes,
vent (where the bird defecates), and uropygial gland (also called the oil or preening gland).

Causes
Caused by the scaly leg mite (knemidocoptes mutans) which is invisible to the naked eye and
burrows into the skin on the birds’ legs and feet digging tunnels, eating their skin, laying eggs
and leaving droppings. It spends its entire 10-14 day life cycle on the affected bird.

Treatment:
There are lots of proprietary treatments on the market.

• The traditional method of applying a thick coating of Vaseline or Swarfega to the legs
daily for one week will suffocate the mites and soften the scales. Swarfega will also
loosen the scales which may then shed revealing pink healthy tissue
underneath. Please note, officially any petroleum-based product is considered toxic to
poultry, but this product has been used by BHWT staff, volunteers and supporters
routinely with no ill effects.

• Mild disinfectant (Savlon or Hibiscrub): bathing the legs with a mild disinfectant can
be beneficial but will need repeating daily for several weeks.

• Methylated spirit: officially, veterinary-recommended treatment is to stand a hen in

methylated spirit, but given that the underlying skin may be very sore, we do not
consider this a welfare-friendly solution and therefore we do not recommend it.

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Prevention
• The mite is spread by direct contact between birds. Check all birds on a regular basis.

• Initially introduced by wild birds, rodents or new flock members. Limit access

• New scales may take some time to grow back, but no lasting damage should be done
to the well-being of a hen. It is worth noting that damaged scales need to be shed in
the same way that feathers are moulted allowing regrowth. This takes time and the
legs will look abnormal long after the mites have been killed. Do not be tempted to
pick off any damaged scales as the legs may bleed.

Endoparasites of poultry
1. Heterakis gallinarum
Heterakis gallinarum is found in the caeca of chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, grouse,partridges,
pheasants and quail and is widespread in floor reared replacement pullets.The parasite Heterakis
gallinarum adult worms are small, white worms that are found in the caeca. The
male is 7-13mm long and the female 10-15mm long.

Life cycle
This worm has a direct life cycle. Eggs are laid in the caeca and pass out of the hen’s body in an
unembryonated form in the faeces. Within two weeks the eggs have become infective. When

swallowed they then hatch in the upper intestines and reach the caeca within 24 hours. Initially the
worms are associated with the caecal mucosal tissue but after two and a half weeks they are free in the
caecal lumens.The eggs can be ingested by earthworms where they can hatch and live for months. If
the earthworm is ingested by a hen infection becomes established.
Heterakis gallinarum can carry the protozoal parasite Histomonas meleagridis, the cause of
blackhead in turkeys. Blackhead infection via Heterakis gallinarum and the earthworm is seen

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from time to time.

Disease
H. gallinarum infection is itself is mildly pathogenic. However, H. gallinarum plays the role of carrier
in the lifecycle of Histomonas meleagridis, the causal pathogen of enterohepatitis "blackhead" of
turkeys. H. meleagridis stays viable while inside the egg of H. gallinarum.[6] Heavy infection in
pheasants indicated gross lesions characterized by congestion, thickening, petechial haemorrhages of
the mucosa, intussusception, and nodules in the cecal wall. In addition under microscopy, chronic
diffuse typhlitis, haemosiderosis, granulomas with necrotic center in the submucosa and leiomyomas
in the submucosa, muscular and serosa associated with immature H. gallinarum worms were observed
This worm infestation is characterised by a thickening and inflammation of the caecal walls. In
heavy infestations caecal nodules may be seen. This is not very serious as the caeca are not
Probably the most important role for this worm is its role as a carrier of Histomonas meleagridis,
which is commonly found in Heterakis gallinarum eggs.
Viable infestations of Heterakis gallinarum are not maintained in turkeys so the risk to flocks of this
kind of poultry comes from co-rearing chickens and turkeys, or chicken or pheasant faeces getting
into a turkey flock.

2. Emeria spp. Coccidea

A recent study conducted by Dr. Greg Mathis at Southern Poultry Research (SPR) evaluated
the effects of Diamond V Original XPC with a mixed coccidiosis challenge. Broiler chicks
were placed on treatment diets day 1 and challenged with E. acervulina (75,000), E.
maxima (25,000), and E. tenella (75,000) on day 21. On day 27, broilers were necropsied and
lesions were scored.

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Disease: causes a disease coccidiosis by emeria spp.

Economic impact: The global impact of coccidiosis due to decreased performance,

morbidity, and mortality is an estimated $300 million US dollars.

Coccidia infect every poultry house worldwide. Eradication is nearly impossible. The
parasites are very prolific, and capable of developing resistance to antibiotics, chemicals and
ionophores. To further complicate the situation, limited industry resources are dedicated to
new product development for coccidia control. Therefore, it is beneficial to understand the
disease, recognize its impact on bird health and performance, and have an effective anti-
coccidial rotation program implemented.

The following species infect broilers:

E. acervulina
• Infects upper 1/3 of small intestine

• Identified by white/gray striations on intestinal lining

• Negatively impacts feed conversion

• Weight loss in bird

E. maxima
• Infects middle 1/3 of small intestine

• Causes inflammation of intestinal tract

• Weight loss in bird

• Typically leads to secondary bacterial infections: Necrotic Enteritis and Clostridium

E. tenella
• Infects ceca (two blind pouches where small & large intestines join)

• Oocysts found in fecal droppings

• Causes bloody droppings

• May cause morbidity and mortality

Transmission
Oocysts are passed in the feces, and infective oocysts gradually build up in the environment.
Young chicks become infected from contaminated litter, housing, equipment, etc. These may
have been contaminated previously by other young infected birds, or by adult birds that

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recovered from the condition. Areas around waterers are a prime source of infection.Oocysts
remain viable in litter for many months, thereby contaminating a farm from year to year.
Oocysts are only killed by freezing, extreme dryness and high temperatures.

Management

Good management practices will help control coccidiosis.

• Dry litter

• Maintain drinkers at correct pressure and height

• Avoid overcrowding

• Brooding: Full vs. partial House - affects rate of exposure to oocysts

• Brooding: Turn out times - follow closely to avoid stress and wet litter

• Temperature - avoid large swings in house temperature to provide uniform conditions

for growth

• Lighting - affects activity; more active will ingest oocysts sooner for immunity

• If coccidiosis does break out, start treatment immediately

• Cocci control methods

Vaccination
Advantage: exposes chicks early, early immunity, early oocyst cycling.

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Disadvantage: stress on intestinal track from earlier cycling makes birds susceptible to
necrotic enteritis infection.

Chemical
Advantage: results in early feed conversion advantage.

Disadvantage: Becomes resistant quickly to chemical; must rest between uses.

3. Capillaria
Capillaria is a minute, thread-like worm that infects the esophagus, crop and intestine of chickens. It
burrows into the organ lining, causing severe inflammation. Signs of hairworm infection include
paleness, diarrhea and wasting. It can be fatal if severe cases are left untreated.

Disease: Capillariosis is a disease often contracted by chickens reared in free-range environments.

Infections are caused by the nematode parasite Capillaria, with different species often occupying
distinct anatomical locations (crop, oesophagus, small intestine, cecum) within the infected host. Mild
to moderate signs of infection include emaciation, diarrhoea, and listlessness; severe cases can even
lead to death.

Economic losses: Economic losses to the poultry industry can be significant, with increased
production costs, together with detrimental effects on egg quality and hatchability

Life Cycle of Capillaria

Some species of Capillaria have a direct life cycle, where no intermediate hosts are involved. Eggs are
passed in faeces by infected birds and can remain active in the environment for months or years
depending on the environmental conditions. Direct infection is often caused by consumption of
infective eggs from areas occupied by these birds. Some species of Capillaria have an indirect life
cycle, where infection is transmitted through the consumption of intermediate hosts
(earthworms) infected with these parasitic worms. After ingestion by their final hosts, the eggs hatch,
releasing their infective larvae. Larvae are then transported to their final destinations by penetrating
the gut wall or developing within the gut lumen, depending on the species in question. After reaching
adulthood, female worms lay their eggs which are passed in the faeces of birds once more.

Diagnosis of Capillariosis
Capillariosis is often diagnosed microscopically after salt flotation of faecal matter; these distinctive
barrel shaped eggs can then be easily identified by experienced parasitologists. In severe clinical
cases, diagnosis can be achieved at necropsy through the examination of the intestines and/or crop.

4. Gapeworm
A gapeworm (Syngamus trachea), also known as a red worm and forked worm, is
a parasitic nematode worm that infects the tracheas of certain birds. The resulting disease,
known as "gape" occurs when the worms clog and obstruct the airway. The worms are also
known as "red worms" or "forked worms" due to their red color and the

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permanent procreative conjunction of males and females. Gapeworms are common in young,
domesticated chickens and turkeys.

The gapeworm, Syngamus trachea, is a parasitic nematode found in the trachea of domestic
and wild birds worldwide. S. trachea are tiny, bright red (caused by ingestion of the host's
blood), worms that have a 'y'-shaped appearance (which are actually two worms, the male
and female---that are joined together, with the male acting as an anchor for the female).

Effect in poultry: These worms attach themselves to the mucosa of the chicken's trachea,
where they feed on blood. This results in the development of lymphoid nodules, catarrhal
tracheitis and occasional secondary lobar pneumonia. If enough worms are present, they can
cause partial to complete obstruction of the trachea. Female S. trachea lay their eggs in the
bird's trachea, which hatch and are either coughed up or swallowed by the bird, later
defecated out into the environment. Life cycle Chickens become infected with S. trachea by
accidentally eating the larvae that has contaminated the surrounding environment, feed, or
water through the presence of feces from an infected bird.

Many wild bird species can be infected with S. trachea, which will
shed the larvae in their feces. Chickens can also become infected
indirectly, by eating earthworms, snails or slugs that are infected.
Regardless of how, once chickens ingest the larvae, they will migrate
through the gastrointestinal system until they reach the trachea,
where they reproduce, lay eggs, feed on blood, and live. The eggs are
either coughed up or swallowed by the chicken. When swallowed,
they will get passed along with the feces, further contaminating the
environment with more eggs for other flock members---or even the same bird to ingest and
accumulate more worms or infect others. The prepatent period is between 17 to 20 days.

Ectoparasites and Endoparasites of Fishes:

Crustacea:
"Crustacea" is a subphylum of arthropods that includes crabs, lobsters, shrimp, krill,
barnacles, and other related organisms. They are characterized by their hard exoskeleton, two
pairs of antennae, and segmented body.

1. Ecto-parasites:
Ectoparasites are parasites that live on the exterior of their host's body, feeding on the
host's blood, skin, or hair. These parasites can be found in a variety of animal species,
including humans, and can cause a range of health problems such as itching, irritation, and
the spread of disease.

a. Fish Lice:
Fish lice are parasites that infest freshwater and saltwater fish, causing irritation,
inflammation, and sometimes secondary infections. They are small crustaceans, also known

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as argulids, and belong to the family Argulidae. Fish lice have a flattened body with a wide,
shield-shaped head and two pairs of antennae.

Species of Fish Lice:

There are over 400 species of fish lice known to science, belonging to the subclass
Branchiura within the class Maxillopoda.

Life cycle of Fish Lice

Fish lice, also known as argulids, are crustacean parasites that infest the skin, fins, and
gills of fish. The lifecycle of fish lice involves several stages, including egg, nauplius,
copepodid, chalimus, pre-adult, and adult. Understanding the lifecycle of fish lice is
important for developing effective control measures and preventing infestations.

The lifecycle of fish lice begins when adult females lay eggs on submerged
vegetation, rocks, or other surfaces in the water. The eggs hatch into nauplius larvae, which
are free-swimming and have three pairs of appendages. The nauplius larvae then molt into the
copepodid stage, which has four pairs of appendages and is still free-swimming.

Once the copepodid has found a host fish, it attaches itself using specialized hooks
and transforms into the chalimus stage. During this stage, the lice begin feeding on the host's
skin, fins, and gills. The chalimus stage lasts for several days before the lice molt into the pre-
adult stage.

The pre-adult stage is the final developmental stage before the adult stage. During this
stage, the lice continue to feed on the host and undergo several molts. Once they reach the
final molt, they emerge as adults.

Adult fish lice have two pairs of

antennae, a large carapace, and four pairs of
legs. They are sexually dimorphic, with
females being larger than males. Adult lice
continue to feed on the host and mate, with
females laying eggs and starting the
lifecycle anew.

Diseases caused by Fish lice:

Fish lice are parasitic crustaceans that
attach themselves to the skin, fins, and gills
of fish. They can cause a range of diseases
and health problems in fish, which can lead to
economic losses for fish farmers and impact the survival of wild fish populations. Here are
some of the diseases caused by fish lice:

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• Skin damage: Fish lice attach themselves to the skin of fish and feed on their blood
and mucus. This can cause damage to the skin, making it prone to bacterial and fungal
infections.
• Gill damage: Fish lice can also attach themselves to the gills of fish, leading to
inflammation, irritation, and difficulty breathing.
• Anemia: Fish lice can consume a significant amount of blood from their host fish,
leading to anemia, a condition characterized by low levels of red blood cells.
• Reduced growth and productivity: Fish lice infestations can also reduce the growth
and productivity of fish, leading to lower yields and financial losses.
• Disease transmission: Fish lice can transmit diseases from one fish to another, which
can lead to widespread infections and health problems.

Symptoms:
Symptoms of fish lice infestations in fish include:

• Scratching and rubbing behavior

• Skin damage and open wounds
• Gill damage and difficulty breathing
• Anemia and weakness
• Reduced growth and productivity
• Behavioral changes

Preventions:
Some prevention measures to avoid diseases caused by fish lice in fishes are:

• Quarantine and screening of new fish.

• Maintaining good water quality.
• Minimizing stress in fish populations.
• Use of chemical treatments, physical removal, and biological control agents.

Economic Impact of Fish Lice:

Fish lice are common ectoparasites of fish that can cause a range of negative
economic impacts on the aquaculture industry. The economic impact of fish lice parasites can
be significant, including losses due to reduced growth rates, decreased survival rates, and
increased treatment costs.

One example of the economic impact of fish lice is the case of salmon farming in
Norway. The salmon farming industry in Norway is estimated to lose up to $500 million
annually due to the presence of sea lice, including the cost of treatment and the impact on
production. Sea lice can cause significant damage to the gills of salmon, leading to reduced
oxygen uptake and decreased growth rates.

In addition to the impact on individual fish, fish lice can also have a broader impact
on the environment and other aquatic species. For example, the use of chemical treatments to

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control fish lice can lead to the release of pollutants into the environment and can harm non-
target species.

Efforts to address the economic impact of fish lice parasites include the development of
new treatments and management strategies, including the use of cleaner fish as natural
predators of fish lice, and the development of new drugs and vaccines.

b. Anchor Worms:
Anchor worm is a parasite having anchor type structure on the posterior side of the body.
This anchor type structure and anchoring nature into the fish skin called them “Anchor
Worm”.

The larnaea species, called “anchorworms,” are crustaceans that typically infect
freshwater fish and cause bodily distress and mortality. The diseases is known as lernaeasis.

Species of Anchor
Worms:
Around 110
genera of lernaeids have
been noted. Among
them, Lernaea
cyprinacea is more
commonly identified and
observed in the culture
system.

These parasites
belong to the crustacean
subphylum (Phylum-Arthropoda) and Copepoda sub
class.

Lifecycle of Anchor Worms:

Life cycle of anchor worms include following stages:
Egg
Female Lernaea lays eggs, which are typically
attached to the fins or scales of the host fish. The eggs are
oval-shaped and are usually about 0.5 mm in diameter.

Nauplius
After hatching, the first larval stage is the free-living nauplius (singular; nauplii). This
stage is characterized by a single eye, three pairs of appendages, and a small tail.

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Copepodid
The next stage is the copepodid, which is similar in shape to the adult but smaller.
This stage typically has five pairs of appendages and a long tail.

They develop through five different copepodid stages in about four days before
molting into their first parasitic stage and attaching to fish or amphibians, often on gills.

Cyclopoid Adult
The final stage is the cyclopoid adult, which is characterized by a distinctive head and
thorax, a large body, and five pairs of appendages.

Adult females are typically larger than adult males. Male adult die after
reproduction and female attached to the fish skin.

The lernaea development is also known as Cyclopoid copepod, where they they do
not go through metamorphosis as many other crustaceans do.

DISEASE IN FISH CAUSED BY LERNAEA

Common sites of Lernaea infections include the skin, fins, gills, and oral cavity
(Figure 2). Large numbers of lernaeids in copepodid stages can kill small fish by damaging
their gills and making it hard for the fish to breathe. When female parasites attach to the fish,
they burrow deep into the tissues and eventually embed an anterior anchor into the fish's
body. Intense focal inflammation and hemorrhage can occur at the attachment site, making
the area appear red and ulcerated.

While an infection by small numbers of parasites isn't necessarily fatal, it is extremely

irritating to the fish. Lernaea can cause intense inflammation, leading to secondary bacterial
(e.g., Aeromonas hydrophila) and fungal infections. These secondary infections sometimes
worsen and kill the fish. Larger numbers of parasites on the gill can interfere with respiration,
causing death. Fish can survive Lernaea infection, but chronic conditions frequently result in
poor growth and body condition.

DIAGNOSIS
When seen by the naked eye, the most commonly observed life stage of the
organism—the adult female—appears as a small, thin "thread" or "hair" approximately 25
mm long. Under the microscope, the long, tubular body has an anchor on the anterior end and
paired egg sacs on the posterior end (Figure 3). The anchor, located in the anterior ("head")
region, is typically embedded into the host's tissue, while the posterior end, with its egg sacs,
extends out into the water column. Juvenile life stages, especially the copepodid stages, may
also be seen on skin, fin, or gill samples with use of a microscope (Figure 1). Because adult
female Lernaea may be confused with plant fibers, fungi, or other organisms, a fish health
professional should be consulted for an accurate diagnosis. Use of a microscope to examine

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wet mounts of affected areas (skin, gill, oral cavity, fins) will be necessary to confirm the
presence of this parasite.

PREVENTION
Incoming fish must be strictly quarantined and tested in order to avoid
introducing Lernaea to a system. This is especially important with food fish species because
treatment options are so limited. Before they are introduced into a system, all fish, especially
high risk species such as carps (e.g., goldfish and koi), should be visually screened for adult
parasites and then monitored regularly during quarantine. If the parasite is detected, early
intervention will result in the most successful outcome.

Economic impacts of Anchor Worms:

Anchor worms are parasitic crustaceans that live on the skin and in the gills of
freshwater fish, causing damage to the fish and affecting their growth and reproduction. The
economic impact of anchor worms on the fish farming industry can be significant. The
infestation can result in reduced fish production, increased mortality, and higher costs due to
the need for treatment and preventive measures.

For example, a study conducted in 2017 by Muhammad et al. on the economic impact of
anchor worms on the production of carp fish in Pakistan estimated that the infestation
reduced the weight gain of the fish by 25-30%. This resulted in a loss of around 12,000-
15,000 Pakistani rupees (approximately $100-120) per hectare of fish farming.

In addition, the study estimated that the cost of treating and preventing anchor worms
was around 7,500-8,500 Pakistani rupees (approximately $60-70) per hectare, which further
increased the production cost and reduced the profitability of fish farming.

The economic impact of anchor worms is not limited to Pakistan but affects the fish
farming industry worldwide. For instance, a study conducted in 2021 by Jabeen et al. on the
prevalence and economic impact of anchor worms on farmed tilapia in Bangladesh estimated
that the infestation reduced the weight gain of the fish by 22%. The study also estimated that
the cost of treating and preventing anchor worms was around 6,000-8,000 Bangladeshi taka
(approximately $70-95) per hectare.

In conclusion, anchor worms have a significant economic impact on the fish farming
industry, reducing fish production, increasing mortality, and increasing the cost of treatment
and prevention. The economic impact of anchor worms may vary depending on the severity
of the infestation, the type of fish being farmed, and the geographical location.

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Gall Maggots:
Gill maggots are the adult females of all species within the Eragsilus genus males are
planktonic, meaning that they float about harmlessly and feed on tiny bits of organic debris in
the water. Though gill maggots more commonly plague aquaculture fish species like koi, they
can also infect wild fish species such as pike, rainbow, trout and beam.

Females attach to the gill filaments (and occasionally fins) via two sharp, claw-like
antennae structures with pincers that cause significant tissue damage. Serrated tooth-like
structures surrounding their mouth enable them to feed on epithelial cells, blood and mucus
continuously.

Each parasite is typically over one millimeter in size and easily visible to the naked
eye. Their body appears like a tiny scorpion, but behind them trail two long sacs of white or
greyish eggs, each of which look quite like a maggot, hence the name “gill maggot.”

Life cycle of Gill Maggots:

For a parasite, the life cycle of
gill maggots is a relatively long one.
After mating, female gill maggots
immediately attach to the gills of a
host fish. They will develop two long
trailing “tails” of egg sacks that closely
resemble maggots. Each clutch can
contain over 200 eggs. These eggs
typically hatch within a week.

These parasites prefer warmer

waters, ideally those 24° C (75° F) and above,
though this depends somewhat on the exact species.
The majority of Ergasilus eggs hatch during the
height of summer, when development is hastened by
warm temperatures and eggs can hatch in as little as
3 days and develop into adults in as little as a few
weeks. Once temperatures fall below 15° C (60° F),
development into adulthood takes closer to 3 months.

After hatching, Ergasilus larvae, known

as nauplii since they are copepods, float about freely,
simply feeding on tiny bits of floating organic
matter. This primarily consists of algae. They go
through three to four developmental stages as nauplii, and then several stages as copepodites,
before reaching reproductive maturity.

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Reproduction typically occurs in the spring, with males dying after mating and
females attaching to a fish host to feed and lay eggs. This process can occur as many as five
times per year per female gill maggot, meaning that a single gill maggot can give rise to as
many as 1,000 young per year. Females are also able to overwinter on fish, if needed, and
typically live for a year or less.

Diseases caused by Gill maggots:

Some of the diseases caused by gill maggots in fish are:

1. Gill damage: Gill maggots can attach themselves to the gills of fish, causing damage to
the gill filaments, which can lead to reduced oxygen uptake, poor growth, and increased
susceptibility to other diseases.
2. Secondary infections: The damage caused by gill maggots can make fish more
susceptible to secondary infections, such as bacterial and fungal infections, which can
further affect their health and growth.
3. Anemia: Severe infestations of gill maggots can cause anemia in fish, leading to reduced
blood oxygen levels, lethargy, and poor growth.

Symptoms:

1) Damaged Gills
The most obvious sign, next to seeing the gill maggots themselves, is gills that are
damaged. They can become yellow or red, tattered, swollen, and coated in mucus. This is
because gill maggots excrete digestive enzymes that digest tissues externally before being
consumed by the gill maggot, resulting in great damage and pain to your fish.

2) Epithelial Hemorrhaging
Oftentimes, attachment sites will hemorrhage and may also develop painful, red blood
blisters.

3) Hyperplasia
If gill maggots have been attached for a while, hyperplasia may occur at attachment
sites. This means that gills and surrounding skin will become noticeably swollen. Pink/red
discoloration is common as blood cells charge to the skin’s surface. In severe cases, gill
filaments may even fuse together.

4) Difficulty Breathing
For obvious reasons, fish with significant gill maggot infestations may have a hard
time breathing properly as the gill filaments will have a reduced ability to absorb oxygen as
they normally would.

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5) Flashing
In an effort to relieve their discomfort, fish with gill maggots may flash and
flick about or rub themselves against rocks and the sides of the pond.

6) Secondary Infections
In addition to being able to see gill maggots, you may also notice that your fish have
developed secondary ailments due to their weakened state. Bacterial and fungal infections,
such as fin rot and koi fungus, aren’t uncommon.

Preventions:
If you suspect that a fish may be ill, or notice that it’s already infected with gill maggots,
quarantine it from the rest of the pond immediately to hopefully prevent the spread. Treat as
needed in a quarantine tank, and keep a close eye on the rest of the pond.

1. Salt baths (Para Salt):

• Gill maggots are incredibly hardy and difficult to treat. Your best bet is to quarantine
all affected fish and completely drain and clean your pond, allowing it to dry for
several days to ensure that all larval and adult gill maggots die.
• Once quarantined, first try a 3% salt dip for no more than 10 minutes. Then try a .3-
.5% bath for 3 days, increased up to 6 days if gill maggots are still alive.
2. Copper & Ferric sulphate:
• If this doesn’t work or there are a lot of gill maggots, the Fisheries and Aquaculture
Journal recommends treating your fish in a bath of a combination of .5 ppm copper
sulphate and .2 ppm ferric sulphate for 6 to 9 days.
• Keep in mind that both of these chemicals can be quite harmful, and so should be
dosed very carefully and fish should be monitored closely for any signs of further
distress. Ferric sulphate in particular is very toxic, and so we’re hesitant to fully
recommend this as a treatment option.
3. Dipterex (Dylox):
Dipterex, also sold under the names Dylox, Neguvon, and a variety of others, has been
found to be effective in treating gill maggots. Its active ingredient is trichlorfon, a white
crystalline solid that is often sold in powder form. Treat in the form of a 6 hour bath at a
concentration of .15 ppm.

4. Quarantine new fish:

Prevention is the best medicine! First and foremost, quarantine any new fish before
adding them to your pond. Closely monitor them for several days, checking for any visual
signs of gill maggots. You should inspect for any other parasites as well, using
a microscope if needed to look at water and skin samples.

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5. Improve water quality:

As always, check your pond water quality at the same time each day and adjust
the temperature, pH, KH, and so on as needed. Perform daily 10% water changes or weekly
20-25% ones (daily water changes are better, as they place less stress on fish). Clean out any
floating debris such as foliage on a daily basis. Make sure to have a quality filter, aeration
system, and a variety of submerged and emergent plants to help naturally oxygenate, filter,
and cool the water.

6. Provide good nutrition:

Feed your fish a well-balanced and highly nutritional diet to boost their immune systems
and subsequently their ability to fend off and heal from any potential parasitic threats. You
can purchase a high quality pellet feed, supplement with fruits and veggies as needed,
or make your own pellets!

Be sure to research the fish species that you have and what their nutritional requirements
are prior to purchasing or making any food.

Economic impact of Gill maggots:

Gill maggots, also known as gill lice or parasitic copepods, are small crustaceans that
attach themselves to fish gills, feeding on the blood and tissues of the host. While they are a
natural part of many aquatic ecosystems, they can also have a significant economic impact on
the fishing industry.

The economic impact of gill maggots is primarily seen in the aquaculture industry,
where they can cause significant losses in fish production. Infested fish may become weak
and vulnerable to other diseases, and in severe cases, they may die. In addition, fish with gill
maggots are often rejected by consumers, leading to lost revenue for fish farmers and
distributors.

For example, a study conducted in 2021 in Iran found that gill maggots were a
common problem in rainbow trout farming, with a prevalence of 72.5% in sampled fish
populations. The researchers estimated that the economic losses due to gill maggots
infestations in the trout farming industry were approximately $1.1 million USD per year
(Najafzadeh et al., 2021).

In wild fish populations, gill maggots can also have an economic impact on
commercial fishing operations. Infected fish may be of lower quality and weight, resulting in
lower prices for fishers at market. In addition, fish populations that are heavily infested with
gill maggots may be less desirable for commercial fishing, leading to reduced fishing
opportunities and potentially impacting the livelihoods of fishers.

Overall, the economic impact of gill maggots can be significant, particularly in the
aquaculture industry. It is important for fish farmers and fishers to take measures to prevent
and control gill maggot infestations to minimize economic losses.

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2. Endoparasites:
Here are some examples of endoparasites of fish from Crustacea:

• Tongue worms or pentastomids

• Isopods
• Amphipods

Tongue worms:
Tongue worms, also known as pentastomids, are a group of parasitic arthropods that
infect a wide range of animals, including fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals. These worm-like
parasites have a distinctive body shape with a flattened head and a series of hooks and spines
that allow them to attach to their host's respiratory or digestive tissues.

Species of tongue worms:

There are over 130 known species of tongue worms, also known as pentastomids.
These parasitic arthropods can be found in a wide range of hosts, including fish, reptiles,
birds, and mammals. Each species of tongue worm has its own unique characteristics and life
cycle, and some are known to cause significant health problems in their hosts. Despite their
diverse range of hosts and habitats, tongue worms share several common features, including
their worm-like body shape and the presence of hooks and spines that allow them to attach to
their host's tissues.

Life cycle of tongue worms:

The life cycle of tongue worms, also known as pentastomids, is complex and involves
multiple hosts. The details of the life cycle can vary between different species, but a
generalized version is as follows:

• Adult tongue worms mate and produce eggs that are passed out of the host's body
through feces.
• The eggs are ingested by an intermediate host, such as a rodent or lizard, and hatch
into larvae.
• The larvae migrate through the intermediate host's tissues until they reach the lungs or
other organs.
• The larvae form a cyst in the intermediate host's tissues, where they can remain for an
extended period.
• The intermediate host is then eaten by a final host, such as a snake or a bird, and the
cysts are released into the final host's digestive system.
• The larvae then migrate to the final host's respiratory system, where they develop into
adult tongue worms.
During the adult stage, the tongue worms attach to their host's respiratory or digestive tissues
and feed on blood and tissues.

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Diseases caused by Tongue Worms:

Tongue worms, also known as pentastomids, can cause several diseases in fishes. One
example is Raillietiella spp., which infects the respiratory system of fish and can cause
significant damage.

Symptoms:
• Respiratory distress, including gasping for air or rapid breathing
• Decreased activity and lethargy
• Redness and inflammation in the gills
• Reduced growth and development

Preventions:
• Maintaining good water quality in aquaculture systems
• Regular monitoring and testing of fish populations for signs of infection
• Quarantining new fish before introducing them to existing populations
• Treating infected fish with antiparasitic medications

Economic impact of Tongue Worms:

Tongue worms, also known as pentastomids, can have a significant economic impact
on aquaculture and fisheries industries. Infection can cause reduced growth and development
in fish, leading to lower yields and decreased profitability. One example of economic impact
is the outbreak of Raillietiella spp. in farmed tilapia in Malaysia in the 1990s. The outbreak
caused significant losses for the industry and led to the development of improved diagnostic
methods and treatment protocols.

One example is the infection of fish with Raillietiella spp., which can cause
respiratory distress and reduce growth rates. This can lead to economic losses for fish farmers
due to decreased production and increased mortality rates. In addition, infected fish may be
more susceptible to other diseases, further increasing the risk of economic losses.

Isopods:
Isopods are a type of crustacean that are commonly known as woodlice, pill bugs, or
roly-polies. They are characterized by their flattened, oval-shaped bodies and their ability to
roll into a ball when threatened. Isopods are found in a variety of habitats, including
terrestrial, freshwater, and marine environments, and play important roles in nutrient cycling
and ecosystem functioning.

Species of Isopods:
There are over 10,000 known species of isopods, which makes them one of the most
diverse groups of crustaceans. Isopods can be found in a wide range of habitats, including

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oceans, freshwater bodies, and terrestrial environments. They are an important part of many
ecosystems, playing roles as predators, scavengers, and decomposers.

Life cycle of Isopods:

The life cycle of isopods can vary somewhat between different species, but a generalized
version is as follows:

• After mating, female isopods carry their eggs in a brood pouch called a marsupium.
• The eggs hatch into small, six-legged larvae known as mancas.
• The mancas leave the marsupium and undergo a series of molts, during which they
develop additional legs and other features.
• Once they have reached adulthood, male and female isopods mate and the cycle
begins again.
The length of the life cycle can vary depending on the species and environmental factors
such as temperature and food availability.

Benefits of Isopods:
Isopods are beneficial in several ways, particularly in ecosystems where they play
important roles as decomposers and nutrient cyclers. Isopods help break down organic matter,
such as dead plant material and animal carcasses, and convert it into forms that can be used
by other organisms in the food web. Additionally, some species of isopods are important prey
for other animals, serving as a key link in the food chain.

Diseases caused by Isopods:

Isopods can cause several diseases in fishes, especially in aquaculture systems. One
example is the parasitic infection caused by the cymothoid isopod, which attaches to the fish
and feeds on its blood and tissue.

Symptoms:
• Visible presence of the isopod on the fish's skin or gills
• Damage to the skin and tissues where the isopod attaches
• Reduced growth rates and increased susceptibility to other diseases

Preventions:
• Regular monitoring and inspection of fish populations for signs of infection
• Quarantining new fish before introducing them to existing populations
• Treating infected fish with antiparasitic medications
• Maintaining good water quality in aquaculture systems to reduce stress on fish and
improve their immune function

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Economic impact of Isopods:

The economic impact of isopods can be both positive and negative. On the one hand,
some species of isopods are important prey for commercial fish and shellfish species, making
them a valuable component of many marine ecosystems. On the other hand, isopods can also
cause economic losses in aquaculture systems, where they can attach to and feed on fish,
reducing growth rates and causing mortality.

One example of the negative economic impact of isopods is the parasitic infection
caused by the cymothoid isopod in farmed salmon. This infection can cause significant
economic losses due to reduced growth rates and increased mortality.

Amphipods:
Amphipods comprise an order of crustacea, shrimp-like in form, which contains
mostly marine and freshwater forms. While some species are terrestrial, they still require
moist habitats. These terrestrial species are sometimes referred to as "lawn shrimp" due to
their similarity to true shrimp.

Diseases caused by Amphipods:

Amphipods are not typically known to cause diseases in fish, but they can cause
parasitic infections that can lead to skin and tissue damage, as well as other negative health
effects.

Symptoms:
• Skin and tissue damage, including ulcerations and discoloration
• Abnormal behavior, such as lethargy or reduced activity
• Decreased appetite and weight loss
• Increased susceptibility to other infections or diseases

Preventions:
• Maintaining good water quality in aquaculture systems
• Regular monitoring and testing of fish populations for signs of infection
• Quarantining new fish before introducing them to existing populations
• Treating infected fish with antiparasitic medications

Economic Impact of Amphipods:

Amphipods, a type of crustacean, can have both positive and negative economic
impacts depending on their specific roles in different ecosystems. Here is a more detailed
discussion of the economic impact of amphipods:

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Positive impacts:
• Amphipods are important prey items for many fish and other aquatic animals, making
them a key component of many marine and freshwater food webs.
• Some species of amphipods are harvested for use as bait in recreational and
commercial fishing.
• Amphipods can play important roles in nutrient cycling and energy transfer within
ecosystems, helping to maintain overall ecosystem health and productivity.

Negative impacts:
• Some species of amphipods can cause damage to fish populations by acting as
intermediate hosts for parasitic infections.
• In large numbers, certain species of amphipods can become pests in aquaculture
systems, damaging infrastructure and competing with farmed species for resources.
• Amphipods can also cause damage to shipping infrastructure by fouling boats and
other equipment.

Examples:
The introduction of the invasive amphipod species Grandidierella japonica has been
associated with declines in native species in some areas, and it has also caused significant
economic damage to aquaculture operations in Japan.

In the Great Lakes region of North America, the amphipod Diporeia spp. has suffered
significant population declines, which has in turn led to changes in the food webs of these
ecosystems, with potential economic impacts for commercial and recreational fisheries.

HELMINTHES

1. Ectoparasites:
Here are some examples of ectoparasites of fishes from helminths:

• Monogeneans
• Cestodes
• Nematodes
a. Monogeneans:
Monogeneans are a group of parasitic flatworms that are typically found on the skin, gills,
and fins of fishes. They are considered to be one of the most important groups of parasites of
fishes, and can cause a range of negative effects on the health and well-being of their host

Life cycle of Monogeneans:

Monogeneans are usually strictly host specific, and have a single host lifecycle. Adult
monogeneans are hermaphroditic and lay their eggs directly into the water, from which a
free-swimming larva will hatch. The larva must infect a host to complete the lifecycle.

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Diseases caused by monogeneans:

Monogeneans are a group of parasitic flatworms that infest the skin, gills, and fins of
fish. These parasites can cause significant damage to the host, resulting in reduced growth
rates, decreased reproductive success, and even mortality. In this discussion, we will explore
the different diseases caused by monogeneans in fishes.

1. Gyrodactylus spp. Gyrodactylus is a genus of monogenean parasites that infect

the skin and fins of fish. These parasites can cause severe skin and fin damage,
leading to increased susceptibility to secondary bacterial and fungal infections.
Gyrodactylus infection in rainbow trout has been shown to reduce growth rates by
up to 40%. Gyrodactylus infections have also been reported in other fish species
such as Atlantic salmon, brown trout, and tench.
2. Dactylogyrus spp. Dactylogyrus is another genus of monogenean parasites that
infect the gills of fish. These parasites can cause severe gill damage, leading to
respiratory distress and reduced oxygen uptake. Dactylogyrus infection has been
reported in various fish species, including common carp, tilapia, and goldfish.
3. Neobenedenia spp. Neobenedenia is a genus of monogenean parasites that infect
the skin of marine fish. These parasites can cause significant damage to the skin,
leading to the formation of ulcers and lesions. Neobenedenia infection has been
reported in various marine fish species, including barramundi, grouper, and
snapper.
4. Heterobothrium spp. Heterobothrium is a genus of monogenean parasites that
infect the skin of marine fish. These parasites can cause significant damage to the
skin, leading to the formation of ulcers and lesions. Heterobothrium infection has
been reported in various marine fish species, including the Atlantic cod and
haddock.
These are just a few examples of the diseases caused by monogeneans in fishes. The
severity and impact of these diseases vary depending on the species of parasite and the fish
host involved.

Symptoms:
• Excessive mucus production on the body surface
• Gills and skin damage leading to difficulty in breathing
• Abnormal behavior such as rubbing or flashing against hard surfaces
• Reduced appetite, growth, and reproductive success
• Increased susceptibility to other infections

Preventions:
• Use of effective disinfection and quarantine protocols for new fish stocks
• Routine monitoring and early detection of parasitic infections
• Regular cleaning and maintenance of fish tanks and equipment
• Control of water temperature, pH, and oxygen levels to minimize stress on the fish

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• Use of chemical or biological treatments to manage parasite populations

Economic Impact of monogeneans:

Monogenean parasites are a major threat to fish health and productivity in both wild
and cultured populations. These parasites can have significant economic impacts, both
positive and negative. Here is a detailed discussion of the economic impacts of monogeneans
in fish:

Positive economic impacts:

1. Demand for treatments: The presence of monogeneans in fish populations creates a
demand for treatments that can help to control or eliminate the parasites. This creates
an economic opportunity for companies that produce and distribute these treatments.
2. Research opportunities: The study of monogenean parasites and their impact on fish
health and productivity provides an opportunity for research and development of new
products and technologies. This can lead to innovation and growth in the aquaculture
industry.

Negative economic impacts:

1. Reduced fish growth and survival: Monogeneans can cause significant damage to fish
gills and skin, leading to reduced growth rates and increased mortality. This can result
in economic losses for fish farmers and fisheries.
2. Increased costs of production: The presence of monogeneans in fish populations can
lead to increased costs of production, including the cost of treatments and labor
required to manage the parasites. This can reduce profitability for fish farmers and
fisheries.
3. Market restrictions: The presence of monogeneans in fish populations can lead to
market restrictions and loss of export opportunities due to concerns about the quality
and safety of the fish.

Examples of economic impacts of monogeneans in fish:

1. In the salmon farming industry, outbreaks of monogenean parasites such as
Gyrodactylus salaris and Lepeophtheirus salmonis have caused significant economic
losses due to reduced growth rates and increased mortality.
2. In the tilapia farming industry, the presence of monogenean parasites such as
Cichlidogyrus and Scutogyrus has led to increased costs of production and reduced
profitability for farmers.

Cestodes:
Cestodes, or tapeworms, are a diverse group of parasitic flatworms that infect a wide
variety of hosts, including fish. One example of a cestode parasite of fish is the
Diphyllobothrium latum, also known as the broad fish tapeworm.

Diphyllobothrium latum is a large tapeworm that can reach lengths of up to 10 meters.

It is found in freshwater fish in many parts of the world, including North America, Europe,

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and Asia. The tapeworm's life cycle involves multiple hosts, including fish, freshwater
crustaceans, and mammals such as humans and bears.

When a fish becomes infected with Diphyllobothrium latum, the tapeworm attaches
to the intestinal lining and feeds on nutrients from the fish's digested food. Infected fish may
show few signs of illness, but heavy infections can cause intestinal blockages and other
digestive problems.

Life cycle of Diphyllobothrium latum

• Eggs are passed unembryonated in feces
• Under appropriate conditions, the eggs mature (approximately 18 to 20 days) and
yield oncospheres which develop into a coracidia
• After ingestion by a suitable crustacean (first intermediate host) the coracidia develop
into procercoid larvae
• Procercoid larvae are released from the crustacean upon predation by the second
intermediate host (usually a small fish) and migrate into the deeper tissues where they
develop into a plerocercoid larvae (spargana), which is the infectious stage for the
definitive host .
• Because humans do not generally eat these small fish species raw, the second
intermediate host probably does not represent an important source of human infection.
However, these small second intermediate hosts can be eaten by larger predator
species that then serve as
paratenic hosts
• In this case, the plerocercoid
migrates to the musculature
of the larger predator fish;
humans (and other definitive
host species) acquire the
parasite via consumption of
undercooked paratenic host
fish
• In the definitive host, the
plerocercoid develops into
adult tapeworms in the small intestine. Adult diphyllobothriids attach to the intestinal
mucosa by means of two bilateral groves (bothria) of their scolex
• The adults can reach more than 10 m in length, with more than 3,000 proglottids.
Immature eggs are discharged from the proglottids (up to 1,000,000 eggs per day per
worm) and are passed in the feces. Eggs appear in the feces 5 to 6 weeks after
infection.

Diseases caused by Diphyllobothrium latum

Diphyllobothrium latum is a cestode parasite that primarily infects fish, but can also
cause disease in humans who consume raw or undercooked infected fish. In fish, heavy
infections with Diphyllobothrium latum can cause intestinal blockages and other digestive
problems.

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Symptoms:
Diphyllobothrium latum is a tapeworm parasite that can infect fish and other animals,
including humans. While infected fish may show few outward signs of illness, heavy
infestations can cause a range of symptoms, including:

• Intestinal blockages: Heavy infestations of Diphyllobothrium latum can cause

blockages in the intestines of infected fish, which can lead to digestive problems
and other health issues.
• Weight loss: Infected fish may experience weight loss and reduced growth rates
as the tapeworm feeds on nutrients from their digested food.
• Anemia: Diphyllobothrium latum can cause anemia in infected fish by feeding on
their blood.
• Secondary infections: Infected fish may be more susceptible to secondary
infections due to the weakening of their immune system by the tapeworm.
It is important to note that while Diphyllobothrium latum can infect humans who
consume raw or undercooked infected fish, the symptoms of infection in humans may
differ from those in fish.

Economic Impact of Diphyllobothrium latum:

Diphyllobothrium latum, also known as the broad fish tapeworm, can have both
positive and negative economic impacts depending on the context. Below are some
examples of the economic impacts of Diphyllobothrium latum:

Positive economic impacts:

• Fishermen: In some parts of the world, Diphyllobothrium latum-infected fish can
be considered a delicacy and can fetch higher prices in markets. For example, in
some regions of Japan, salmon infected with the tapeworm are considered a high-
end product and can command premium prices.
• Tourism: In some areas, sport fishing for salmon infected with Diphyllobothrium
latum can attract tourists, leading to increased revenue for local businesses.

Negative economic impacts:

• Fish farms: Diphyllobothrium latum can infect farmed salmon and other fish,
leading to reduced growth rates, decreased market value, and increased mortality.
Infected fish may also be rejected by buyers or incur additional costs for treatment
and testing.
• Public health: Diphyllobothrium latum is a zoonotic parasite, meaning it can
infect humans who consume raw or undercooked infected fish. Infection can lead
to medical costs, lost work time, and other economic impacts.

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• Regulatory compliance: In some regions, regulations require fish processors to

test for Diphyllobothrium latum and other parasites, which can increase costs and
affect profitability.

Nematodes:
There are many species of nematodes that are parasites of fishes. Some common
examples include:

• Anisakis spp
• Contracaecum spp
• Hysterothylacium spp
• Camallanus spp
• Capillaria spp
There are many other species of nematodes that can parasitize fish, and the impact on fish
and human health can vary depending on the species and the context.

Capillaria:
Capillaria is a genus of parasitic nematode worms that infect a variety of hosts,
including fish, birds, and mammals. In fish, Capillaria spp. can infect the intestines, causing
gastrointestinal disease.

There are many species of Capillaria that have been described, and they can vary in
their morphology, life cycle, and host range. Some examples of Capillaria species that infect
fish include Capillaria hepatica, which infects the liver of freshwater fish, and Capillaria
philippinensis, which infects the intestines of freshwater fish and can cause disease in humans
who consume raw or undercooked infected fish.

Life cycle of Capillaria:

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Diseases caused by capillaria:

Capillaria infection can cause various diseases in fish, including:

• Intestinal capillariasis: Capillaria infects the intestinal tract of fish, causing

inflammation and damage to the intestinal wall. This can lead to symptoms such as
weight loss, diarrhea, and anemia.
• Hepatic capillariasis: Some species of Capillaria infect the liver of fish, causing
damage and inflammation. This can lead to symptoms such as lethargy, anorexia, and
jaundice.
• Dermal capillariasis: In some fish species, Capillaria can infect the skin, causing
nodules and inflammation.

Symptoms:
Capillaria is a parasitic nematode that can cause disease in fish. The symptoms of
capillaria infection in fish can vary depending on the severity of the infection and the species
of fish. Some common symptoms include:

• Weight loss
• Lethargy
• Loss of appetite
• Skin discoloration
• Abdominal swelling
• Diarrhea
• Hemorrhagic enteritis
• Increased mucus production
• Anemia
• Lesions in the gastrointestinal tract
Capillaria infections can be diagnosed through fecal examination or tissue biopsy.
Treatment typically involves antiparasitic medication and improving water quality and
nutrition.

Preventions:
Here are some of the preventions of diseases in fishes caused by Capillaria:

1. Proper fish management: Proper fish management is essential to prevent the spread
of Capillaria. It involves maintaining good fish health, providing adequate nutrition,
and avoiding overcrowding in fish tanks or ponds. (Joshi et al., 2021)
2. Water quality management: Maintaining good water quality is crucial to prevent the
spread of Capillaria. Water quality management involves monitoring the pH,
temperature, and oxygen levels of the water and ensuring that the water is clean and
free from harmful chemicals or pollutants. (Cipriano, 2013)
3. Control of the spread of the parasite: To prevent the spread of Capillaria, it is
necessary to control the spread of the parasite. This can be done by practicing good
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biosecurity measures, such as disinfecting equipment and tanks, and preventing the
introduction of infected fish into the aquatic environment. (Bruno et al., 2019)

ECTOPARASITES AND ENDOPARASITES OF MAN FROM

CRUSTACEA ;HELMINTHES AND ARCHINIDS

ECTOPARASITES
1.Pubic lice
Pubic lice, also known as crab lice, are parasitic insects that infest the pubic hair, but they can
also be found in other hairy areas of the body, such as the armpits, chest, and beard. They are
about the size of a pinhead and have a distinctive crab-like appearance, with large claws that
allow them to cling tightly to hair shafts. There is only one species of pubic lice, known as
Pthirus pubis. This species is highly adapted to living on human hosts and cannot survive on
other types of animals.

Life cycle of pubic lice

The life cycle of pubic lice, also known as Phthirus pubis, consists of three stages: the egg or
nit stage, the nymph stage, and the adult stage.

Egg stage: Female pubic lice lay their eggs on hair shafts close to the skin's surface. The
eggs, or nits, are oval-shaped and are about the size of a pinhead. They hatch in about 6-10
days.

Nymph stage: After hatching, the lice are called nymphs. They look like smaller versions of
adult lice and go through three nymphal stages before reaching adulthood. It takes about 10
days for the nymphs to mature into adults.

Adult stage: Adult pubic lice are about 1-2mm in length and are grayish-white or tan in
color. They feed on human blood and can live up to a month on a host's body. The females
lay their eggs on hair shafts close to the skin's surface, starting the life cycle anew.

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Disease
Pubic lice infestation, also known as phthiriasis or "crabs," is a common sexually transmitted
infection caused by the parasitic insect Phthirus pubis. The infestation can cause intense
itching and irritation in the pubic area, as well as the armpits, eyebrows, and eyelashes in rare
cases. Scratching the affected area can lead to skin irritation, redness, and secondary bacterial
infections.

Pubic lice can also spread other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) if there are open sores
or wounds in the area. In rare cases, heavy infestations can cause anemia or a bacterial
infection called trench fever.

Prevention
Avoid sharing personal things like clothes ,towel.

Avoid close contact with the infected person.

Economic impact of pubic lice

They can cause significant economic impact.

One study estimated that the annual cost of treating public lice infestations in the United
States was between $468 million and $540 million in 2015. This includes the cost of over-
the-counter treatments, prescription medications, and medical visits. The study also found
that individuals with public lice infestations miss an average of 3.4 days of work or school,
resulting in an additional $23 million in lost productivity.

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2. BODY LICE
Body lice are parasitic insects that feed on human blood and live in the clothing or bedding of
infested individuals. They are growing up to 3-4 mm in length. There is only one species of
body lice known as Pediculus humanus humanus.

LIFE CYCLE OF BODY LICE

Body lice (Pediculus humanus corporis) go through three stages of development: the egg
(also known as a nit), the nymph, and the adult. The life cycle of body lice typically lasts
about one month.

Female lice lay their eggs on clothing fibers close to the skin, which hatch in 6-9 days. The
eggs are oval and about the size of a pinhead. The hatched nymphs feed on the host's blood
and pass through three stages before becoming adults. The first and second nymphal stages
last for 2-3 days each, while the third nymphal stage lasts for 4-5 days. After the third molt,
the lice become adults, which are about the size of a sesame seed. The adult lice have six legs
and are tan to grayish-white in color. Female body lice can lay up to 300 eggs in their
lifetime. The life cycle of body lice is influenced by temperature and humidity, and can vary
in length depending on these factors.

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DISEASE CAUSED BY BODY LICE

The bites of body lice can cause intense itching and irritation, and can lead to skin infections
and secondary infections. In addition, body lice can transmit diseases such as epidemic
typhus, trench fever, and relapsing fever.

Symptoms of body lice infestation include severe itching, rash, and visible bite marks on the
skin. Treatment typically involves washing all clothing and bedding in hot water and using
medicated shampoos or lotions to kill the lice.

ECONOMIC IMPACT OF BODY LICE

The economic impact of body lice can be significant, particularly in areas with high rates of
infestation. The cost of treating infestations, as well as the lost productivity due to the
symptoms of itching and irritation, can add up over time.

In addition, outbreaks of diseases transmitted by body lice, such as epidemic typhus, can have
significant economic impacts on affected communities. These outbreaks can lead to increased
healthcare costs, lost productivity, and decreased economic growth.

One study estimated that the economic impact of epidemic typhus outbreaks in Los Angeles
County in the 1980s was over $22 million, including costs associated with medical care, lost
productivity, and outbreak control measures.

3. HEAD LICE
Head lice are small, wingless parasitic insects that live on the human scalp and feed on
human blood. There is only one species of head lice that affects humans, which is called
Pediculus humanus capitis.

Life cycle of head lice

The life cycle of head lice consists of three stages: the egg, nymph, and adult.

Egg Stage: Head lice eggs are called nits, and they are attached to the base of the hair shaft
near the scalp. Nits are oval-shaped, and they are usually yellow, tan, or brown. The eggs
hatch in about 7 to 10 days, depending on the temperature and humidity.

Nymph Stage: Once the egg hatches, the nymph emerges. Nymphs look like adult head lice,
but they are smaller. Nymphs need to feed on human blood to survive, and they do so by

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biting into the scalp. Nymphs molt three times before they become adults, and this process
takes about 10 days.

Adult Stage: Adult head lice are about the size of a sesame seed and have six legs. They are
grayish-white or tan in color. Females can lay up to six eggs per day and can live up to 30
days on a human host.

DISEASE
Head lice infestations, also known as pediculosis capitis, are caused by parasitic insects that
feed on human blood from the scalp.They are typically spread through direct head-to-head
contact, although they can also be spread by sharing personal items such as hats, combs, and
brushes.

The main symptom of head lice infestations is intense itching of the scalp, caused by an
allergic reaction to the lice saliva. Other symptoms may include redness and irritation of the
scalp, the presence of small white or yellowish eggs (nits) on the hair shafts, and visible lice
crawling on the scalp.

Although head lice infestations are not dangerous and do not spread disease, they can be
extremely uncomfortable and can cause social stigma and embarrassment, particularly among
children.

Treatment for head lice infestations typically involves the use of over-the-counter or
prescription insecticidal shampoos or lotions, as well as combing the hair with a fine-toothed
comb to remove lice and nits. In addition, it is important to wash all clothing, bedding, and
personal items that may have come into contact with lice to prevent re-infestation.

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ECONOMIC IMPACT OF HEAD LICE

Head lice infestations can have a significant economic impact on individuals and
communities. According to a study published in the journal Pediatrics, the annual cost of
treating head lice

infestations in the United States is estimated to be between $300 million and $1 billion,
including the cost of treatment products, lost productivity from missed school and work, and
expenses related to cleaning and disinfecting personal items and household surfaces.

ARCHIND ECTOPARASITES
MITES
Mites belonging to the family Sarcoptidae are ectoparasites of humans and other animals.
They are commonly known as "itch mites" because they can cause severe itching and skin
irritation in their hosts. The most well-known species of Sarcoptidae that affect humans is
Sarcoptes scabiei, the cause of scabies.

LIFE CYCLE OF MITES

The life cycle of mites can vary depending on the species, but in general, it consists of several
stages: egg, larva, protonymph, deutonymph, and adult. Mites are arthropods and, as such,
undergo a process of metamorphosis, meaning they change their physical form as they grow
and develop.

The egg stage is the first stage in the life cycle of mites, where a female mite will lay eggs
either on or near the food source for the offspring. The eggs hatch into the larva stage, which
is typically the first feeding stage of the mite. After feeding, the larva molt into the
protonymph stage, which is also a feeding stage. The protonymph then molts into the
deutonymph stage, which is the final feeding stage before the adult stage. The adult stage is
where the mite is sexually mature and capable of reproducing.

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The length of the life cycle can vary depending on the species and environmental conditions,
but in some cases, it can be completed in as little as a few days, while in others, it may take
several weeks or months.

DISEASE
Mites can cause various diseases in humans, including scabies, allergic reactions, and typhus
fever. Scabies is a skin condition caused by Sarcoptes scabiei, which burrows into the skin
and causes intense itching and rash. Allergic reactions can be caused by house dust mites,
which can trigger asthma and other respiratory symptoms. Typhus fever is caused by
Rickettsia bacteria transmitted by mites, fleas, or ticks, and can cause fever, headache, and
other symptoms.

PREVENTION
Reducing exposure to house dust mites by using allergen-proof covers on mattresses and
pillows, regularly vacuuming carpets and upholstered furniture, and maintaining humidity
levels below 50%.

Avoiding exposure to tick-infested areas, such as wooded or grassy areas, and using tick
repellents and protective clothing when necessary.

Controlling pest infestations, such as rodent or bird infestations, that may attract mites that
transmit disease.

Practicing good hygiene, including regular hand washing and cleaning of bedding, clothing,
and household surfaces.

ECONOMIC IMPACT
Mites can have significant economic impacts, both positive and negative. Some species of
mites can be beneficial, such as predatory mites that feed on pests in agricultural crops or the
honeybee mite that assists in pollination. However, other species can be pests that cause
damage to crops, livestock, and property, resulting in significant economic losses.

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For example, the two-spotted spider mite is a common pest in many crops, including fruits,
vegetables, and ornamental plants, and can cause significant yield losses. The poultry red
mite is a blood-sucking mite that infests poultry farms and can cause anemia, reduced egg
production, and even death, resulting in significant economic losses for the industry.
Additionally, house dust mites can trigger allergic reactions in some people, resulting in
healthcare costs and lost productivity.

Efforts to control mite pests can also have economic impacts, as pesticides and other control
methods can be costly and may have negative environmental consequences. Integrated pest
management (IPM) strategies that incorporate multiple control methods, including biological
control, cultural practices, and chemical control, can be more sustainable and cost-effective in
the long term.

TICKS
Ticks are arachnids that are considered ectoparasites of humans and other animals. They are
closely related to spiders, mites, and scorpions. Ticks use their sharp mouthparts to pierce the
skin of their host and suck blood.

There are over 900 species of ticks worldwide, but not all of them are known to bite humans.
Some common tick species that are known to bite humans include the black-legged tick
(Ixodes scapularis), the Lone Star tick (Amblyomma americanum), and the dog tick
(Dermacentor variabilis).

LIFE CYCLE OF TICKS

The life cycle of ticks typically consists of four stages: egg, larva, nymph, and adult. The
length of each stage and the number of blood meals required for each stage vary among
species, as well as in response to environmental factors such as temperature and humidity.

Egg Stage:
The female tick lays a batch of eggs, typically ranging from a few hundred to several
thousand, on the ground or on vegetation. The eggs hatch into larvae after a few weeks or
months, depending on the species and environmental conditions.

Larva Stage:
Larvae are small and have only six legs. They crawl onto vegetation, where they wait for a
suitable host to brush by. Once a host is found, the larva attaches to the skin and feeds on

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blood for several days before dropping off to molt into the next stage. Larvae typically feed
on small mammals, birds, or reptiles.

Nymph Stage:
Nymphs have eight legs and are larger than larvae. They also climb onto vegetation and wait
for a host to pass by. Once attached, the nymph feeds on blood for several days before
dropping off to molt into the adult stage. Nymphs may feed on a wider range of hosts,
including larger mammals and humans.

Adult Stage:
Adult ticks have eight legs and are the largest stage of the tick life cycle. Males and females
mate while on the host, and females may take several blood meals to produce eggs. Adult
ticks may feed on a wide range of hosts, including humans, dogs, and other mammals.

Ticks are capable of transmitting a wide range of diseases, including Lyme disease, Rocky
Mountain spotted fever, and tick-borne encephalitis. It is important to take measures to avoid
contact with ticks and to remove them promptly if they are found on the skin to reduce the
risk of tick-borne diseases.

DISEASE
Mites are tiny arthropods that belong to the subclass Acari. They are present in almost all
terrestrial and aquatic habitats and can cause a variety of diseases in humans and animals.
The diseases caused by mites can be classified into two categories: allergic and infectious.

Allergic diseases caused by mites include asthma, rhinitis, and dermatitis. The most common
cause of allergic diseases is the house dust mite, which feeds on human skin flakes and is
found in warm and humid environments such as bedding, carpets, and upholstered furniture.

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Exposure to house dust mite allergens can cause inflammation in the respiratory tract, leading
to asthma and rhinitis. It can also cause dermatitis, which is characterized by itching, redness,
and scaling of the skin.

Infectious diseases caused by mites include scabies and trombiculiasis. Scabies is caused by
the Sarcoptes scabiei mite and is characterized by intense itching and a rash. The mites
burrow into the skin,

where they lay their eggs and produce waste, leading to an inflammatory response. Scabies is
highly contagious and can spread rapidly through close physical contact.

Trombiculiasis, also known as chigger bites, is caused by the larvae of the Trombiculidae
mite. The larvae attach to the skin and inject digestive enzymes, which cause itching and
swelling. The bite site can become infected, leading to a secondary bacterial infection.

PREVENTION
Keep your environment clean: Regular cleaning of your home, office, or any other
environment is essential to prevent mites infestation. Vacuuming carpets and upholstery,
dusting furniture, and washing bedding in hot water can reduce the number of mites in your
surroundings.

Reduce humidity: Mites thrive in warm, humid environments, so it's important to keep the
humidity level in your home or workplace low. Use air conditioning or a dehumidifier to
maintain a dry environment.

Seal cracks and crevices: Mites can easily enter your home through cracks and crevices,
so make sure to seal any gaps in walls, doors, and windows.

Wash bedding frequently: Mites can be found in bedding, so it's important to wash your
sheets, pillowcases, and blankets regularly in hot water.

Use allergen-proof covers: Allergen-proof covers can be used to cover your mattress,
pillows, and box spring to prevent mites from settling in.

Avoid stuffed toys: Stuffed toys can be a breeding ground for mites, so it's best to avoid
them altogether or wash them frequently in hot water.

Control pests: Pests like rodents and insects can attract mites, so it's important to keep them
under control.

Overall, maintaining cleanliness and controlling the environment's humidity level are key
steps in preventing mites disease.

ECONOMIC IMPACT
Ticks have both positive and negative economic impacts. On one hand, ticks contribute to the
economy by serving as a food source for some bird species and providing ecotourism
opportunities for nature enthusiasts. Additionally, tick-borne diseases have been studied for

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their potential use in developing vaccines and immunotherapies, which can have positive
economic implications for the healthcare industry.

On the other hand, ticks also have negative economic impacts. They are significant vectors of
diseases that affect humans, pets, livestock, and wildlife, resulting in substantial economic
losses associated with medical treatment, loss of productivity, and even death. For instance,
in the United States, the economic impact of Lyme disease, a tick-borne illness, has been
estimated to be between $2.1 and $2.7 billion annually. Additionally, ticks have a significant
economic impact on the livestock industry by reducing weight gain, milk production, and
fertility, resulting in significant economic losses for farmers.

Furthermore, ticks can also have indirect economic effects on the environment, particularly
on biodiversity. For example, ticks can transmit diseases to wild animals, such as deer and
moose, which can negatively impact hunting and tourism industries that rely on these species.

ENDOPARASITES

• TAPEWORMS
Tapeworms are flatworms that belong to the class Cestoda and are endoparasites of humans.
There are several species of tapeworms that can infect humans, including the pork tapeworm
(Taenia solium), the beef tapeworm (Taenia saginata), and the fish tapeworm
(Diphyllobothrium latum).

LIFE CYCLE OF TAPE WORM

The life cycle of tapeworms is complex and involves different stages and hosts. The general
life cycle of tapeworms can be described as follows:

Adult tapeworm: The adult tapeworm lives in the intestine of a definitive host, which is
usually a vertebrate animal such as a human or a pig. The tapeworm attaches to the intestinal
wall with its scolex, which is equipped with hooks or suckers.

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Proglottids: The tapeworm grows by producing segments called proglottids, which contain
male and female reproductive organs. Each proglottid can release thousands of eggs.

Egg release;The eggs are released from the proglottids and are excreted in the host's feces.

Intermediate host: The eggs are ingested by an intermediate host, which can be a
herbivorous or omnivorous animal such as a pig, cow, or fish. Once inside the intermediate
host, the eggs hatch and release larvae, which penetrate the intestinal wall and migrate to
various organs and tissues, such as the muscles, liver, or brain.

Cysticerci: The larvae develop into a larval stage called cysticercus, which is a fluid-filled
sac containing a single scolex. The cysticerci can survive in the intermediate host for months
or years, depending on the species of tapeworm.

Definitive host: When the intermediate host is consumed by a definitive host, such as a
human or a predator animal, the cysticerci are released from the cysts and attach to the
intestinal wall, where they grow into adult tapeworms and start producing proglottids.

The life cycle of tapeworms can vary depending on the species and the intermediate hosts
involved. For example, some tapeworms can use multiple intermediate hosts or can infect
humans as both the definitive and intermediate host. Proper cooking of meat and fish can help
prevent tapeworm infection by killing the larvae in the meat or fish.

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DISEASE
Tapeworms can cause several diseases in humans, depending on the species and the location
of the infection. Some common tapeworm infections in humans include:

Taeniasis: This is an infection caused by adult tapeworms of the Taenia species, such as
Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm) and Taenia solium (pork tapeworm). The symptoms of
taeniasis are usually mild or nonexistent, but can include abdominal pain, diarrhea, and
weight loss. Infection can be prevented by thoroughly cooking meat and avoiding the
consumption of raw or undercooked pork and beef.

Cysticercosis: This is a serious infection caused by the larvae of the pork tapeworm, which
can cause cysts to form in the muscles, brain, and other organs. The symptoms of
cysticercosis depend on the location of the cysts and can include seizures, headaches, and
vision problems. Infection can be prevented by properly cooking pork and avoiding fecal
contamination of food and water.

Diphyllobothriasis: This is an infection caused by the fish tapeworm, which can be

acquired by eating raw or undercooked fish. The symptoms of diphyllobothriasis are usually
mild, but can include abdominal pain, diarrhea, and vitamin B12 deficiency. Infection can be
prevented by thoroughly cooking fish and avoiding the consumption of raw or undercooked
fish.

Preventing tapeworm infections involves practicing good hygiene, such as washing hands
before handling food and avoiding fecal contamination of food and water. Properly cooking
meat and fish can also help prevent tapeworm infections by killing the larvae. Treatment for
tapeworm infections usually involves medication to kill the adult or larval worms.

ECONOMIC IMPACT
Tapeworms can have a significant economic impact in both human and animal populations.
In humans, the most common tapeworm infection is caused by Taenia saginata, also known
as the beef tapeworm. This tapeworm can cause economic losses due to reduced meat quality
and quantity, as well as increased costs for veterinary services and public health
interventions.

In livestock, tapeworm infections can cause reduced productivity and weight gain, as well as
liver and lung damage. In some cases, tapeworm infections can also result in death. For
example, Echinococcus granulosus, a tapeworm that can infect sheep, can cause hydatid
disease, which is a significant economic burden in areas where sheep farming is a major
industry.

One study estimated that the economic burden of Taenia saginata infections in cattle in Spain
was €27 million per year, including costs associated with reduced meat quality and quantity,
animal treatment, and public health interventions. Another study estimated that the annual

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economic burden of Echinococcus granulosus infections in livestock in Romania was €1.25

million.

ROUNDWORM
Roundworms are a group of endoparasitic worms that can infect humans. They are also
known as nematodes and are found in many different environments, including soil, water, and
other living organisms. Some of the most common roundworms that infect humans are:

Ascaris lumbricoides - This is one of the most common roundworms that infect humans. It
is estimated that over one billion people worldwide are infected with Ascaris. The adult
worm lives in the small intestine and can grow up to 30 cm long.

Enterobius vermicularis - This is also known as the pinworm and is one of the most
common parasitic infections in the United States. The adult worm lives in the large intestine
and can cause intense itching around the anus.

Necator americanus - This is also known as the hookworm and is found in warm, moist
climates. The adult worm lives in the small intestine and feeds on blood, which can lead to
anemia.

Trichinella spiralis - This roundworm is found in undercooked meat, particularly pork.

The larvae can burrow into the muscle tissue and cause severe muscle pain and weakness.

There are many other species of roundworms that can infect humans, including Strongyloides
stercoralis, Toxocara canis, and Wuchereria bancrofti.

LIFE CYCLE
The life cycle of roundworms can vary depending on the specific species, but the general life
cycle consists of the following stages:

Eggs - The adult female roundworms lay eggs in the host's intestine or in the environment.
The eggs are then passed out of the host's body through feces.

Larvae - The eggs hatch into larvae in the environment, and the larvae develop through
several stages.

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Infective stage - The infective stage is when the larvae become capable of infecting a host.
This stage can vary depending on the species and can occur in the environment or in an
intermediate host.

Host penetration - The infective stage of the larvae penetrate the host's skin or are ingested
by the host.

Maturity - The larvae migrate through the host's body to their final destination, which can
be the intestines or other tissues.

Reproduction - Once the larvae mature into adults, they reproduce, and the females lay
eggs, starting the cycle over again.

The specifics of the life cycle can vary depending on the species of roundworm, as some
require an intermediate host or multiple hosts to complete their life cycle. Additionally, some
roundworms can infect humans directly, while others require a different host, such as an
animal, to complete their life cycle.

DISEASE
Roundworms, also known as nematodes, can cause several diseases in humans. The most common
diseases caused by roundworms include:

Ascariasis: This is caused by the roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides, which infects the small
intestine. The larvae of the worm can enter the human body through contaminated soil, food,
or water. Once inside the body, they migrate to the lungs, where they can cause coughing,
wheezing, and fever. The larvae are then swallowed and can grow into adult worms in the
small intestine. Symptoms of ascariasis include abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and
diarrhea. In severe cases, the worms can cause intestinal obstruction, which can be life-
threatening.

Hookworm infection: This is caused by several species of hookworms that infect the small
intestine. The larvae of the worm can penetrate the human skin when walking barefoot on
contaminated soil. Once inside the body, they migrate to the lungs and are coughed up and
swallowed, where they can grow into adult worms. Symptoms of hookworm infection include
anemia, fatigue, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. In severe cases, the worms can cause intestinal
bleeding, which can be life-threatening.

Strongyloidiasis: This is caused by the roundworm Strongyloides stercoralis, which infects

the small intestine. The larvae of the worm can enter the human body through the skin or by
swallowing contaminated soil. Once inside the body, they can migrate to the lungs and then
to the small intestine, where they can grow into adult worms. Symptoms of strongyloidiasis
include abdominal pain, diarrhea, weight loss, and skin rash. In severe cases, the worms can
cause meningitis or sepsis, which can be life-threatening.

Trichinosis: This is caused by the roundworm Trichinella spiralis, which is found in raw or
undercooked pork or wild game. Symptoms of trichinosis include muscle pain, fever, and

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swelling of the face. In severe cases, the worms can cause heart and respiratory problems,
which can be life-threatening.

Overall, roundworm infections can cause a range of symptoms from mild to severe,
depending on the type of worm and the extent of the infection. Treatment typically involves
antiparasitic medication, and prevention measures such as good hygiene and proper cooking
of meat can help reduce the risk of infection.

ECONOMIC IMPACT
Roundworms can have significant economic impacts on human health, animal health, and
agricultural productivity. In humans, roundworm infections can lead to reduced work
productivity, increased healthcare costs, and even death in severe cases. In animals,
roundworm infections can cause weight loss, reduced milk production, and decreased
fertility, leading to reduced profits for farmers. In addition, plant parasitic nematodes can
infect and damage crops, reducing yield and quality and leading to significant economic
losses in the agriculture industry.

One study estimated the economic impact of soil-transmitted helminth infections, including
roundworms, on global human health and productivity to be approximately $7.5 billion
annually. This estimate includes direct healthcare costs as well as indirect costs related to lost
productivity and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) caused by the infections. In addition,
a study in the United States estimated that heartworm disease, caused by roundworms in
dogs, results in an annual economic impact of approximately $200 million due to veterinary
costs and reduced dog ownership.

FLUKES
Flukes are a type of endoparasitic flatworms that can infect humans and other animals. They
belong to the class Trematoda and have a complex life cycle that often involves multiple
hosts, including snails and various vertebrates.There are many species of flukes that can
infect humans, including the following examples:

Clonorchis sinensis: also known as the Chinese liver fluke, this species can infect the liver
and bile ducts of humans and other mammals.

Schistosoma mansoni: this species causes schistosomiasis, a disease that affects the
intestines and liver.

Fasciola hepatica: also known as the common liver fluke, this species can cause liver
damage and other symptoms in humans and other mammals.

Paragonimus westermani: this species causes paragonimiasis, a disease that affects the
lungs and can cause symptoms such as coughing, fever, and chest pain.

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LIFE CYCLE OF FLUKES

Flukes, also known as trematodes, are a type of flatworm that typically have a complex life
cycle that involves multiple hosts. The life cycle of flukes can be broadly divided into two
stages: the definitive host and the intermediate host.

In the definitive host stage, adult flukes live in the organs of their host, such as the liver,
lungs, or intestines. They reproduce sexually and release eggs, which are passed out of the
host through their feces.

In the intermediate host stage, the eggs hatch in water, and the larvae, called miracidia, swim
and penetrate a specific species of snail. Inside the snail, the miracidia develop into
sporocysts, which produce thousands of secondary larvae called cercariae.

The cercariae are released from the snail into the water, where they can infect the definitive
host by penetrating the skin or being ingested. Once inside the definitive host, the cercariae
migrate to the appropriate organ and develop into adult flukes, continuing the life cycle.

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DISEASE
Flukes are a type of endoparasitic flatworms that can infect humans and cause a range of
diseases. The diseases caused by flukes are known as "trematodiases" or "fluke infections."

Some of the most common types of flukes that infect humans and cause diseases include:

Schistosoma spp.: These flukes cause schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia.

Schistosomiasis is a chronic disease that can lead to liver, bladder, and intestinal damage, and
can even be fatal in some cases.

Fasciola spp.: These flukes cause fascioliasis, a disease that affects the liver and can cause
symptoms such as abdominal pain, fever, and jaundice.

Clonorchis sinensis: This fluke causes clonorchiasis, a disease that affects the liver and can
cause symptoms such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, and jaundice.

Opisthorchis spp.: These flukes cause opisthorchiasis, a disease that affects the liver and
can cause symptoms such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, and jaundice.

Paragonimus spp.: These flukes cause paragonimiasis, a disease that affects the lungs and
can cause symptoms such as coughing, chest pain, and fever.

The exact mechanisms by which flukes cause disease in humans are not fully understood, but
it is thought that the immune response to the presence of the flukes and their eggs in the body
is responsible for much of the tissue damage and symptoms associated with infection.

ECONOMIC IMPACT
The economic impact of flukes, which are endoparasites of humans, can be significant in
areas where they are endemic. The impact can be both direct, in terms of the cost of diagnosis
and treatment, and indirect, in terms of lost productivity and decreased quality of life.

Direct Costs:
The direct costs of fluke infections include the cost of diagnosis, treatment, and control
measures. The cost of diagnosis can include laboratory tests and imaging studies, which can
be expensive. Treatment can involve a combination of medication and surgical procedures,
depending on the severity of the infection. In some cases, treatment can be prolonged and
require multiple rounds of medication. The cost of control measures, such as snail control
programs, can also be significant.

Indirect Costs:
The indirect costs of fluke infections can be substantial, particularly in areas where they are
endemic. Fluke infections can lead to chronic illness, which can result in lost productivity and
decreased quality of life. This can have an impact on individuals, families, and communities.
For example, people who are sick with fluke infections may not be able to work, which can
result in lost income and decreased economic productivity. Additionally, the burden of caring
for sick family members can fall on other family members, which can further decrease
productivity.
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In areas where fluke infections are common, the economic impact can be significant. For
example, a study conducted in the Philippines estimated that the economic burden of
schistosomiasis, a fluke infection, was approximately $64 million per year. The burden was
largely due to lost productivity and direct medical costs.

In conclusion, fluke infections can have a significant economic impact in areas where they
are endemic. The direct costs of diagnosis, treatment, and control measures, as well as the
indirect costs of lost productivity and decreased quality of life, can be substantial. It is
important to implement effective prevention and control measures to reduce the economic
burden of fluke infections.

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