‘A’ LEVEL

GEOGRAPHY
Study Pack

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................ 11
CHAPTER 1 ..................................................................................................................... 14

1.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES.......................................................................................... 14

1.2 THE DEFINITION OF GEOGRAPHY .................................................................................. 16
1.3 THE LINK BETWEEN GEOGRAPHY AND OTHER SUBJECTS ............................................... 17
1.4 THE MAJOR BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY ........................................................................ 18
1.5 EXAMINATION STRUCTURE ANALYSIS .......................................................................... 19
1.6 EXAMINATION ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES....................................................... 20
CHAPTER 2 ..................................................................................................................... 22

2.1 STRUCTURAL LANDFORMS ON A GLOBAL SCALE ......................................... 22

2.2 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES.......................................................................................... 22
2.3 THE BARYSPHERE OR THE CORE OR THE CENTRE SPHERE ............................................ 25
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2.4 CONVERGENT OR DESTRUCTIVE PLATE MARGINS ........................................................ 39

2.5 VULCANICITY .......................................................................................................... 45
2.6 GEYSER ......................................................................................................................... 48
2.7 EARTHQUAKES ........................................................................................................ 52
2.8 CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES .................................................................................. 53
2.9 FAULTS AND THEIR ASSOCIATED LANDFORMS ............................................. 54
2.10 CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF A FAULT ....................................................... 54
2.11 TYPES OF FAULTS AND STRUCTURES CREATED BY FAULTING ................. 55
2.12 RIVERS IN FAULT SHATTERED ROCKS .............................................................. 66
2.13 THE EAST AFRICAN RIFT VALLEY LANDFORMS ............................................. 69
2.14 TECTONIC LANDFORMS DUE TO FOLDING ....................................................... 69
2.15 MAJOR RELIEF FEATURES OF THE EARTH ........................................................ 73
2.16 OTHER OCEAN FLOOR FEATURES ....................................................................... 75
2.17 THE STRUCTURE OF THE CONTINENTS ............................................................. 76
2.18 EXAMINATION TYPE OF QUESTIONS .............................................................................. 77
CHAPTER 3 ..................................................................................................................... 78

WEATHERING AND LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT ............................................ 78

3.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES.......................................................................................... 78

3.2 MAJOR ROCK TYPES IN THE EARTH’S CRUST ............................................................... 78
3.3 ROCK TYPES ................................................................................................................. 78
3.4 TYPES OF WEATHERING ................................................................................................. 79
3.5 HYDRATION .................................................................................................................. 80
3.6 HYDROLYSIS ................................................................................................................. 80
3.7 ACID RAIN .................................................................................................................... 81
3.8 BLOCK DISINTEGRATION .............................................................................................. 81
3.9 CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH DISINTEGRATION OCCURS .................................................. 81
3.10 RESULTS OF DISINTEGRATION ....................................................................................... 81
3.11 FACTORS DETERMINING TYPES AND RATE OF WEATHERING (AND EROSION) ................. 81
3.12 ROCK HARDNESS ........................................................................................................... 82
3.13 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. ............................................................................................. 82
3.14 PERMEABILITY AND POROSITY ...................................................................................... 84
3.15 CLIMATE AND WEATHERING.......................................................................................... 84
3.16 WEATHERING AND LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT. ........................................................... 86
3.17 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS.................................................................................... 86
CHAPTER 4 ..................................................................................................................... 87

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF TROPICAL REGIONS .................................................... 87

4.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES.......................................................................................... 87

INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 87
4.2 LAND-FORMING PROCESSES MAY BE GROUPED BROADLY INTO TWO TYPES: ................. 87
4.3 FACTORS PROMOTING THE DEVELOPMENTAL OF A DEEP WEATHERED LAYER................ 88

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4.4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF A WEATHERING PROFILE ........................................................... 88

4.5 FACTORS PROMOTING THE REMOVAL OF DEEP WEATHERED MATERIAL ......................... 89
4.6 FORMATION OF INSELBERGS ......................................................................................... 89
4.7 TYPES OF INSELBERGS .................................................................................................. 89
4.8 EXHUMATION HYPOTHESIS: FALCONER ........................................................................ 91
4.9 EFFECTS OF WEATHERING ............................................................................................. 91
4.10 LANDFORM EVOLUTION (SUMMARY)............................................................................. 93
4.11 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS.................................................................................... 94
CHAPTER 5 ..................................................................................................................... 94

5.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES.......................................................................................... 94

5.2 ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION ............................................................................. 94
5.3 94
5.4 STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE .................................................................... 95
5.5 TROPOSPHERE ............................................................................................................... 95
5.6 TROPOPAUSE ................................................................................................................. 95
5.7 STRATOSPHERE ............................................................................................................. 95
5.8 STRATOPAUSE ............................................................................................................... 96
5.9 MESOPAUSE .................................................................................................................. 96
5.10 THERMOSPHERE ............................................................................................................ 96
5.11 ENERGY TRANSFERS IN THE ATMOSPHERE ..................................................... 97
5.12 FACTORS AFFECTING INSOLATION .................................................................... 97
ALTITUDE (HEIGHT ABOVE SEA LEVEL) ................................................................................... 97
LATITUDINAL POSITION OF THE SUN ........................................................................................ 98
CLOUD COVER ......................................................................................................................... 98
PREVAILING WINDS ................................................................................................................. 98
5.13 SEASONAL CHANGES .................................................................................................... 98
LENGTH OF DAY AND NIGHT .................................................................................................... 98
5.14 CAUSES OF WIND ........................................................................................................... 99
UPPER AIR MOTION.................................................................................................................. 99
5.15 CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE ............................................................................... 100
ATMOSPHERIC MOTION ................................................................................................. 101
CORIOLIS FORCE.................................................................................................................... 102
5.16 CENTRIPETAL FORCE: ................................................................................................. 103
5.17 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ................................................................................ 103
CHAPTER 6 ................................................................................................................... 104

ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE .................................................................................... 104

6.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 104

WATER / LAND SURFACES ..................................................................................................... 108
UPPER AIR TEMPERATURE INVERSION ................................................................................... 109
ADIABATIC LAPSE RATES ..................................................................................................... 109
CONDENSATION OF WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE .................................................................. 110

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OROGRAPHIC COOLING ......................................................................................................... 110

RADIATION COOLING ............................................................................................................ 110
ADVECTION COOLING............................................................................................................ 111
CHAPTER 7 ................................................................................................................... 116

7.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 116

7.2 ORIGINS OF AIR MASSES .............................................................................................. 116
7.3 CLASSIFICATION OF AIR MASSES ................................................................................. 117
7.4 MODIFICATION OF AIR MASSES.................................................................................... 117
7.5 FRONTS ....................................................................................................................... 118
7.6 CONVERGENCE ZONES................................................................................................. 119
7.7 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ................................................................................ 120
CHAPTER 8 ................................................................................................................... 120

8.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 120

THE HUMAN IMPACT ON CLIMATE AND WEATHER ................................................................. 120
DEFORESTATION ................................................................................................................... 120
URBAN CLIMATE ................................................................................................................... 121
FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO THE URBAN HEAT ISLAND INCLUDE ..................................... 121
EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS .......................................................................................... 122
CHAPTER 9 ................................................................................................................... 123

9.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 123

INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 123
9.2 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE .............................................................................................. 124
9.3 FACTORS AFFECTING INFILTRATION ............................................................................ 128
9.4 SURFACE FACTORS ...................................................................................................... 128
9.5 F ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
9.6 TYPE OF RAINFALL ...................................................................................................... 129
9.7 FACTORS AFFECTING PERCOLATION AMOUNT ............................................................. 130
9.8 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INFILTRATION AND PERCOLATION ......................................... 131
9.9 FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPO-TRANSPIRATION ............................................................ 135
9.10 UNDERGROUND WATER ...................................................................................... 137
9.11 TYPES OF AQUIFERS: -................................................................................................. 138
9.12 SOURCES OF GROUND WATER .................................................................................... 139
9.13 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE FORM AND NATURE OF WATER TABLE ............................. 139
9.14 SPRINGS ................................................................................................................... 140
9.15 TYPES OF SPRINGS ....................................................................................................... 140
9.16 FACTORS CONTROLLING DISCHARGE OF SPRINGS ...................................................... 141
9.17 WATER BUDGET OF THE HYDROLOGICAL SYSTEM ....................................................... 141
9.18 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ................................................................................ 143
CHAPTER 10 ................................................................................................................. 144

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10.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 144

10.2 FLUVIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY ....................................................................................... 144
10.3 TYPES OF RIVERS ........................................................................................................ 144
DRAINAGE DENSITY .............................................................................................................. 147
10.4 COMPONENTS OF THE HYDROGRAPH ........................................................................... 148
10.5 STUDY OF RIVER CROSS PROFILES .............................................................................. 150
10.6 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS.................................................................................. 151
CHAPTER 11 ................................................................................................................. 152

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS......................................................................................................... 152

SOIL COMPOSITION ................................................................................................................ 153
SOIL FORMING PROCESSES..................................................................................................... 154
FACTORS INFLUENCING SOIL FORMATION ............................................................................. 155
CLASSIC EXAMPLES OF CLIMATIC IMPACT ON SOIL FORMATION ............................................ 156
SOIL TYPES AND SOIL PROFILES ............................................................................................. 157
SOIL FERTILITY ..................................................................................................................... 163
DESERTIFICATION ................................................................................................................. 166
SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF THE SAHEL ....................................................................... 168
ATTEMPTS TO REDUCE DESERTIFICATION ............................................................................ 168
EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS .......................................................................................... 170
CHAPTER 12 ................................................................................................................. 170

DESERT PROCESSES AND LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT .............................. 170

12.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 170

12.2 DESERTS ..................................................................................................................... 170
12.3 NATURAL CAUSES ...................................................................................................... 170
12.4 DESERT PROCESSES AND LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT ................................................. 171
12.5 DESERTIFICATION ....................................................................................................... 172
12.6 FACTORS INFLUENCING DESERTIFICATION .................................................................. 172
12.7 HUMAN CAUSES .................................................................................................... 172
12.8 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS.................................................................................. 173
CHAPTER 13 ................................................................................................................. 174

13.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 174

13.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE NATURE OF HAZARD (DISASTER) .................................... 174
13.3 TYPES OF HAZARDOUS ENVIRONMENTS....................................................................... 175
13.4 SUMMARY OF CLIMATIC HAZARDS .............................................................................. 177
13.5 NATURE OF MASS MOVEMENT – .................................................................................. 183
EFFECTS OF SOIL CREEP ......................................................................................................... 185
13.6 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT IN HAZARDOUS ENVIRONMENTS ................................... 188
13.7 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTION .................................................................................. 188
CHAPTER 14 ................................................................................................................. 189

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14.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 189

14.2 PRACTICAL WORK ....................................................................................................... 189
14.3 MAP WORK.................................................................................................................. 190
14.4 FIELDWORK RELATING TO FEATURES OF THE RIVER CHANNEL .................................... 190
14.5 METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................................... 191
14.6 SELECTING THE POINTS ON WHICH TO MAKE THE MEASUREMENTS.............................. 192
CHAPTER 15 ................................................................................................................. 194

15.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 194

15.2 POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND DENSITY .................................................................. 194
15.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND DENSITY ............................. 194
15.4 POPULATION DENSITY FOR COUNTRIES OUTSIDE AFRICA ............................................ 197
15.5 POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN ZIMBABWE (CASE STUDY) ........................................... 198
15.6 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS.................................................................................. 200
CHAPTER 16 ................................................................................................................. 201

16.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 201

16.2 DEFINITION OF DEMOGRAPHIC TERMS ......................................................................... 201
16.3 REASONS FOR LOW RATE OF POPULATION GROWTH IN THE MORE ECONOMICALLY
DEVELOPED COUNTRIES ........................................................................................................ 205
16.4 POPULATION COMPOSITION: ............................................................................. 207
16.5 SEX STRUCTURE: ......................................................................................................... 207
16.6 TYPES OF AGE – SEX PYRAMIDS. ................................................................................. 208
16.7 ECONOMICALLY ACTIVE POPULATION ........................................................................ 210
16.8 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS.................................................................................. 212
CHAPTER 17 ................................................................................................................. 213

POPULATION AND RESOURCES ........................................................................... 213

17.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 213

17.2 DIFFICULTIES IN MEASURING OVER POPULATION ........................................................ 216
17.3 OVER POPULATION AND POPULATION DENSITY .......................................... 216
17.4 REMEDIES OF OVER POPULATION .................................................................... 217
OPTIMUM POPULATION ................................................................................................. 218
17.5 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS.................................................................................. 222
CHAPTER 18 ................................................................................................................. 222

18.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 222

18.2 THE CONCEPT OF DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION ............................................................ 222
18.3 DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION IN EUROPE: ..................................................................... 223
18.4 COMMENT ON DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION:................................................................ 224
18.5 CONSEQUENCES OF RAPID POPULATION GROWTH: (REVISITED) ................................. 226
18.6 EMPLOYMENT. ............................................................................................................ 226

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18.7 MINERALS AND ENERGY: ............................................................................................ 227

18.8 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS.................................................................................. 227
CHAPTER 19 ................................................................................................................. 228

POPULATION MOVEMENT- MIGRATION .................................................................... 228

19.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 228
19.2 MIGRATION: ................................................................................................................ 228
19.3 TYPES OF MIGRATION: ................................................................................................. 229
19.4 REGIONAL MIGRATION ................................................................................................ 230
19.5 URBAN DECENTRALIZATION........................................................................................ 230
19.6 SEASONAL MIGRATION ............................................................................................... 231
19.7 TRANSHUMANCE ......................................................................................................... 231
19.8 RURAL- URBAN MIGRATION........................................................................................ 231
19.9 EFFECTS OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION. ................................................................... 232
19.10 CASE STUDY OF INTERNAL MIGRATION IN BRAZIL ..................................... 233
19.11 INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION (EXTERNAL) ................................................... 234
19.12 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTION ................................................................................... 236
CHAPTER 20 ................................................................................................................. 236

20.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 236

CONDITIONS THAT INFLUENCE THE CHOICE OF SETTLEMENT SITES (SITTING FACTORS) ...... 237
FACTOR FAVORING NUCLEATION /CLUSTERING /COMPACTION .............................................. 239
FACTORS FAVORING DISPERSION /DISPERSED SETTLEMENTS ................................................. 240
FUNCTIONS OF RURAL SETTLEMENTS ................................................................................... 240
HOW THE RURAL AND URBAN AREAS INTERACT-................................................................... 244
THE CONCEPT SPHERE OF INFLUENCE: ................................................................................... 244
THE URBAN SPHERE OF THE INFLUENCE IS THE WHOLE AREA-RURAL AND URBAN THAT IS
INFLUENCED BY A CENTRAL TOWN. THE OTHER TERMS ARE URBAN FIELDS OR HUNTER
LANDS. 244
SHAPE AND SIZE OF SPHERE OF INFLUENCE –IS DETERMINED BY MANY FACTORS LIKE: ......... 244
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY URBAN FIELDS ............................................................................ 245
CHAPTER 21 ................................................................................................................. 249

21.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 249

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FUNCTIONAL, COMPLEXITY AND POPULATION SIZE OF CENTRAL
PLACES 260
THE URBAN POPULATION ..................................................................................................... 267
TYPES OF URBAN SETTLEMENTS ............................................................................................ 269
FACTORS THAT HAVE LED TO THE GROWTH OF URBAN AREAS ............................................... 269
REASONS FOR SUSTAINED GROWTH OF AFRICAN TOWNS: ..................................................... 270
ONCE TOWNS ARE ESTABLISHED, THEY CONTINUE TO GROW. THIS CAN BE ATTRIBUTED TO
THE FOLLOWING: ................................................................................................................... 270
URBAN POPULATIONS.................................................................................................... 280

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CHAPTER 22 ................................................................................................................. 293

AGRICULTURE ........................................................................................................... 293

22.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 293

22.2 FACTORS AFFECTING AGRICULTURAL LAND USE PATTERNS: ....................................... 293
22.3 PHYSICAL FACTORS .................................................................................................... 293
22.4 SOIL TEXTURE: ........................................................................................................... 294
22.5 MAIN AGRICULTURAL REGIONS OF ZIMBABWE........................................... 298
22.6 TRANSITION FROM SUBSISTENCE TO COMMERCIAL AGRICULTURE. ............................. 299
22.7 FARMING SYSTEMS IN TROPICAL AREAS ..................................................................... 302
22.8 PLANTATION AGRICULTURE ............................................................................. 304
22.9 PASTORAL NOMADIC AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM ............................................................ 307
22.10 COMMERCIAL RANCHING ............................................................................................ 308
22.11 OVERSTOCKING AND OVER GRAZING: ......................................................................... 308
22.12 THE GREEN REVOLUTION: .......................................................................................... 310
22.13 NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF THE GREEN REVOLUTION ....................................... 311
22.14 CONTROL OF SOIL EROSION: ....................................................................................... 312
22.15 PLANT AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY: .............................................................................. 313
22.16 LAND TENURE AND MANAGEMENT: ........................................................................... 314
22.17 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ................................................................................ 314
CHAPTER 23 ................................................................................................................. 316

AGRICULTURAL LAND USE THEORIES ............................................................. 316

23.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 316

23.2 INTRODUCTION OF ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURAL LOCATION THEORY BY VON
THUNEN ................................................................................................................................ 316
23.3 THE ISOLATED STATE THEORY: ................................................................................... 318
23.4 ECONOMIC RENT EQUATION: ...................................................................................... 319
23.5 APPLICATION OF VON THUNEN’S THEORY .................................................................. 320
23.6 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS.................................................................................. 323
CHAPTER 24 ................................................................................................................. 324

24.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 324

RURAL DEVELOPMENT POLICIES .......................................................................................... 324
HOW DEVELOPMENT IS CARRIED OUT: .................................................................................. 324
RESETTLEMENT IN ZIMBABWE SINCE INDEPENDENCE ........................................................... 325
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: ................................................................................................. 325
ORGANIZATION OF THE RESETTLEMENT PROGRAMMES ........................................................ 326
CHAPTER 25 ................................................................................................................. 330

25.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 330

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EXAMPLES OF RAW MATERIALS ORIENTED INDUSTRIES: SUGAR CANE PROCESSING. ............ 331
THE FOLLOWING ARE REASONS WHY RAW MATERIALS ARE BECOMING MUCH LESS
IMPORTANT AS A LOCATION FACTOR. .................................................................................... 331
THE FOLLOWING ARE EXAMPLES OF MARKET ORIENTED INDUSTRIES .................................... 332
SITUATION 2.......................................................................................................................... 334
MODERN INDUSTRIES REQUIRE ............................................................................................. 335
HOW IT IS DONE? ................................................................................................................... 338
LARGE PLANTS HAVE ADVANTAGES OVER SMALLER ONES. THE ADVANTAGES ARE DUE TO: 338
- 338
TYPES OF INTERNAL ECONOMIES SCALE ............................................................................... 338
- 338
ADVANTAGES ....................................................................................................................... 339
ALFRED WEBER’S THEORY OF INDUSTRIAL LOCATION ........................................................ 341
TERMS USED IN WEBER’S THEORY........................................................................................ 341
AGGLOMERATION PROVIDES THE FOLLOWING BENEFITS ....................................................... 342
EXAMPLES TO ILLUSTRATE WEBER’S MODEL- APPLICATION ................................................ 342
CRITICISM OF WEBER’S MODEL ............................................................................................ 343
GARRY - USA IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY ........................................................................... 344
SITE FACTORS ....................................................................................................................... 344
CHAPTER 26 ................................................................................................................. 346

26.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 346

TOURISM ............................................................................................................................... 346
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF TOURISM ..................................................... 347
RECREATION ......................................................................................................................... 351
EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS .......................................................................................... 353
CHAPTER 27 ................................................................................................................. 353

MINING ......................................................................................................................... 353

27.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 354

27.2 MINING ..................................................................................................................... 354
A)NATURE OF ORE BODY AND MODE OF OCCURRENCE .......................................................... 354
B)AMOUNT OF WASTE IN MINERALS ...................................................................................... 354
C) DEPTH OF DEPOSITS .......................................................................................................... 354
D) QUALITY OF ORE/ GRADE OF ORE: - ................................................................................. 354
E) SIZE OF RESERVES: ........................................................................................................... 355
F) DEMAND: .......................................................................................................................... 355
G) CAPITAL: .......................................................................................................................... 355
H) LABOUR SUPPLY:.............................................................................................................. 355
I) TRANSPORT: ...................................................................................................................... 355
J) TECHNOLOGY .................................................................................................................... 356
27.3 EFFECTS OF MINING ON LANDSCAPES: ........................................................................ 356
27.4 MINING AND ITS IMPACT ON THE NATIONAL ECONOMY ............................................... 356

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27.5 CASE STUDY OF BUCHWA MINE – IRON ORE .............................................................. 357

ROLE OF BUCHWA IN THE NATIONAL ECONOMY: ................................................................. 357
EFFECTS OF MINING ON THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT ........................................................ 357
27.6 PROMOTING WORKERS AND PROVIDING INCENTIVES ................................................... 358
STAFFING AND WELFARE ...................................................................................................... 358
DETAILS ON FUNCTIONAL DIFFERENT DEPARTMENTS WITHIN THE MINE................................ 358
27.7 PROBLEMS FACED BY MINING AS A WHOLE: ................................................................ 359
PROBLEMS ............................................................................................................................ 360
27.8 IRON ORE EFFECTS ON AFRICAN ECONOMIES ............................................................... 361
CONCLUSION: ........................................................................................................................ 361
27.9 IMPACT OF COPPER MINING IN ZAMBIA ....................................................................... 361
27.10 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ................................................................................ 362
CHAPTER 28 ................................................................................................................. 363

28.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 363

WHAT IS A REGION? .............................................................................................................. 363
CORE -PERIPHERY CONCEPT .................................................................................................. 364
CAUSES OF REGIONAL IMBALANCES ..................................................................................... 367
EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS .......................................................................................... 369
CHAPTER 29 ................................................................................................................. 370

29.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 370

AIR POLLUTION................................................................................................................ 371
MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS AND THEIR SOURCES ..................................................... 372
WATER POLLUTION ............................................................................................................... 372
HAZARDOUS WASTE .............................................................................................................. 375
LAND POLLUTION ................................................................................................................. 376
CHAPTER 30 ................................................................................................................. 377

COLLECTION, PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF

GEOGRAPHICAL DATA ........................................................................................... 377

30.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES........................................................................................ 377

30.2 DATA COLLECTION ............................................................................................... 377
30.3 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES .............................................................................................. 377
POPULATION ......................................................................................................................... 378
WHEN DO WE USE SAMPLING? ............................................................................................... 378
30.4 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND METHODS ....................................................................... 378
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES ........................................................................................................ 378
30.5 RANDOM SAMPLING .................................................................................................... 378
30.6 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING .............................................................................................. 379
30.7 STRATIFIED SAMPLING ................................................................................................ 380

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30.8 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS .............................................................................. 380

30.9 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION................................................................................. 381
30.10 DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS OF INTERPRETATION ................................................ 382
30.11 TYPES OF FLOW DIAGRAMS ......................................................................................... 382
ADVANTAGES OF FLOW-LINE MAPS ...................................................................................... 383
30.12 METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION ....................................................................................... 384
30.13 CHOROPLETH MAPS ..................................................................................................... 385
VALUE OF THE CHOROPLETH TECHNIQUE ............................................................................. 385
LIMITATIONS OF THE CHOROPLETH TECHNIQUE .................................................................... 385
30.14 GRAPHS .................................................................................................................... 385
30.15 TYPES OF GRAPHS. ...................................................................................................... 386
30.16 EXAMINATION TYPE QUESTIONS ................................................................................ 387

Acknowledgements

I am indebted to all staff at Turn-Up College for their untiring efforts towards making this
publication a success. I express the same thanks to all outside individuals who contributed to
this module by way of researching on the contents that make up this study pack. I am
particularly thankful to my two lady secretaries, Chiedza Muchena and Crystabell
Mudzingwa for the great work they have done by typing all the manuscripts from different
contributors. Last but not least, I thank Mr C.K Mhuri who has done the general editing of
this publication.

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We have taken every effort to try and get hold of the copyright holders of any information
we have reproduced without acknowledgement. We will appreciate the help from anyone to
enable us contact the copyright holders whose permission we have not yet obtained.

Preface

This Turn-Up CollegeAdvanced Level Study Pack has been designed to meet the needs
of both teachers and students of A-level Geography. Its distinct advantage over most
resources is the presentation of concepts in a simplified manner. It provides for a gradual,
yet permanent transition to the demands of A- Level Geography. Simplicity of explanation
is further enhanced by the presentation of all geographical details in one single volume.
Thus research time is greatly reduced for both teachers and students.

This study pack has been prepared by experienced classroom practitioners andit adequately
covers the syllabus requirements for both Cambridge and ZIMSEC examinations. This

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edition begins every chapter with well stated content objectives which direct both teachers
and learners to skillfully cover the geographical content. In addition, it contains self-
assessment exercises as well as typical examination questions that help build skills and
examination competences for learners of all aptitude categories.

It should be noted, however, that this resource does not eliminate or downgrade other
resources available, but comes as a worthwhile addition to the multiplicity of resources
already in use. For best results it is recommended that this resource be used concurrently
with The Turn-Up CollegeA- level geography questions and answers module.

Foreword
I had the opportunity of discussing this book with several educationists, teachers and
students when it was in the process of being made, and I felt that it was likely to prove
unusually useful. It gathers together a great deal of information which must otherwise be
delved for in many books and all this is arranged judiciously and on practical lines. The
authors’ outlook might be described as one of liberal commonsense clarity, simplicity of
expression, and examination-skills-focused. Our study packs are there to offer a canvas
for Zimbabweans to showcase their best ideas to help transform, the country into a
knowledge and skills-based society where citizens are free to express their creativity,
knowledge and ingenuity. We have set challenging objectives, but we believe that only
by striving to achieve the highest, can we elevate ourselves above the elements which

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tend to hold or country back. However, if your see anything where you feel the elements
have failed to deliver, and where we may have failed on issues such as content, depth,
relevance and usability, please let us know by using the contact numbers
(09 61226/61247, 0773 247 358; or box 2759 Bulawayo; or email at
[email protected]. We are here to listen and improve.
In my days as a teacher and as a student I would have welcomed this book warmly
because:
(i) It approaches the syllabus holistically
(ii) It uses simplified expression
(iii) It has an in-depth coverage of content
(iv) It provides examination skills at the earliest stage of studying
(v) It provides local, international and commonplace examples, illustrations and case
studies.
(vi) It provides intelligent questions and answers of the examination type on a
chapter by chapter basis.
(vii) Last but not least, it provides a clear platform for self-evaluation as one prepares
for the final examinations

I have no doubt that learners and educators would as well find this book to be one of the
best. It is certainly a manual for success. Every one would find it worthy to have his/her
own copy. I shall not be surprised if the Turn-up College Study pack becomes the best
resource in school and out of school.

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO “A” LEVEL GEOGRAPHY

1.1 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter students should be able to:
1. Define what Geography is
2. Explain what Geography is
3. Explain the branches and scope of Geography
4. Outline the structure and form of the “A” Level Geography Examination
5. Explain the examination Assessment objectives

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1. INTRODUCTION TO A LEVEL GEOGARPHY

Welcome to the “A” Level Geography course. Geography at “A” Level, like any other “A”
level subject, is a big jump from your “O” level studies. A practical approach to the subject
would be more appropriate at this level. See the exercise below.

2. KICK OFF EXERCISE

Read the short account given below and then critically think about all the questions which
are raised at the end of the account.

There is no doubt that our world today is facing a crisis! Land degradation, pollution
in water, air and on land; global warming, acid rain, destruction of the ozone layer,
melting ice caps, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, typhoons and cyclones; disruptions
of nuclear installations, civic and religious unrest, belligerent nations, disease
pandemics, famines, the liquidity crisis, diminishing and unequal distribution of
resources, corporate greed and centralization, gender inequality etc, all affect the
human being living over the face of the earth.

Ironically, most, if not all the problems, result from anthropogenic (human) activities.
It would appear that the human element, once introduced into a pure natural
environment, disrupts the ecological balance and upsets sustainable living in a number
of ways. This is what we are sure about today.

But our earth has always been changing-as if it is restless! The changes have a direct
impact on the peoples of the earth, its flora, fauna and their constant struggle to adjust
and survive. Have you ever considered what causes these changes, how they come
about, why they occur, how they occur and what effect they have in the survival
struggle of the earth’s living organisms?

Geographers have answers to these questions. This may sound too bold a statement to
make but its implication is that the scope of Geography is so wide and so rich and
varied that there is no subject in the curriculum that Geography does not have
something to teach about. See the branches of Geography in number 7 below.

3 In the whole of your life, where do you see Geography coming in, especially its
knowledge and skills taught and demonstrated at “A” Level?

Geography is woven in the fabric of the whole world around you, your survival in that
world and your duty in ensuring that your world can carry on supporting your survival. You
see Geography correlated with virtually all your other subjects in the curriculum. Because of
the nature of Geography, there is a richer selection of careers than in any other single
subject. See the diagram in number 6 below, showing the link between Geography and
some other disciplines in your curriculum.

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4 As an “A” Level Geography student, what would you suffer if you were not to learn this
subject thoroughly right from the start?

The “A” Level, Geography syllabus is a very long syllabus. Virtually every topic introduces
peculiar geographic terms, jargon, concepts, skills and values which you must attempt to
master. The “A” Level course is a huge jump from “O” Level work; it actually forms a very
firm basis for university studies or any further studies in Geography. Besides, you will not
get a good pass at the end of your course if your knowledge and skills are weak. A good
pass in Geography at “A” Level can qualify your entry into certain disciplines at University
where you may not have the direct subject pass pertinent to the entry into those courses.
The reason is that “A” Level Geography deals with a variety of concepts and skills that
relate to other subjects. Again see number 6 and number 7 below.

To a very large extent, Geography is a science, whose methods of study and research are
those used in natural sciences (Chemistry, Physics, Biology) and other sciences. If you study
Geography thoroughly at this level, you will gain the basic knowledge and skills that
students get in the other sciences.

1.2 The Definition of Geography

The word “Geography” first came from an ancient Greek scholar, Eratosthenes (276-
194BC). Geo–means earth and graphien means to write. Therefore “Geography”
literally means to write about the earth. You can immediately see that this is a very
limited definition of Geography. The definition of Geography is a bit elusive, although
we all agree that it is a science concerned with places, especially the earth’s surface as
the space within which the human population exists. Below are some definitions given
by a few experts together with some comments on the subject.
Please note that the mode of citation used below indicates the year of publication of the
book or the view and the page where the information is found in that publication. The
two details are separated by a colon.

Richard Hartshorne (1959)

He wrote that:
Geography is concerned with providing accurate, orderly and rational descriptions and
interpretations of the variable character of the earth’s surface.

Johnstone et al (1981:175)
They submitted that Geography is:
“the study of the earth’s surface as the space within which the human population lives.”

Small and Witherick (1986:89)

Wrote that:
“Geography comprises the study of the earth’s surface as the home of the human race.
But how much Geography is the science of spatial distribution and spatial relationships,
how far it is concerned with the interaction between people and their physical
environment, and to what extent the study of the region is the focus of the subject, these

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are all matters of debate. The fact that Geography is located at the interface between the
natural sciences, adds to the difficulty of arriving at a definitive definition.”

Monkhouse (1965:137)
Submitted that:
“Geography comprises the study of the earth’s surface in its areal differentiation as the
home of man; how much it is a science of distributions; physical and human, how much
man in his spatial setting, is the crux, and to what extent the study of the region is the
core of the subject, are all matters of debate. The geographer seeks to describe how the
diverse features have come to be what they are, and to discuss how they influence the
distribution of man with his multifarious activities. Geography, standing as it does,
transitionally, yet centrally, between the natural sciences, the social studies and the
humanities, is thus in its concept and content an integrated whole.”

Today scholars agree that Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that, foremost,

seeks to understand the earth and all of its human and natural complexities not merely
where objects are, but how they have changed and come to be. Geography has been
called “the world discipline’ and “the bridge” between the human and the physical
science. Hence Geography has two main branches as shown below.

GEOGRAPHY

PHYSICAL
GEOGRAPHY

1.3 The link between Geography and other subjects

Fenneman (1919) summarised the link between Geography and other disciplines in a
HUMAN
diagram that explains the circumference of Geography as shown below.
GEOGRAPHY

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Meteorology

climatology
ogy Bi
Bi o
eol

log
ge

y
G

og
raph
y
Social Economic
Geography Geography

Historical
Geography

History

The circumference of Geography (Fenneman 1919). As quoted from ZOU ( GED101;8)

But that is not all. Other subjects are involved e.g. Mathematical Geography involves
research statistics. This brings us to branches of Geography.

1.4 The major branches of Geography

Below is a table showing the main branches of Geography under its two main headings of
Physical and Human Geography.

1. 2. Physical Geography Human Geography

Geomorphology-the scientific study of Population Geography

1 landforms

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2 Hydrology- the scientific study of water Rural Geography

3 Climatology and Meteorology-the Urban Geography
scientific study of weather and climate.
4 Oceanography- the scientific study of seas Transport Geography
and oceans
5 Biogeography-the scientific study of Industrial Geography
animals and plant distributions.
6 Pedology – the scientific study of soils Cultural Geography
and their formation processes
Economic Geography
Historical Geography
Social Geography

Political Geography

Agricultural Geography

5 We are sure that you now have an idea of what your subject is, its scope, its branches
and the wide choice it carries and offers.

1.5 Examination Structure Analysis

The Geography Examination Papers
In both Cambridge and ZIMSEC, two papers will be set. The first paper, (Paper 1) is on
Physical Geography. The second paper (Paper 2) is on Human Geography. Below is a
table that shows the paper syllabus numbers and codes.

CAMBRIDGE ZIMSEC

9696/1- Paper 1 9156/1- Paper 1

9696/2 - Paper 2 9156/2- Paper 2

Each paper consists of CORE and OPTIONAL topics. All the core topics are very
important for the examination, and they must be covered in detail and thoroughly. The
optional topics are also important, but you must choose to study at least two options for
each paper.

Below is a table detailing the topics that fall under CORE and OPTIONAL topics.

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PAPER 1- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY PAPER 2- HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

CORE TOPICS CORE TOPICS

 Climatology  Population Geography
 Hydrology and fluvial Processes  Settlement dynamics
 Geomorphology  Agricultural systems and food
production
 Biogeography  Manufacturing and services
industry

OPTIONAL TOPICS OPTIONAL TOPICS

 Structural landforms on a global  Mining, Fuel and Power
scale  Environmental management
 Hazardous environments  Transport and trade
 Coastal Geomorphology  Economic development and
 Glacial and peri-glacial planning
environments

Each paper is divided into two sections. Section A of each paper is a practical based
assessment part.

Each paper is 3 hours long.

1.6 EXAMINATION ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES

(a) Level 1 – knowledge

When the examiner tests knowledge,they want to find out if you can;
 Define and explain terms and concepts
 Demonstrate a working knowledge of relevant theories, principles, models etc
 Locate accurately where selected places and environments are found, as well as
describing their characteristics
 Demonstrate that you have knowledge of the physical and human processes at
work.

(b) Level 2 – Understanding and application skills

Here you are required to show that you can;

 Interpret geographical concepts and apply them to new situations.

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 Demonstrate your understanding of the complexity and inter-active nature of the

physical and human environment.
 Demonstrate how processes bring changes in systems, distributions and
environments.
 Show the distinctiveness and generality of places and environments.
 Show the significance of spatial and time scales.
 Apply geographical concepts to new contexts.

The key word at this level is “synthesis” (i.e. assembling of, or building up) of what has
been given to explain it in another way, and apply it on new situations or contexts.
Concepts gained in one topic can enhance understanding of another topic not necessarily
linked to the first. It is important to conceptualize the linkages and inter-relationships that
exist in the various components of geography.

(c) Level 3 - Enquiry skills

 At this level you must demonstrate practical skills gained from field work and
other research projects.
 You should be able to collect and record and interpret information and statistical
data.
 You should be able to interpret a range of map and diagram techniques that
display geographical information.
 You should be able to assess methods of enquiry and rationalise limitations of
evidence.
 You should be able to analyse, synthesise and hypothesize data.

All this calls for a lot of personal judgement, mastery of data collection and field
observation techniques.

(d) Level 4: Judgemental skills (evaluation and decision making)

At this level the examiner tests your ability to:

 Give opinions and views on geographical concepts
 Assess the effect of geographical processes and changes on human and physical
environments
 Evaluate the relative success/failure of initiatives, and demonstrate a sense of
sound judgement.
 Analyse and identify different view points and areas of conflict.
 Undertake decision making processes in human and physical geography

These four levels of assessment objectives form the basis of the study of all your topics in
Geography.

10 Conclusion

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Now let us go on to the actual study of ‘A’ level Geography. It is hoped that the above
introduction has placed you on a pedestal in readiness to begin the actual A’ level work
in Geography.

CHAPTER 2
GEOMORPHOLOGY : (Core Topic)

2.1 STRUCTURAL LANDFORMS ON A GLOBAL SCALE

2.2 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter students should be able to:

a Describe the internal structure of the earth.

b Examine critically, the continental drift and plate tectonics theories.

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c Describe the major landforms of the earth

d Describe the processes of faulting and folding bringing out associated landforms.

2 The Internal Structure of The Earth.

The internal structure of the earth is a good starting point for the study of PLATE
TECTONICS, a phenomenon that helps to explain the main landform features of the
earth’s surface. Scientific research continues to gather valuable information about
what the internal structure may possibly be like.

If a fruit such as a peach is cut right through the centre to make two equal halves and
each half is studied, you can identify three clear parts which are :
a A very thin outer skin,
b A thick mass of the actual fruit, which we eat, lying under the thin skin.
cA hard seed of significant size, right at the centre.
This is a very good picture of what the internal structure of the earth is like.
Study the diagram below.

Mesosphere (mantle)
Lithosphere(crust)

Asthenosphere Inner Core

Barysphere(core)
Outer Core

A simplified presentation to show the internal structure of the earth

.
In the diagram above you can easily identify:
a The thin outer layer called the LITHOSPHERE or the earth’s crust. (Note that
the bottom part of the crust forms a thin layer called the asthenosphere.)
b The thick layer under the crust, called the MESOSPSHERE or just the
mantle.
c The centre part which is significant in size and is called the
BARYSPHEREor CORE. (Note that this core is divided into two parts i.e. the
OUTER CORE and the INNER CORE.)

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It is important to point out that as the depth increases from the crust towards the
inner core, the following are experienced;
 density of materials increases
 heat and temperatures increase
 pressure due to the weight of above materials also increases.

You would therefore expect the hottest, the densest and the greatest pressure to be in
the inner core
.
The Lithosphere or Crust
This is the thinnest layer (0km to about 40km thick) and it runs right over all the
land and continues under the seas and oceans. There are two distinct types of crust.
First there is the continental crust. Second there is the oceanic crust. As the terms
suggest, the continental crust underlies the continents while the oceanic crust
underlies most of the areas known as oceans. Below is a table that describes the
characteristics of the two types of crust.

OCEANIC CRUST CONTINENTAL CRUST

a Underlies most of oceans a Underlies continents
bThinner, less rigid but more dense b Thicker, more rigid but less dense
than continental crust. (The density than oceanic crust and therefore
is due to the silica and magnesium ‘floats’ higher on the earth.
(SIMA)
c Composed primarily of basalt cComposed primarily of granite rock.
rock. Also contains more Also has more silica and aluminium
magnesium and iron than continental (SIAL) than oceanic crust, but less
crust, but less silica and aluminium magnesium and iron.
than the continental crust. d Is lighter in colour than oceanic
d Lack of sufficient silica makes it crust because of the abundance of
darker than continental crust silica

The earth’s crust overally is largely formed of igneous rock. At the bottom of the crust there
is a very thin layer called the asthenosphere which is in contact with the mantle.

The Mesosphere or Mantle

This part of the earth is roughly 2 900km thick and is said to be made up mainly of olivine-
rich rock (i.e. magnesium iron silicate). Olivine-rich rock has great rigidity and is of high
density. However, it can flow slowly when subjected to unequal forces over long time
periods.
The mantle is under different temperatures at different depths, with the lowest temperatures
immediately below the earth’s crust. The temperatures increase with depth until the highest
temperatures are found where the mantle is in contact with the core(where heat is actually
produced). Geologists refer to this steady temperature increase with depth, as the
geothermal gradient which is responsible for the varying behaviour of different rocks. The
varying rock behaviours are applied as a factor that is used to divide the mantle into two

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different zones – the upper mantle and the lower mantle. Rocks in the upper mantle are
cooler and brittle (i.e. they fragment more easily) while rocks in the lower mantle are hotter
and softer (but not molten). It is noteworthy here that the rocks in the upper mantle are
brittle enough to break under stress and produce earthquakes. In the lower mantle the rocks
are soft and can flow when they are under forces. They do not break. The bottom limit of
brittle behaviour is the boundary between the upper and lower mantle.
The upper mantle is of great interest to us because of its influence on tectonic activities. In
general, we note that the mantle is made of iron-magnesium silicates. The whole mantle
surrounds the earth’s core and it makes up the bulk of the earth.

2.3 The Barysphere or the Core or the Centre Sphere

From information received from the measurements of changes in behaviour of earthquake
waves, the core is thought to be made of an inner solid part and an outer liquid part. Again,
assumptions based on calculations of the density of the core, have led scientists to think that
the core as a whole, is made of an iron-nickel alloy. What has given weight to this
assumption is that meteorites which are thought to be portions of the interior of planetary
bodies, are made up of iron and nickel.
The earth’s core is the source of the earth’s internal or geothermal heat, because it contains
radio active substances that give out heat when they disintegrate into their more stable
states.
The core is said to have an average density of 6 but this figure may be as high as 15 in the
inner part. Temperatures range between 2 200°C and 2 800° C and very high pressures of
up to 4 000 000 (fou