Neuro Week 1 Development of the NS, Dermatomes, Myotomes

Key Points: 1. Bones, joints, muscles, dermis – innervated by somatic nervous system

2. Nervous system is somatotopically organized.

0-8 weeks = embryo (initial development of each organ sys. 3-8 weeks greatest sensitivity)

9-38 weeks = fetus – functional maturation period

3rd week – Bilateral Symmetry

Craniocaudal axis Trilaminar germ disc (develop from here)

Neurulation – development of neural tube (become CNS) & neural crest cells
Mesoderm – induces development of neural groove

1. Notochords forms from mesoderm cells.

2. Signals from notochord cause inward folding – neural folds of ectoderm at the neural plate.
3. Ends of the neural plate fuse and disconnect from the peripheral nervous system to form
neural tube.
Further development of Neural Tube

Develops into shapes

with a rhomboid shape

Developments –

Bottom part of spinal cord

Summary

Other ganglia cells

Dorsal-ventral organization in the spinal cord (neural tube)

Sensory, motor,
differentiation
Spinal ganglion (SG) dorsal root ganglion -> from neural crest. Send central processes into spinal
cord terminating on alar plate (AP) (dorsal sensory).

- Cells bodies of somatosensory neurons are outside of CNS. As they are in spinal ganglia.

Basal Plate (BP) (motor ventral) cells become motor neurons – axon exit in anterior roots.

Medial-Lateral organization in the Brainstem

Opens -> dorsal alar plate opens.

Dorsal sensory (Alar Plate) neuron in spinal cord -> lateral

Summary
Ventral motor (Basal Plate) neurons in spinal cord -> medial

Neuro Week 1 Dermatomes and Myotomes

 Neuro Week 8 Limbic system
Major function: learning and memory, control emotions and instinctive behaviour

Major CONCEPT: analyse stimuli for emotional significance, emotional memory

- Eg. Smell of smoke will induce caution -> prepared to act.

What is memory?
 - Acquisition, storage, retrieval of info
o Damage to diff parts -> diff type of memory loss

Short-term memory

- Stimulus input -> sensory memory (1s) may forget

o If Attention -> Short term memory (1+s) may forget

Components of short-term memory:

1. Verbal – posterior parietal cortex, Broca’s area

2. Visual – frontal cortex
3. Spatial – prefrontal subregions

Long term memory

- After entering short term memory, and not forgotten.

- Duration – minutes, years, forever.
- Encoding + storage of info via hippocampus

2 Types of long-term memory

Things that may not be aware that you are

remembering.

Major input into hippocampus – Via Entorhinal Cortex.

Deep – subiculum, hippocampus, dentate gyrus

- Anteriomost portion of parahippocampal gyrus

- Learning, Memory, Spatial Navigation
- GRID CELLS -spatial nav
o (Maps often have grids on them)
- First site affected in Alzheimers Disease
- Largest fibre input to hippocampus

Hippocampus (hippocampal formation) – learning and memory.

 - Lies at floor of inferior horn of lateral ventricle – mediobasal part of temporal lobe deep in
parahippocampal gyrus.
o Remove outer layer of brain to see hippocampus

Hippocampus – DECLARITIVE (EXPLICIT MEMORY) eg. History, facts.

- Damage to hippocampus -> difficulty remembering history facts, can remember skills.
- Place Neurons -> spatial memory, navigation
- Time Neurons -> flow of events, temporal sequencing

Transfer short term mem -> long term mem.

Neurogenesis (neuron birth) continues in adult hippocampus

- Important for Brain repair, recovering from diseases

Exercise (enriched environment) -> more

neurogenesis in adulthood

Disease, inflammation, stress, ageing ->

decrease neurogenesis.

Concept of Papez: Limbic circuit – relationship between emotion and memory

 Cingulum – located in cingulate, parahippocampal gyri

Connects cortical structs of both gyri

Unicate fascicle – connect temporal w/ frontal lobe

Structures involved: hippocampus, fornix, mamillary body (part of hypothalamus), thalamus,

cingulate gyrus, para hippocampal gyri.

X2 , one each hemisphere.

Connect hippocampus w/ mammillary

body of same hemisphere.

Two LEFT + RIGHT fornices (+ hippocampi)

connected by fornical (hippocampal)
commissure.

septum pellucidum – vertical membrane separating lateral ventricles.

Mammillary bodies (shape look like boobs ^^)

- Posterior part of hypothalamus

EMOTIONAL PART OF LIMBIC LOOP – AMYGDALA (eg. Fear, anxiety, anger, sadness, joy)
 Amygdala – Greek for Almond.

Bilateral, Front (rostral) to hippocampus

Major input into hypothalamus

Medial portion of Temporal Lobe.

Inside Uncus

Amygdala Functions : “Danger alarm system of body”

- Analyse environmental stim for emotional significance. (friendly / hostile)

o -> generate appropriate responses.
o FRIENDLY – develop emotional attachment to stim. (eg. Mum hugs)
o HOSTILE – perception of fear – fight/flight response via hypothalamus.
- Can store fear memories.

Note: olfactory system is separate to other sensory stims

(which go thru thalamus)

- Smells can easily trigger old memories.

o Eg. Food from home.

Centre for fear in brain.

- Expression of fearful behaviour (eg. Shame)

 - Acquisition of fear in response to stim (fear learning)
- Provides emotional component to learning process.

Involved in regulation of stress effects on memory

o Stressful / fearful events are more memorable with clarity.

Focus on faces, and emotions in social interactions.

DISEASES ASSOCIATED W/ IMPAIRED AMYGDALA: phobias, anxiety disorder, autism, schizophrenia

Neuro Week 9 Corticospinal Pathways

Alpha-motor neurons of spinal cord receive input from

1. Pyramidal Tract (motor neurons of cerebral cortex) & extrapyramidal tracts (brainstem
motor nuclei)
2. Muscle sensory (proprioceptive systems, muscle spindle and golgi tendon bodies.
3. Spinal interneurons – part of spinal circuitry

Upper motor neurons – cell body and axon within central nervous system

Lower motor neurones – cell body in CNS, axon in peripheral nervous system
Body movement (by skeletal muscle) is by combination of voluntary + involuntary reflex actions.

- Skeletal muscles – voluntary movement, conscious (cortical) control.

Cerebral Motor Cortex

- Highest centre of control for voluntary movement.

- Controls skeletal muscle thru pyramidal pathways

Skeletal muscles are also directly influenced by unconscious CNS centres.

Eg. Motor neurons of spinal cord and brainstem

- Resulting in involuntary contraction/ movement of skeletal muscles -> REFLEX

- Reflexes induced by motor neurons of
o Spinal cord = spinal reflex
o Brainstem = supraspinal reflex (extrapyramidal tract)

Pyramidal Tract (from cerebral cortex)

– descending motor tract travelling thru medullary

pyramids (Voluntary movements)

- Corticospinal tract
- Corticobulbar nuclear tract (frm cortex)

Extrapyramidal Tract (from brainstem)

– descending motor tract NOT pass thru pyramids.

(Supraspinal reflex, unconscious involuntary
Movements)

- Tectospinal tract (frm tectum)

- Rubrospinal tract (frm red nucleus)
 - Reticulospinal tract (frm reticular formation)
- Vestibulospinal tract (Frm vestibular nuclei)

Coordination of involuntary and voluntary systems – eg. Running, skeletal muscle movements,
maintenance of posture etc.

Info input into posterior part of cerebral

cortex – audio, visual, proprioception

Processed, somato motor response occurs

Prefrontal cortex – plan

Premotor cortex – plan refinement

Primary motor cortex – initiate voluntary

The prefrontal cortex
PHINEAS GAGE (pole thru
head)

- Loss of inhibitions
- Personality change

Anatomy:

- Location: rostral cortical part of frontal lobe (humans have biggest)

- No clear anatomical boundaries to posterior premotor, supplementary cortices.
- Highest order association cortex of frontal lobe, and all cerebral cortices
- Contact w/ all sensory cortices, other cortical areas and subcortical structures.

Function:

- Lateral Prefrontal Cortex – rational thinking, plans, problem solving

- Orbital PFC – emotional behaviour control (anticipate response in action planning)
- Medial PFC – sustain attention, social self-awareness (detection of erros)

Supplementary Motor Cortex:

Anatomy:

- Anterior to precentral sulcus. MEDIAL surface of hemispheres.

- Middle order association crtex. (like premotor cortex)
- Contributes to pyramidal pathway

Function

- Initiates movements specified by internal cues (not external cues D

- learning sequence of movements
Premotor Cortex:

Anatomy:

- Anterior to precentral sulcus , LATERAL surface

- Inferior to supplementary motor ocrtex & inferior frontal gyri
- Middle-order association motor cortex (similar to supplementary motor cortex)
- Contribes to pyramidal pathway

Function:

- Integrate sensory info into motor plans (sensorimotor transformation)

- Dorsal parietal cortex (sensory) – transform sensory into motor commands
- Anticipate voluntary movement, and coordinate ongoing movement
- Externally delivered cues, (work with cerebellum)

Damage: Apraxia. Can t execute voluntary motor movement despite normal muscle. Lacking
coordination of movements.

Primary Motor Cortex:

damage = muscle weakness

Anatomy :

- Location: in precentral gyrus – most caudal part of frontal lobe, rostral to central sulcus

Function

- Execution of motor output – contributes to pyramidal pathway

- Contain giant cells in Betz layer V of cortex (major source of pyramida pathways)
- Somatotopically – motor homunculus
Pyramidal tract – part of projection fibre system (corona radiata) in cortex

- Projection consist of efferent (exit), afferent (arriving) fibres.

- Connect cerebral cortex w/ cerebral nuclei of brain, brainstem, spinal cord (corona radiata)
- Pyramidal pathways PART of this

Pyramidal tract origin from multiple cortical areas

- 40% primary motor cortex

- 40 % supplementary, premotor cortices
- 20% primary sensory corte (parietal lobe)
 Pyramidal Tract part of posterior

Corticobulbar – in posterior limb of internal capsule

Corticospinal – in posterior limb of internal capsule

Majority decussates

Corticonuclear Tract

- Oculomotor CNIII Upper motor neurons M1

- Trochlear CN IV  lower motor neurons in brainstem (CNIII, IV, VI)

 Send axons to innervate intrinsic eye
 - Abducens CN VI

Corticospinal Tract

Lateral (90%):

- Innervates limbs (distal > proximal eg. Anterior (10%):

hands)
- Innervates Axial muscles (neck,
- Target alpha- motor neurons ->
thorax, abdominal)
brachial, lumbosacral plexus

Decussates
at pyramids

Precise Movements – distal parts of limbs MOSTLY HANDS

Terminate at cervical & lumbosacral levels to innervate limbs

Lesion A: At M1, upper motor neuron syndromes

High in system -> broad affect, upper, lower, face.

Affecting contralateral side

Lesion B – Lower motor neuron Syndrome

Still receiving innervation

Still receiving innervation

Absent muscle tone -> connection between lower motor neuron and
muscle of interest= decrease muscle tone, waste
 Week 10 Extrapyramidal Pathways

Extrapyramidal Tracts: descending motor pathway

- Tectospinal Tract
- Rubrospinal Tract Control involuntary movements (spinal reflex)
- Reticulospinal Tract
- Vestibulospinal Tract

Tectum – posterior to cerebral aqueduct

- Composed of superior, inferior colliculi
- Superior colliculi – role in movement, coordination, and
ocular reflexes
- No pathways pass thru.
Tegmentum – anterior to ventricles
- Contain ALL ascending pathways, pass thru brainstem
- ALL brainstem nuclei (not pontine nuclei)
- Some descending pathways (extrapyramidal)
Base – anterior to tegmentum
- Composed: crus cerebri, base of pons, pyramids of
medulla
- NO ascending pathways
- ONLY descending – pyramidal, corticopontine pathways
- Contain pontine nuclei
MIDBRAIN:
- Located rostral to pons, caudal
diencephalon
- Substantia nigra, red nucleus, superior
colliculi – play role in movement and
coordination

MEDULLA
- Pyramidal tract descends thru
pyramids (medulla base) ,
decussates at caudal medulla
- Relays motor, sensory pathways
- Centre for chewing, swallowing.
- Vital structure in diverse
functions
o Cardiovascular,
respiratory centres
 Protective Reflexes:

- Spinal cord – spinal reflex (somatic, visceral)

- Spinal reflex – fastest movement responses to stimuli
- Unlearned (innate), Predictable (stereotyped) movements

Proprioceptive Reflexes:

- Foot role inwards -> Fibularis muscles stretched – STRETCH REFLEX

o Stop overstretching
o Stabilize ankle joint
o Maintain body posture

Summary Stereotyped Supraspinal Reflex

Reticulospinal Tract (extensor-biasd)

- Pontine Reticular Formation, Medullary Reticular Formation -> Reticulospinal Tract

- Serve postural and gait adjustments (balance) during voluntary movement.
 Postural Reflex

Responses adapt to varying

goal-directed movements

- Change in posture,
centre of weight

Extensor muscle to
compensate for weight
bearing.

Before lifting a weight in the arm , muscle of leg are excited to

support body posture.

FAST ACTING RETICULOSPINAL TRACT (highly myelinated)

VESTIBULOSPINAL TRACT

- Position & linear acceleration of head (macula)

- Rotational movement of head (cupula)
 - Hair cells are the sensory receptors

Lateral Vestibulospinal Tract: muscle tone in deep back, lim extensors

- Response to gravity (maintain stance, balance)

Medial Vestibulospinal Tract: stabilize head during movement

(vestibulo cervical reflex)

- Response to rotational movement.

TECTOSPINAL TRACT

- Cell body at superior colliculi (superior tectum).

- Control reflex movements of head, neck, upper limbs to response to relevant sensory stimuli
o Eg Car horn – you turn your head

RUBROSPINAL TRACT (flexor biased)

- Originates red nucleus, decussates near origin at midbrain level

- Innervates flexor muscles at upper limb (GRABBING REFLEX)
o Grab rail when slip

DAMAGE TO PYRAMIDAL SYSTEM

- Rubrospinal tract removed – tonic flexor of arm muscles

- Flexor tone in upper limb in babies due to disinhibition of spinal tract.
Anatomical Division of descending motor pathways

- Rubrospinal tract is flexor-biased upper motor neuron in upper limbs

- Reticulospinal, vestibulospinal tract are extensor biased in lower limbs

Upper motor neuron lesion – above midbrain

Removal of influence of reticulospinal tract -> flex upper, extension lower limb

Upper motor neuron lesion – below midbrain

Removal of influence of rubrospinal tract -> extension in all limbs

 WEEK 11 BASAL NUCLEI

Regulates movements – motor control is conducted in the correct way

Artery Supply: Cerebral Artery

Basal ganglia

- Do not maintain direct

connections with spinal
cord.
- Input into extrapyramidal
pathways
- Work with
supplementary cortex

Components of Basal Ganglia

- 4 interconneted subcortical nuclei in forebrain (!,2) , diencephalon 3, midbrain 4

1. Striatum (caudate nucleus, putamen)
2. Globus pallidus (external lateral, internal medial)
3. Subthalamic nucleus
4. Substantia nigra

Function of Basal Ganglia

- Facilitated wanted, suppress unwanted motor plans.

- Modulate function of pyramidal, extrapyramidal pathways
Caudate Nucleus: in lateral wall of lateral ventricle.

- C-shaped (following lateral ventricle)

- Attached to putamen w/ grey matter bridges
- Head in frontal lobe -> input source
- ail located posterior to amygdala, located in temporal lobe.

Lentiform Nucleus:

- putamen + globus pallidus (external, internal parts) lens shape.

- Internal capsule passes between caudate , putamen.
Pathways of Basal Ganglia

Major input: STRIATUM

Major Output;

Internal Pallidum GPi

Pars Reticularis of substantia nigra (SNr)

Two Parallel Pathways: 1. Direct – facilitate wanted movements

2. Indirect – suppress unwanted movements

1. Direct Pathway (GO)

Prefrontal Cortex excite Striatum

production

Striatum inhibits GPi, SNr. -> GPi

SNr lessened

GPi SNr normally inhitibt Thalamus

Therefore, Thalamus is LESS

inhibited.
2. InDirect Pathway (NO!)

Prefrontal Cortex excite Striatum

production

Striatum inhibits GPe -> GPe lessened

GPe normally inhitibt Subthalamus

Therefore, Subthalamus is LESS inhibited.

Excite Gpi SNr -> inhibits Thalamus

Less thalamic activity

THE SNc – “driver of the car” SNc produce dopamine

Acetylcholin

Different types of neurons in the Striatum. They respond differently to dopamine.

- Direct: receptor for D1 excited by D1

o SNc facilitates motor plans – disinhibiting thalamocortical neurons
o Boost wanted movements
- Indirect: receptor for D2, inhibited by D2
o SNc on indirect pathway will DECREASE tonic inhibition of thalamus

Maintains functional equilibrium of indirect and direct.

Disorders of basal ganglia

Huntington’s disease Parkinson’s Disease

- Hyperkinetic Disorder - Hypokinetic Disorder

- Excess involuntary movements - Reduced voluntary movement
- Movements without purpose (degen of SNc)
- Degen of Striatum - Reduce activity of direct pathway,
increased activity of indirect pathway

WEEK 12 CEREBELLUM

Regulate ongoing movement – as things occur

Function:

- Coordinate rapid alternating sequential movements eg. Speech, finger

- Sensory motor integration centre – monitoring, modulating motor function
- Contributes to supraspinal reflexes
- Evaluate disparity between intention and action.
o Discrepancies are detected – extrapyramidal system corrected
 Walking on a boat from A – B, not straight. Change how to walk in-real time
- No direct input into spinal motor neurons, only via parietal pathways

Located:

- Posterior cranial fossa below tentorium cerebelli

 Flocculus = tuft of wool Vermis = worm

Both Cerebrum and Cerebella have peduncle

Both Cerebrum and Cerebella have nuclei

 The Cerebellar Cortex

- 3 neuronal layers
o Molecular
o Purkinje
o Granular Cell Layers

Unlike Cerebrum, Cerebella lacks association fibres and commissural fiber – hemispheres don’t communicate

Afferent Efferent Cerebellar Connections

1. All Afferent (incoming) fibers entering cerebellum terminate at cortex.

Feedback Mechanism

- Sensory feedback from motor activities.

 Climbing and Mossy Fibres – info to Purkinje cells

- Mossy Fibres- afferent info to cerebellum. Terminate at granule cell layer

- Climbing Fibres – afferent info FROM inferior olivary nucleus – target purkinje cell layer
 From spinal cord, reticular sys, cerebellum itself etc.

Purkinje Cells- very large.

Compare and contract errors

detected.

Vestibulocerebellum
- Composed of Flocculonodular lobe
- Input from vestibular nuclei , nerve.
- Feedback to vestibular nuclei via fastigial nuclei > influence lateral, medial vestibulospinal
tracts
- Functions
o Vestibulospinal reflex: keep body centre of gravity by maintaining muscle tone,
antigravity muscles. (function of LATERAL vestibulospinal tract)
o Vestibulocervical Reflex: stabilize position of head (function of MEDIAL
vestibulospinal tract)
o Vestibulo-ocular Reflex: stabilize gaze during head movement (function of MEDIAL)

The Vestibulocerebellar Loop

The Spinocerebellum

- Composed of anterior lobe, vermis (without nodule) and intermediate hemisphere

- Input from ipsilateral spinal cord. Unconscious proprioception.
- Info back via fastigial, interposed nuclei to reticulospinal rubrospinal and vestibulospinal tract
- Regulates muscles tone, posture, balance. Via medial motor pathways
The Cerebrocerebellum Loop

- Receive afferent projections from contralateral neocortex (motor cortx)

- Project back via dentate nucleo to contralateral motor cortex
- Compares intention and action of motor signals and correct errors especially rapid
alternating sequential movements
- Coordinating fast and alternating movements – writing, speech, typing
o By planning movement with regard to direction, force, timing
o Hand, speech
 Middle Cerebellar Peduncle contain only afferent (arriving)
axons from pons

1. Pontocerebellar tract: (pontine nuclei – cerebellum)

- Largest afferent cerebellar input
- Receive ipsilateral input from cerebral cortex
- Pontine projectile to contralateral cerebellum

Superior Cerebellar Peduncle – axons passing thru are from /

going to midbrain.

- Mainly efferent (exiting) axons

1. Dentatothalmic tract (to motor cortex via
thalamus)
2. Dentatorubral tract (to red nucleus)

1. Modulating activity of pyramidal pathway, red nucleus

2. Evaluate disparities extrapyramidal pathway
3. Evaluate disparities regulated by vestibular nuclei
Damage to Cerebellum

Cerebellar Ataxia – lateral cerebella

- Integration of proprioception is faulty

- Cerebrocerebellar lesions cause limb ataxia.

Dysarthria – slowed, slurred speech