The Country Programme of Albania under the Global Solar Water

Heating Market Transformation and Strengthening Initiative

TIRANA, JANUARY 2018

1
Publisher

MINISTRY OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND ENERGY

Prepress

Luca DEGIORGIS

Layout & Design

Xxxxxx Xxxxxxx

This document has been prepared within the Project “The Country Programme of Albania
under the Global Solar Water Heating Market Transformation and Strengthening Initiative“,
implemented by the Ministry of Infrastructure and Energy and in cooperation with the
Ministry of Tourism and Environment and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP),
with the financial support of the Global Environment Facility (GEF), Government of Albania
(through the Ministry of Infrastructure and Energy and the Ministry of Tourism and
Environment) and the UNDP.

[2]
 SOLAR THERMAL PLANTS
HANDBOOK

Coordinated by:
Mirela KAMBERI, Team leader, Project Coordinator, UNDP Climate Change Programme

Lead Authors:
Luca DEGIORGIS, Mirela KAMBERI, Dritan PROFKA

[3]
Contents
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................................................... 7

LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................................................................................... 9

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ..........................................................................................................................10

FOREWORD.............................................................................................................................................................11

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................................12

GLOSSARY ...............................................................................................................................................................13

1. SOLAR ENERGY ..............................................................................................................................................16

1.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION ............................................................................................................................... 16

1.2 AIR MASS ........................................................................................................................................................... 18
1.3 UNCERTAINTY AND AVAILABILITY OF SOLAR ENERGY ..................................................................................................... 19
1.3.1 Position of the sun during the year ........................................................................................................ 19
1.3.2 Position of the sun during the day ......................................................................................................... 20
1.3.3 Weather conditions ................................................................................................................................ 21
1.3.4 Solar maps.............................................................................................................................................. 21
1.4 IDENTIFICATION OF THE SITE ........................................................................................................................... 25
1.4.1 Geographic location ............................................................................................................................... 25
1.4.2 Orientation and tilt ................................................................................................................................ 25
1.4.3 Azimuth or Angle of orientation (β) ...................................................................................................... 26
1.5 TILT ANGLE () ..................................................................................................................................................... 26

2. TECHNICAL DESIGN OF SOLAR THERMAL PLANT ............................................................................................29

2.1 DESIGN PHASES .................................................................................................................................................... 29

2.2 CONSTRUCTION CRITERIA ....................................................................................................................................... 29
2.3 BASIC SCHEME ................................................................................................................................................. 30
2.4 UTILIZATIONS....................................................................................................................................................... 31
2.4.1 Domestic hot water production (DHW) .................................................................................................. 31
2.4.2 Integration in heating (CombiSystem) ................................................................................................... 32
2.4.3 Swimming pool ....................................................................................................................................... 33
2.4.4 Solar Cooling .......................................................................................................................................... 34
2.4.5 Process Heat ........................................................................................................................................... 35
2.4.6 Solar district heating .............................................................................................................................. 38

3. THE COLLECTOR .............................................................................................................................................43

3.1 FLAT PLATE GLASED SOLAR COLLECTOR ...................................................................................................................... 44

3.1.1 Selective glass ........................................................................................................................................ 44
3.1.2 Selective layers on the absorber plate ................................................................................................... 45
3.1.3 Insulation ............................................................................................................................................... 45
3.1.4 Heat transfer fluid .................................................................................................................................. 46
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 3.1.5 Water ..................................................................................................................................................... 46
3.1.6 Mixtures of Water + Glycol .................................................................................................................... 46
3.2 SOLAR AIR COLLECTORS .......................................................................................................................................... 47
3.3 VACUUM COLLECTORS ........................................................................................................................................... 49
3.3.1 Classic vacuum tube collector ................................................................................................................ 49
3.3.2 Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) .............................................................................................. 50
3.3.3 Heat-Pipe Collector ................................................................................................................................ 51
3.3.4 Heat Exchange in Vacuum Tubes ........................................................................................................... 52
3.4 INTRODUCTION TO THE THERMAL BALANCE OF THE SOLAR COLLECTOR ............................................................................. 52
3.4.1 Efficiency Concept .................................................................................................................................. 53
3.4.2 Collector Efficiency ................................................................................................................................. 54
3.4.3 Comparison of Collectors ....................................................................................................................... 55
3.5 THE WATER SYSTEM ........................................................................................................................................ 57
3.5.1 Heat exchanger and storage .................................................................................................................. 58

4. BUILDING INTEGRATION AND INSTALLATION EXAMPLES ..............................................................................60

4.1 STRUCTURES ON A FLAT ROOF ......................................................................................................................... 60

4.2 MOUNTING ON ROOF TILES ............................................................................................................................. 60
4.2.1 Anchored structure to cover ................................................................................................................... 61
4.2.2 Full integration in coverage ................................................................................................................... 61
4.2.3 Integration with windows and roof photovoltaic ................................................................................... 62
4.2.4 Plants that create the cover ................................................................................................................... 63
4.2.5 Facade installation ................................................................................................................................. 64
4.2.6 Special installations in alpine environment ............................................................................................ 64
4.2.7 Absence of architectural integration ...................................................................................................... 66

5. SIZING EXAMPLES ..........................................................................................................................................68

5.1 ESTIMATE OF HOT WATER NEEDS ............................................................................................................................. 68

5.2 ESTIMATED SURFACE OF COLLECTORS........................................................................................................................ 68
5.3 ESTIMATE OF THE VOLUME TANK ............................................................................................................................. 69
5.4 NOMOGRAM ....................................................................................................................................................... 69
5.5 SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM FOR STUDENTS HOUSE - 100 M2 ........................................................................................... 70

6. ENERGY BALANCE IN SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTORS .....................................................................................74

6.1 PARAMETERS AFFECTING THE PERFORMANCES OF THE COLLECTOR .................................................................................. 74

6.1.1 Useful power .......................................................................................................................................... 75
6.1.2 Collector efficiency ................................................................................................................................. 76
6.1.3 Mixtures of water and glycol ................................................................................................................. 79
6.1.4 Performance variation in solar collectors .............................................................................................. 80
6.2 HOT WATER LOADS .......................................................................................................................................... 83
6.3 HEAT STORAGE ................................................................................................................................................ 85
6.3.1 Process and Technology Status .............................................................................................................. 85
6.3.2 Sensible Thermal Energy Storage ........................................................................................................... 86
6.3.3 Underground Thermal Energy Storage (UTES) ....................................................................................... 87
6.3.4 Aquifer storage, cavern storage and pit storage. .................................................................................. 88
6.3.5 Phase Change Materials for TES ............................................................................................................ 89

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 6.3.6 Focus on Chemical Materials and Heat Stratification ............................................................................ 89
6.3.7 Calculate the heat storage volume ........................................................................................................ 90
6.3.8 Heat stratification in heat storages ....................................................................................................... 91
6.3.9 Energy capacity of a storage unit........................................................................................................... 93
6.4 HEAT EXCHANGER............................................................................................................................................ 94
6.4.1 Types of Heat Exchangers ...................................................................................................................... 94
6.4.2 Heat Exchanger Design .......................................................................................................................... 95
6.4.3 Sizing ...................................................................................................................................................... 98
6.4.4 Heat exchanger performance ................................................................................................................ 98
6.4.5 Installation ........................................................................................................................................... 100
6.4.6 Representation ..................................................................................................................................... 101
6.5 PIPE SIZING .................................................................................................................................................... 103
6.6 PUMP SIZE...................................................................................................................................................... 107
6.7 EXPANSION VESSEL ........................................................................................................................................ 114

7. EXAMPLES ...................................................................................................................................................117

7.1 DESIGN OF A SWH SYSTEM FOR A SMALL FAMILY HOUSE ............................................................................................ 117
7.2 DESIGN OF A SWH SYSTEM FOR A MULTY FAMILY HOUSE, IN COMBINATION WITH THE FLOOR HEATING SYSTEM .................... 120
7.3 DESIGN OF A SWH SYSTEM FOR A SMALL HOTEL ONLY DHW...................................................................................... 123
7.4 DESIGN OF A SWH SYSTEM FOR A BIG HOTEL, IN COMBINATION WITH THE HEATING SYSTEM ............................................. 126
7.5 DESIGN OF A SWH SYSTEM FOR A FIVE STAR HOTEL, IN COMBINATION WITH THE HEATING SYSTEM AND SPA........................ 129
7.6 DESIGN OF A SWH SYSTEM FOR A SWH SYSTEM FOR A SWIMMING POOL...................................................................... 132
7.7 DESIGN OF A SWH SYSTEM FOR A SWH SYSTEM FOR A DAIRY INDUSTRY ....................................................................... 135

BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................................................................138

APPENDIX – I / SOLAR STANDARDS: UNI 11300-4, UNI EN 15316-4-3 AND THE F-CHART METHOD ...................141

[6]
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1.1: Way of exploitation of solar energy ........................................................................................................ 16
Fig. 1.2: Energy and wavelength (Monochromatic Irradiation vs. wavelength) .................................................. 17
Fig. 1.3: Extra atmospheric radiation: reflection, absorption, refraction phenomena
([Link]
0/MediaObjects/12940_2016_89_Fig1_HTML.gif ............................................................................................... 18
Fig. 1.4: Variation in Air Mass due to increasing path length of the radiation..................................................... 19
Fig. 1.5: Relative position Sun – Earth during the year
([Link] ................................................................ 20
Fig. 1.6: Solar chart............................................................................................................................................... 21
Fig. 1.7: Horizon facing South, in Tirana (pvgis)_Outline of horizon with sun path for winter and summer solstice
.............................................................................................................................................................................. 21
Fig 1.8: Incident radiation on the horizontal plane .............................................................................................. 23
Fig. 1.9: Incident radiation on the tilted plan, for maximization of the incident radiation during year ............... 23
Fig. 1.10: Incident radiation on the tilted plan, for maximization of the incident radiation during year, in North
Italy....................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Fig. 1.11: Yearly sum of solar radiation on the horizontal plan (Europe) ............................................................. 24
Fig. 1.12: Global Horizontal Irradiation (yearly sum), from Solar GIS .................................................................. 24
Fig. 1.13: Solar Radiation during year on a tilted surface ([Link]) ................................................. 25
Fig. 1.14: Main angles describing the surface orientation and inclination ........................................................... 26
Fig. 1.15: Reduction of Irradiation, depending on azimuth and tilt of the receiving surface ............................... 27
Fig. 2.1: Basic components of solar DHW systems ............................................................................................... 30
Fig. 2.2: Natural circulation systems, without and with heat exchanger ([Link]) ............................ 31
Fig. 2.3: Basic components of solar DHW systems ([Link]) ....................................................... 32
Fig. 2.4: Example for solar combisystem ([Link]) ...................................................................... 33
Fig. 2.5: Example for solar combisystem, using a high stratification storage ([Link]) ................... 33
Fig. 2.6: Example for solar swimming pool (and DHW) ([Link]) ................................................ 34
Fig. 2.7: Example of solar cooling system ([Link]) ................................................................... 35
Fig. 2.8: Example of solar cooling system ([Link]) ................................................................... 36
Fig. 2.9: Example of solar district heating installations ........................................................................................ 40
Fig. 2.10: Schematics for solar heating plants ...................................................................................................... 40
Fig. 2.11: Schematics for solar heating plants: without and with local load ........................................................ 41
Fig. 3.1: Flat plate solar collector on roof and collector’s cross section ............................................................... 44
Fig. 3.2: Different layers behavior ........................................................................................................................ 45
Fig. 3.3: Solar air system for wood drying: solar collectors (the author) .............................................................. 48
Fig. 3.4: Solar air system for wood drying: drying chambers (the author) ........................................................... 48
Fig. 3.5: Transparent section of a single tube collector ........................................................................................ 49
Fig. 3.6: Single tube collector................................................................................................................................ 50
Fig. 3.7: CPC in cross section ................................................................................................................................. 50
Fig. 3.8: Heat pipe vacuum tube in cross section ................................................................................................. 51
Fig. 3.9: Heat pipe and Direct Flow ([Link]) .................................................................................... 52
Fig. 3.10: Heat pipe and direct flow in operation, in cross section ....................................................................... 52
Fig. 3.11: Thermal balance in solar collector ........................................................................................................ 53
Fig. 3.12: Efficiency curves for different kind of solar collectors .......................................................................... 55
Fig. 3.13: Flat plate collectors without and with selective layer deposition on the absorber............................... 56

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Fig. 3.14: Various tube type collector performances ............................................................................................ 56
Fig. 3.15: Natural circulation (left) and Forced flow(right) ................................................................................... 57
Fig. 3.16: On-Off System “bucket mode”(left) and Drain back system (right) ...................................................... 58
Fig. 4.1: Installation on flat roof ........................................................................................................................... 60
Fig. 4.2: Installation over the tiles ........................................................................................................................ 61
Fig. 4.3: Integration in a roof ................................................................................................................................ 62
Fig. 4.4: Large scale solar collectors integrated in the roof .................................................................................. 62
Fig. 4.1: Integration wirh PV system and roof windows ....................................................................................... 63
Fig. 4.2: The entire roof is pre-fabricated as a solar collector .............................................................................. 63
Fig. 4.3: Integral solar roof ................................................................................................................................... 64
Fig. 4.4: Façade installation.................................................................................................................................. 64
Fig. 4.5: Alpine architecture integration ............................................................................................................... 65
Fig. 4.6: Integration in wood tiles roof ................................................................................................................. 66
Fig. 4.7: Performances must face with building integration ................................................................................ 66
Fig. 5.1: Nomogram for dimensioning .................................................................................................................. 70
Fig. 5.2 : Large scale solar collector and perfect building integration .................................................................. 72
Fig. 6.1: Thermal balance of the solar collector ................................................................................................... 74
Fig. 6.2: Net enthalpy flux .................................................................................................................................... 74
Fig. 6.3: Experimental curve following the test of performances; Performance levels measured experimentally,
for a collector with a cover and absorber with selective treatment ..................................................................... 78
Fig. 6.4: Performance comparison (1) .................................................................................................................. 81
Fig. 6.5: Performance comparison (2) .................................................................................................................. 82
Fig. 6.6: Performance comparison (3) .................................................................................................................. 82
Fig. 6.7: Water load .............................................................................................................................................. 84
Fig. 6.8: Large scale heat storage ......................................................................................................................... 88
Fig. 6.9: Stratification with a tree way valve ........................................................................................................ 92
Fig. 6.10: Stratification system, in the tank .......................................................................................................... 92
Fig. 6.11: Coil type Heat exchangers .................................................................................................................... 95
Fig. 6.12: Shell and tube heat exchangers ............................................................................................................ 96
Fig. 6.13: Plate heat exchangers .......................................................................................................................... 96
Fig. 6.14: Temperatures in the heat exchanger .................................................................................................... 98
Fig. 6.15: Coil heat exchanger connections ........................................................................................................ 101
Fig. 6.16: Plate heat exchanger connections ...................................................................................................... 102
Fig. 6.17: Preliminary sizing of pipings ............................................................................................................... 104
Fig. 6.18: Head losses for a 2 sqm collector
[Link]/uploads/files/ProductAttachment/850001008_0_MANUALE_TECNICO_KF25A.pdf ................ 108
Fig. 6.19: Head losses for a 8 sqm collector (Greenonetech) .............................................................................. 108
Fig. 6.20: Head losses in copper pipes ................................................................................................................ 109
Fig. 6.21: Pressure drop for water in iron pipe ................................................................................................... 110
Fig. 6.22: Correction factors for glycol mixtures ................................................................................................. 111
Fig. 6.23: Concentrated pressure drop ............................................................................................................... 111
Fig. 6.24: Hydraulic performance of pump ......................................................................................................... 112
Fig. 6.25: Circuit vs. pump .................................................................................................................................. 112
Fig. 6.26: Working point ..................................................................................................................................... 114
Fig. 7.1: Monthly energy NEED for DHW and Heating for a single family house in Tirana ................................ 117
Fig. 7.2: Monthly energy SUPPLY for DHW and Heating for a single family house in Tirana ............................. 118
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 Fig. 7.3: Principal drawing for DHW and Heating for a single family house in Tirana ...................................... 119
Fig. 7.4: Monthly energy NEED for DHW and Heating for a multi-family house in Tirana ................................. 120
Fig. 7.5: Monthly energy SUPPLY for DHW and Heating for a Multi-family house in Tirana ............................. 121
Fig. 7.6: Principal drawing for DHW and Heating for a single family house in Tirana ...................................... 122
Fig. 7.7: Monthly energy NEED for DHW of a small Hotel .................................................................................. 123
Fig. 7.8: Monthly energy SUPPLY for DHW of a small Hotel ............................................................................... 124
Fig. 7.10: Monthly energy NEED for DHW and Heating of a big Hotel ............................................................... 126
Fig. 7.11: Monthly energy SUPPLY for DHW and Heating of a big Hotel ............................................................ 127
Fig. 7.13: Monthly energy NEED for DHW, Heating and SPA of a five star Hotel ............................................... 129
Fig. 7.14: Monthly energy SUPPLY for DHW, Heating and SPA of a five star Hotel ............................................ 130
Fig. 7.15: Principal drawing for DHW, Heating and SPA of a five star Hotel ..................................................... 131
Fig. 7.16: Monthly energy NEED for a swiming pool in Tirana ........................................................................... 132
Fig. 7.17: Monthly energy SUPPLY for a swiming pool in Tirana ........................................................................ 133
Fig. 7.18: Principal drawing for a SWH system for a swiming pool .................................................................. 134
Fig. 7.19: Daily overlap between times od Heat demand and solar irradiance .................................................. 135
Fig. 7.20: Share of solar contribution for for a dairy industry ............................................................................ 137
Fig. 7.21: Principal drawing for a SWH system for a dairy industry ................................................................. 137

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: The table below shows some of the processes in which it is possible to integrate the heating demand
through solar thermal systems ............................................................................................................................. 37
Table 2.2: The following table shows the data of the most large power plants Solar District Heating installed
track (Feb.2010) ................................................................................................................................................... 39
Table 2.3: The data presented below relate to thermal solar systems on roofs and coverings in district heating
networks service ................................................................................................................................................... 39
Table 3.1: Various solar collectors ...................................................................................................................... 44
Table 3.2: Properties of antifreeze fluid ([Link]) ................................................................................ 47
Table 3.3: Density variation ([Link]) ................................................................................................... 47
Table 6.1: Physical and chemical properties of the non-toxic propylene glycol ................................................... 80
Table 6.2: Variation of freeze point with the glycol concentration ...................................................................... 80
Table 6.3: Coefficient of performance of single and double glased flat plate collectors ...................................... 83
Table 6.3: Variation of efficiency for single and double glazed collectors, depending on Tin and Tout .................. 83
Table 6.5: Hot water demand for different users at a hot water temperature of 50 °C. ...................................... 90
Table 6.6: Determination of the solar collector surface, given the requested energy for DHW ........................... 93
Table 6.7: Resume of main characteristics of heat exchangers ........................................................................... 97
Table 6.8: Nominal, external, internal size of pipings ........................................................................................ 105
Table 6.9: Water speed for different pipe size .................................................................................................... 107

[9]
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

GEF Global Environment Facility

SWH Solar Water Heating
UNDP Austrian Development Agency

[ 10 ]
FOREWORD
This manual is intended to provide a summary of the technologies and solar thermal systems
currently on the market.

The document provides the basis relative to solar radiation, investigates the components for the
construction of a solar thermal system, illustrates some possible system choices, and indicates
some criteria for the design.

The manual has been realized in the mainframe of the UNDP funded project: SWH Project: “Global
Solar Water heating Market Transformation and Strengthening Initiative, Albanian Country
Programme.

This manual will deal with the applications for residential areas, thus limiting the description to
plants and technologies operating at low and medium temperature, with some reference to the
air systems applications.

[ 11 ]
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The project titled “The Country Programme of Albania under the Global Solar Water Heating
Market Transformation and Strengthening Initiative” had as one of the results this “Solar
Handbook”, that is intended to provide a guide to all the people interested in the utilization of
solar radiation for heat pourposes. The subject is extremely wide and whith this short manual the
authors hope to stimulate the interest of students and that will become future technicians to
introduce renewable energy in their plans and realizations, but also energy operators and
professionals and final users as house owners or real estate managers, and solar energy utilization
will enforce the knowledge and skillnes in energy savings, efficiency in energy utilization and,
finally, in the decrease of energy intensity and consumption and a reduced pollutant emissions
from fossil fuel combustion.

The manual brings the reader along the solar radiation path: from the sun as a source of energy,
trougth the atmosphere that acts as a filter, to the available radiation at ground level. Here, the
different technologies for the active collection of solar radiation, storage and utilization of thermal
energy, are illustrated.

Some focuses are given related to main components and their influence on the process, and how
to determine the correct sizing.

The manual is developed to be used also as a suggestion for new solar installation or for the
refurbishments of existing plants, and some “practical” examples are given, that can be used to
enlight some possible application of solar energy for thermal pourposes but also would like to
create the incitement to “think solar”: train the reader to keep in mind the huge possibilities of
solar thermal plants and their utilization in a very wide field of applications, recognizing strength
and weakness to avoid misuse and disappointments, instead maximizing this powerful,
democratic, infinite source of energy.

[ 12 ]
GLOSSARY

DIRECT RADIATION
Radiation part that directly reaches of the solar collector area.

SCATTERED RADIATION
Radiation part that indirectly reaches the surface of the solar collector.

GLOBAL RADIATION
Total radiation that reaches the surface of the solar collector.

SOLAR COLLECTOR
The best known component of the system, the collector is installed above the cover, or on the
ground.

The solar collector is a device that has the purpose to capture solar radiation and convert it into
heat energy transported by a heat transfer fluid. There are different types of solar collectors, which
differ in appearance and components: glazed and unglazed flat plate collectors, evacuated tube.

The collectors can categorize to construction technology and temperature levels for operating:

• At low temperature (40 - 90 °C)

 or Plans (glazed, unglazed);
 or vacuum tube;
• At medium temperature (60 - 250 °C)
 or in heat pipes (heat pipes) and vacuum with low concentration;
• At high temperatures (> 250 °C)
 or to concentration;
• For air

SOLAR GENERATOR
It consists of one or more solar collectors that feed the plant as well as from the primary circuit
connection pipes.

NOMINAL POWER SOLAR GENERATOR

Maximum quantity of heat produced per unit time in the solar generator, expressed in kW and
related global radiation of the sun (G) which is subject to the solar generator in relation to the
installation site and in conditions of maximum efficiency, as declared by the designer.

FLUID
The fluid used to transfer heat energy from the solar generator to the system of use.

[ 13 ]
It should enjoy the fluid compatibility with the solar circuit. In installations for the production of
domestic hot water, is banned the use of dangerous substances, the maximum attainable
temperature of the operating conditions, both in the liquid state to a vapor.

STAGNATION TEMPERATURE OF THE PRIMARY CIRCUIT

And 'the maximum temperature of the heat transfer fluid in the manifold which, in the absence of
removal from a part of the plant energy user, is reached at equilibrium thermal energy dispersed
by the solar panel with the thermal energy taken up by the same. The value of stagnation
temperature must be declared by the solar collector manufacturer.

SOLAR CIRCUIT
The set of hydraulic circuits, components, equipment, electrical circuits and implementation of
control designed and manufactured to absorb solar radiation and convert it into thermal energy
to make it available to one or more consumer circuits.

THE MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE OF THE SOLAR CIRCUIT

Maximum reach of the heat transfer fluid temperature for which the solar circuit is designed. The
designer must check that the solar circuit components can withstand this temperature.

SOLAR SYSTEM
For solar power system means a solar circuit, powered by a solar generator.

USER SYSTEM
The set of hydraulic circuits, components, equipment, electrical control circuits etc ., that as a
result of heat exchange with the solar plant, is used for the heating of rooms, for the production
of sanitary hot water, and for other technological uses heat.

HEAT EXCHANGER SYSTEM

It consists of a heat exchanger, or by a kettle equipped with internal or external heat exchanger,
adapted to transfer the heat from the solar to the user system.

[ 14 ]
SOLAR ENERGY

[ 15 ]
1. SOLAR ENERGY

1.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

The electromagnetic radiation is the engine of the operation of a solar installations, it is due to the
presence of most of the renewable energy sources; we can in fact directly attributable to solar
radiation availability of biomass and wind generation. It is also necessary as a source of energy in
the solar photovoltaic and solar thermal plants.

The methods of active exploitation of the solar energy conversion to useful energy in a thermal
and electric form are summarized in the following scheme:

Thermal
Direct
Passive solar
Photovoltaic
Solar Energy
Active solar
Biomass

Indirect Hydro

Wind

Fig. 1.1: Way of exploitation of solar energy

To understand the magnitude of solar energy just think that the share of energy from the sun each
year invests in our planet is quantifiable in about 120,000 TW / year (8,000 times the world's
annual energy requirements), about every 1 hour the Earth's surface is hit by an energy equal to
the world's annual energy needs.

"The solar radiation (global) that reaches the earth's surface is formed by the component coming
straight from the solar disc and its crown (direct) and the component that is diffused by the
atmosphere (diffuse)".

[ 16 ]
Fig. 1.2: Energy and wavelength (Monochromatic Irradiation vs. wavelength)

The electromagnetic spectrum  of solar radiation (in the figure) lies between 0.25 μme 2.5 μme
carries a power, measured outside the Earth's atmosphere, that is 1367 W/m2, known value with
the name of solar Constant (extra atmospheric).

The radiation passing through the atmosphere, is subject to some optical phenomena due to the
presence of gases and vapors, a share of energy is then directly reflected, in part is absorbed by
the ozone layer present, the remaining portion reaches directly to the ground (radiation direct
about 27%) and in part the rays are deflected along their path, but also coming in different
directions (diffuse radiation).

The set of direct and scattered radiation thus allows to assess and terrestrial radiation, known with
the name of global radiation; on days of clear skies and no haze, the incident power and terrestrial
in the horizontal plane is para to about 1000 W/m2.

The amount of energy obtained will then added, the amount of energy reflected from the
surrounding soil, assessed through the albedo factor of the surface. High albedo factors indicate
surface with greater reflection of the radiation (snow) while in the case of wooded area or town
the amount of energy reflected is rather lower.

[ 17 ]
Fig. 1.3: Extra atmospheric radiation: reflection, absorption, refraction phenomena
([Link]
0/MediaObjects/12940_2016_89_Fig1_HTML.gif

1.2 AIR MASS

The definition of the mass of air (Air Mass - AM) allows to evaluate the loss of energy of the
radiation before it reaches the ground.

The solar radiation to reach the Earth's surface has to go through an atmospheric air mass that is
minimal when the sun is at its zenith and that increases as the sun lowers on the horizon. It
indicates the solar radiation density beyond the atmosphere (1.353 kW / m2) with AM 0 (Air Mass
0). Is indicated by AM1 the thickness of the atmosphere when the rays impinge perpendicularly,
the solar radiation density associated is transposed to the Earth's surface at noon, in a perfectly
clear day (1 kW / m2). The AM1,5 value is the value used in the tests.

[ 18 ]
Fig. 1.4: Variation in Air Mass due to increasing path length of the radiation

1.3 UNCERTAINTY AND AVAILABILITY OF SOLAR ENERGY

Some considerations must be made about uncertainty of the incident radiation, in fact for many
renewable sources such as solar thermal, wind, solar, tidal and wave power is easy to see how the
availability of the source is not always present but according to various defined periods and in
accordance with special conditions, in our case are in fact considered to be the natural seasonal
cycles, the day-night cycles, both of which vary according to the geographic location (latitude and
longitude), and are more difficult to predict the weather conditions, which greatly affect the
manufacturability of the plants.

1.3.1 Position of the sun during the year

In Earth's tilt and rotation function, the thickness of the atmospheric layer crossed by solar
radiation varies, depending on the time of day and the month, throughout the year, so by varying
the proportion of radiation that can reach the ground, and the angle of incidence of the rays on
the earth's surface.

The tilt of the Earth's rotation (23.5 ° to the perpendicular to the plane of the Earth around the
Sun) determines the seasons: in summer the northern hemisphere is tilted toward the sun,
allowing less energy loss, since the rays pass through the atmosphere and impact angles at a better
angle on the Earth's surface, while in the winter months, the Sun has a height average lower on

[ 19 ]
the horizon, resulting in less radiation because of the increased layer of atmosphere to go and
angle lower incidence of and terrestrial radiation.

Fig. 1.5: Relative position Sun – Earth during the year

([Link]

1.3.2 Position of the sun during the day

At different times of the day, the position of the Sun relative to the Earth varies, and consequently
vary both the layer of the atmosphere traversed that the angle of incidence of the radiation at
ground level.

Greater is the thickness of this layer, the lower the energy contained in the incident radiation, as
a result of increased absorption and reflection on the part of the gases contained in the
atmospheric layer.

Of this notice it every day, in fact during the middle of the day when the rays impinge
perpendicularly to the ground radiation is much higher than the early hours of the morning and
evening.

[ 20 ]
1.3.3 Weather conditions
The presence or absence of solar radiation is in fact easily attributable to the presence or absence
of clouds in the sky. The power of the radiation at ground level varies between a maximum of
about 1200 W/m2 up to values of the order of 50 W/m2.

1.3.4 Solar maps

To better highlight the path of the sun in the sky and to estimate the characteristics of the site
concerned is used to the solar cards. There are different types of cards, more browsing are solar
cards in Cartesian coordinates, which shows the path that the Sun on average accomplished within
twelve months of the year, showing the height reached to the horizon and exposure with which is
seen the star than in the South.

With 0 ° of exposure is referred to the South, as it is the optimal exposure in which the Sun reaches
its maximum height and solar height is also expressed in degrees by evaluating the angle between
the Sun and the geographical horizon (to which the value 0 °) is assigned.

Through the cards it is also detectable in some cases the orographic horizon drawn from the
surrounding environment, due to the particular topography of the area and the barriers that can
result in shadowing the system (such as buildings, trees, etc ..).

Each card is therefore peculiar characteristic of the object of study site, because of the geographic
location (latitude, longitude, altitude) and of the particular environmental conditions.

It is shown in the figure an example of a solar chart for the latitude of the city of Turin:

Fig. 1.6: Solar chart Fig. 1.7: Horizon facing South, in Tirana (pvgis)_Outline of
horizon with sun path for winter and summer solstice

[ 21 ]
These cards are obtainable depending on the geographical coordinates of the location, through
the use of online tools and software. Using these tools also allows you to evaluate the shading and
the interference caused by the orography own each site and the possible presence of obstacles for
the surroundings (houses, trees). For the horizon analysis you need to make for the site under
study evaluating the horizon profile through measures with theodolite and inclinometer.

Through analysis programs it is so easy to calculate the incident energy share lost because of
shading. Through the analysis of the radiation incident on the earth's surface along the year, and
then statistically evaluated the impact of weather conditions it was possible to derive maps
bearing the solar energy quota that each year affects one m2 of surface.

In the following images are shown the cards relating to energy incident on horizontal receiving
surfaces and surfaces with optimum inclination (from the horizontal), in function of the latitude of
the installation site exists in fact a particular angle of inclination of the collecting surface that
makes the maximum share of energy consumption along the whole year.

[ 22 ]
 Fig 1.8: Incident radiation on the horizontal plane Fig. 1.9: Incident radiation on the tilted plan, for
maximization of the incident radiation during year

Fig. 1.10: Incident radiation on the tilted plan, for maximization of the incident radiation during year, in North Italy

[ 23 ]
Fig. 1.11: Yearly sum of solar radiation on the horizontal plan (Europe)

Fig. 1.12: Global Horizontal Irradiation (yearly sum), from Solar GIS

[ 24 ]
Depending on the tilt of the surface, the Irradiation can vary significantly, during the year. The
image reports the monthly and yearly Irradiation on various surfaces (facing South), at
approximately 45°N Latitude.

Fig. 1.13: Solar Radiation during year on a tilted surface ([Link])

1.4 IDENTIFICATION OF THE SITE

1.4.1 Geographic location

As previously assessed, the geographic position in terms of latitude and longitude allows to
establish, in the absence of shading, the amount of energy that affects in the year on the collector
surface.

1.4.2 Orientation and tilt

Two parameters for the study of the incident energy on a surface is the angle of tilt and the
orientation (or azimuth).

[ 25 ]
Fig. 1.14: Main angles describing the surface orientation and inclination

1.4.3 Azimuth or Angle of orientation (β)

It indicates the angle, measured in degrees, which is formed between the normal line to the
collecting surface, in our case the solar collector, and the direction of North.

With angle of 0 ° orientation you then intend surfaces oriented to the south, positive angles
indicate guidelines to the west, up to a maximum of + 90 ° for collectors oriented to the west;
negative angles indicate exposures to West, up to a maximum of -90 °.

In the choice of exposure, in the case of roofs with east-west orientation of the aquifer is generally
preferable to the orientation towards the West, as in the afternoon hours is generally less common
the presence of haze (this may not be true in mountainous areas with by strong evaporation and
condensation) and environmental temperatures are also higher.

1.5 TILT ANGLE ()

The tilt angle indicates the angle that the normal line to the collecting surface presents with
respect to the horizontal plane, taken as reference and equal to 0°.

By varying the tilt angle changes so the angle at which the solar rays impinge on the collector, it is
therefore possible to vary the average share of the annual radiation incident on the collector
according to the values reported in the two picture cards previously (with flat surfaces and
optimum inclination) .

For latitudes of approximately 40-45 ° (Italy, Albania) high angles of tilt (45 °) mean increased
exploitation of the radiation in the winter months, when the Sun has less height on the horizon,
angles of about 33-34 ° involve the maximization of incident energy in the period of the year
(usually defined as optimum angle of inclination) and inclinations of 20-25 ° are useful in
installations in summer bathing and swimming pool service.

[ 26 ]
Place as a benchmark of 100 the surface with South exposure (0 °) and tilt angle 30 ° is possible,
through the chart and the following image, quickly calculate the "loss" of energy along the entire
span of the year caused by different exposures and collector surface inclination.

Fig. 1.15: Reduction of Irradiation, depending on azimuth and tilt of the receiving surface

[ 27 ]
TECHNICAL DESIGN OF SOLAR THERMAL PLANT

[ 28 ]
2. TECHNICAL DESIGN OF SOLAR THERMAL PLANT
The most important element for the design is the definition of the hot water demand, in reference
to which it determines the size of the solar plant, that is, the collector area and the volume of the
tank. The next steps are constituted by the definition of the scope and the diameter of the pipes
in the collector circuit, from the choice of the circulation pump and the expansion vessel sizing and
the safety valve.

2.1 DESIGN PHASES

The proper design of a solar thermal system includes the analysis of several important factors:

 Site analysis through detection in the field and collecting data related to geographic
location, orientation, tilt and any factors shading part of the territory and the
environment.
 Analysis of the user's energy needs.
 Sizing the collection surface.
 Editing: ease of construction of the plant, aesthetics, maintenance possibilities;
 Design of heat accumulation: daily, weekly, necessary space and structural
calculations;
 Adjustment: optimization of the plant operation and analysis of thermal loads, making
it possible and functional integration with any other heating systems.
 hydraulic manifolds links: analysis of the layout of the collector batteries (series-
parallel, Thichelmann method), the system definition as a function of fluid flow rate
(classic 110 l / m² hour, low-flow 20 l / m² hour), installation of air vents and deaerators;
 Corrosion: Corrosion prevention through the use of mono-metallic circuits, attention
to the possible formation of galvanic currents, erosion and limestone deposition
prevention;
 Economic Analysis: In parallel to the technical aspects is necessary economic analysis
in terms of cost-benefit evaluation of the pay-back time analysis.

2.2 CONSTRUCTION CRITERIA

The most important criteria to verify the possibility of installation of a solar system are given
below:

 Is there a central plant for heating domestic water, or you can think of installing a
similar system?

[ 29 ]
  The roof surface available is sufficient?
 The roof has a proper orientation?
 The state of the roof makes it possible to install the collectors?
 The roof leaves the possibility of access to collectors for later maintenance?
 The dimensions of doors, stairs and basement allow the transport and the passage of
the tank?
 There are architectural, administrative constraints (Superintendency Fine Arts, the
Environmental, ....)?
 Other permits are needed in order to install a solar system?
 The roof is overshadowed by parts of buildings, trees or other?

2.3 BASIC SCHEME

The most diffuse utilization for solar thermal is domestic hot water production. In this case, there
are lots of schematics, but all are focused on the same target and basically utilize the same
components:

2
1

Fig. 2.1: Basic components of solar DHW systems

 The collector (or panel) Solar, of dark color, transforms the solar radiation into useful
heat, heating the water or the heat transfer fluid that passes through it;
 The water tank stores the hot water during the day to make it available when needed;
 Connection to the water supply;
 Users: bathrooms, showers, sinks.

Other systems and utilizations can be implemented, but the basic principle will be still the same.
[ 30 ]
2.4 UTILIZATIONS

2.4.1 Domestic hot water production (DHW)

The more widespread use of solar thermal energy is the production of domestic hot water.

This production has the advantage of having an almost constant demand throughout the year and
not suffer so the strong mismatch between supply and demand of energy, typical for space heating
systems.

Use covers multiple sectors, the systems can indeed be installed to service individual homes,
condos, swimming pools, sports facilities and nursing homes or hospitals; the latter have the
strong advantage of requiring large volumes of ACS not high temperature, optimal conditions for
the installation of solar systems.

The most widespread application of solar thermal energy is for the production of sanitary hot
water; in favor of this type of system it is also expressed in the national obligation for new buildings
(e.g. in Italy) covering about 50% of the energy required for the production of ACS through solar
sources. This obligation is extended to 60% for the region Piedmont.

Systems can be “preassembled” using natural circulation of the fluid, and they can use directly the
tap water in the absorber (where there is no freezing problem), or have a heat exchanger, to
separate the fluid in the absorber from tap water (this configuration allows to use an antifreeze in
the solar circuit).

Fig. 2.2: Natural circulation systems, without and with heat exchanger ([Link])

Or systems have to use “forced” circulation, when it is not possible to install the heat storage at
quote over the solar collectors.

[ 31 ]
Fig. 2.3: Basic components of solar DHW systems ([Link])

2.4.2 Integration in heating (CombiSystem)

It may provide a solar system for the production of domestic hot water and heating integration,
especially useful in homes with low energy consumption and with low temperature systems
(floors, walls, ceilings radians). Typically the integration to traditional systems is carried out
through the storage tank. Recent development is the integration of solar thermal in urban district
heating systems, allowing plants to contribute to the heating of entire neighborhoods.

Additional considerations should be made in the case of solar thermal applications for heating
support, as it is important the natural existing mismatch between demand and energy supply, just
think as the maximum energy capability of solar thermal systems you have in the summer season,
in fact, the incident radiation has a greater power and lighting hours are higher throughout the
day. This increased production does not coincide, however, with the thermal energy requirements
of the building throughout the year and is even completely opposite, the major thermal needs are
indeed required in the winter seasons. From this it follows the need for a careful design of the
building-plant system and the use of dynamic simulations for the calculation of thermal loads of
the building and the solar plant producibility.

[ 32 ]
Fig. 2.4: Example for solar combisystem ([Link])

Fig. 2.5: Example for solar combisystem, using a high stratification storage ([Link])

2.4.3 Swimming pool

Swimming pools are an interesting appication for the high demand of DHW and the consyant load.
Solar thermal can be used also for heating the pool.

[ 33 ]
Fig. 2.6: Example for solar swimming pool (and DHW) ([Link])

2.4.4 Solar Cooling

The solar cooling allows, using absorption thermodynamic cycles, to achieve cooling systems
powered by the heat produced in the solar thermal collectors.

A solar cooling system diagram is typically composed of a field of solar panels, a storage tank, a
control unit, pipes and pumps and a thermally driven refrigerating machine.

The solar collectors used for solar cooling applications are mostly the high efficiency collectors
(with transparent double layer or vacuum tube collectors) because of the high temperature (> 60
° C) in an input request from the absorption refrigeration machines.

[ 34 ]
The coolant fluid is typically water, this allows to greatly simplify the plant, having no gaseous
refrigerant fluids. The refrigerant fluid then allow the supply of water systems or air conditioning
systems with air through the heat exchange coils.

also some systems have been developed for the production of ice, using solar energy.

Fig. 2.7: Example of solar cooling system ([Link])

2.4.5 Process Heat

The application of solar thermal systems for process heat production is a niche sector, having in
recent years received the same interest and development instead of residential applications.

The growth potential is, however, very large, in fact about 30% of total demand for industrial heat
stood at levels lower temperature of 100 ° C; this market share may already be satisfied through
the use of currently commercially available panels .

The European project Solar-Process-Heat studying possible fields of solar thermal industrial
application, by defining the basic criteria to assess the feasibility of such systems, in terms of
annual energy requirements and type of fluid required to utilities, in particular analyzes the
request of hot water required by different types of industrial processes and hot air required in
drying processes.

[ 35 ]
Fig. 2.8: Example of solar cooling system ([Link])

[ 36 ]
 Sector Process Temperature[°C]
Boiling 100
Washing 90
Brewery
Cooling 60
Drying 90
Pastorization 62-85
Dairies
Sterilization 130-150
Sterilization 110-125
Food Pastorization <80
Heating 70-98
Washing, cleaning <90
Meat
Heating, cooking 90-100
Washing, cleaning 60-90
Wine and drinks
Cooling 85
Washing, clearing, drying <90
Textile
Heating 140-200
Drying 160-220
Car Degreasing 35-55
Painting
Cooking wood paste 170-180
Heating <90
Paper
Bleaching 130-150
Drying 130-160
Leather Humydification 165-180
Cork Drying, cooking 40-155

Table 2.1: The table below shows some of the processes in which it is possible to integrate the heating
demand through solar thermal systems

[ 37 ]
EXAMPLE
Industrial sector: washing boxes for vegetables and fruits

Requested temperature: 48 °C

Installed surface: 47,6 kW(68 m2)

Vacuum tubes CPC

Specific solar heat: 552 kWh/m2a

Solar fraction: 50%,

Fonte: Kloben

2.4.6 Solar district heating

Over the past 20 years, in some countries of Europe and U.S.A., there has been certain plants for
the use of solar thermal technology as a complement to the urban district heating networks (Solar
District Heating). plant applications of solar district heating are already in Denmark and Germany.
In Italy there is no time for plants built. Always, however, the hypothesis seems more practical to
apply a form of incentive similar to that for the photovoltaic still present, through the introduction
of the "thermal energy account." In that case also it would attend to Italy to a concrete
development of district heating networks supplemented by solar energy.

Plant location, [Link] [Link] Heat Load

Plant type
Year in operation, Country [m²] [MWth] [GWh/a] [GWh/a]
Marstal, 1996, DK 18300 12.8 8.5 B/Bio-oil 28

Broager, 2009, DK 10700 7.5 4.5 CHP/NG 24

Gram, 2009, DK 10073 7.0 4.5 CHP/NG 28

Kungälv, 2000, SE 10000 7.0 3.9 B/Wood 100

Brædstrup, 2007, DK 8012 5.6 3.4 CHP/NG 42

Strandby, 2008, DK 8012 5.6 3.5 CHP/NG 21

Tørring, 2009, DK 7284 5.1 3.4* CHP/NG 28

Sønderborg, 2008, DK 5866 4.1 2.6* B/Bio-oil n.a.

5000 3.5 2.2 B/WP 11

Ærøskøping, 1998, DK 4900 3.4 2.0 B/Straw 14

Graz,Ww Andritz, 2009, AT 3855 2.7 1.6 (DH) 2.7

Legend: B = Boiler; CHP = Combined Heat and Power; DH = District Heat; WP = Wood pellet; *Calculated

[ 38 ]
Table 2.2: The following table shows the data of the most large power plants Solar District Heating installed track
(Feb.2010)

Plant location, Coll. area Nom. power Heat Load

Plant type
Year in operation, Country [m²] [MWth] [GWh/a] [GWh/a]

Crailsheim, 2005, DE 7300 5.1 2.1 BTES / HP 4.1

Neckarsulm, 1997, DE 5670 4.0 1.5 BTES / HP 3.0

Graz, AEVG, 2006, AT 5600 4.0 2.2 (DH) (n.a.)

Friedrichshafen, 1996, DE 4050 2.8 1.4 Buried CWT 3.0

Hamburg; 1996, DE 3000 2.1 0.8 Buried CWT 1.6

Schalkwijk, 2002, NL 2900 2.0 n.a. Aquifer / HP n.a

München, 2007, DE 2900 2.0 1.1 Buried CWT/HP 2.3

Graz, BerlinerRing, 2004, AT 2417 1.7 1.0 (HP/DH) (7.8)

Anneberg, 2002, SE 2400 1.7 0.5 BTES 1.0

Augsburg, 1998, DE 2000 1.4 0.7 BTES 1.0

Legend: Heat = Net solar heat; BTES = Borehole Thermal Energy Storage; HP = Heat Pump; CWT = Concrete water tank;
DH = District Heat;

Table 2.3: The data presented below relate to thermal solar systems on roofs and coverings in district heating networks
service

[ 39 ]
Fig. 2.9: Example of solar district heating installations

Fig. 2.10: Schematics for solar heating plants

[ 40 ]
Fig. 2.11: Schematics for solar heating plants: without and with local load

[ 41 ]
THE COLLECTOR

[ 42 ]
3. THE COLLECTOR

The solar thermal collector is the component in which takes place the conversion of solar energy
in the form of electromagnetic radiation into thermal energy stored by the heat transfer fluid and
subsequently distributed to the users through the same fluid or a secondary circuit.

The characteristics of the collectors in terms of materials used, the structure and construction
features allow detection of 5 types of solar collectors:

• uncovered plans;
• glazed flat;
• vacuum tube;
• CPC (compound parabolic concentration).

The following table summarizes the main features and fields of application of different
technologies.

Tipology Picture Description

Flat collectors discovered Elevate dispersions, prevalent use in
the summer season in the beach resorts and pools where the
thermal energy demand coinciding with the hours of greater
Flat plate,
availability of solar radiation.
unglazed
They are generally consisting of plastic materials, simplicity of
implementation so allows on the manifolds at a reduced cost.

Plate glazed collectors represent the most commonly used

manifolds.
The selective glass and the aluminum frame enclosing the heat-
Flat Plate, carrying fluid circuit, the capturing membrane and the insulation
glazed layer.
This type of collector allows a wide range of use and is the most
widespread solution in most residential applications.

Vacuum tube collectors

The heat transfer fluid circuit place inside the tubes is
surrounded by an interspace in which the vacuum is made, in
this way it is possible to reduce to almost negligible values the
Evacuated
losses by conduction, with relative efficiency of the collector
tubes
increases.
The best performances of the module then allows installation in
harsh climates.

[ 43 ]
 CPC collectors
Compound The CPC collectors (compound parabolic concentration) use
parabolic the technology of vacuum tube collectors. In addition to lower
Collectors losses by conduction it is increased the captured radiation from
CPC the heat transfer fluid, through the presence of a parabolic
reflective surface.

Table 3.1: Various solar collectors

3.1 FLAT PLATE GLASED SOLAR COLLECTOR

The technology of Flat-plate solar collector is that of wider diffusion in residential systems and
small-medium size, thanks to low costs and strong performances.

The most common systems use solar collector with a typical size of about 1m x 2m (2 m2); it is
also possible to found on the market collectors up to 3 m2, while for larger surfaces you can rely
on pre-assembled systems up to surfaces of the order of 15 m2.

1. Metal Frame
2. port sensor
3. absorber
4. 1st Reflective foil the IR
5. 1 ° of heat insulating
layer
6. 2nd Sheet Reflecting the
IR
7. 2 ° of heat insulating
layer
8. containment box
9. Pipe Parallel (∅ 8-12 mm)
10. Internal Manifold
11. Piping Connections

Fig. 3.1: Flat plate solar collector on roof and collector’s cross section

Each individual component has important optical and thermal properties that allow to maximize
the amount of solar radiation absorbed and converted into thermal energy while minimizing the
thermal losses with the external environment.

3.1.1 Selective glass

The first component of the collector that receives the incident solar radiation is the glass cover.

The plates used must fulfill several important structural features such as the collector protection
from the elements, they must ensure the cleanliness of the plate using the same precipitation and
must have good optical properties. It is in fact used special selective glasses, characterized by a

[ 44 ]
high transmission of the short-wave radiation, typical of the incident solar radiation, and low
spectral value of the factor of radiation of long-wave transmission, their infrared (IR) radiation.

The use of selective glasses allows the realization of the phenomenon called "greenhouse effect",
first necessary to the operation, because it prevents that the absorbed heat can be reissued in the
environment.

3.1.2 Selective layers on the absorber plate

The absorber plate is the area in which the electromagnetic solar radiation is absorbed and allows
the heat exchange with the heat transfer fluid of the collector. Technologies and different
materials characterize the absorber layer place inside the collector.

From simpler plates membranes simple copper plates made, or black-painted sheet metal is
passed to the most popular sheet coated with a black chrome layer ( "black chrome") or deposits
of selective layers; these latter layers have excellent absorption properties of the radiation,
tending to maximize the proportion of radiation absorbed (90-95%) and minimizing the re-emitted
radiation in the form of IR (10-15%).

The best collectors currently on the market are rather composed of a metal sheet on which is
deposited a thin layer of selective layer; the deposition of this layer allows to have absorption
characteristics of the radiation of the order of 95% and emissivity equal to about 5%, further
reducing the collector heat losses.

Fig. 3.2: Different layers behavior

3.1.3 Insulation
All of the collector surfaces, exclusive of the surface that interfaces with the radiation, are covered
by a layer of insulating material.

[ 45 ]
The layers of insulating material must in fact ensure the least possible loss of thermal energy of
the collector with the surroundings since, especially during the winter season, the strong thermal
gradient between the heat transfer fluid in the manifold and the external environment may cause
the malfunction of the collector

3.1.4 Heat transfer fluid

The choice of the heat transfer fluid is mainly bound to two important plant characteristics:

• possibility of reaching temperatures that involve freezing of the water;

• use of the heat transfer fluid directly as a coolant in the ACS;

The main features of the heat transfer fluid are represented by high specific heat values, measured
in [J / (kg * K)], so as to ensure a high absorption of energy by the fluid. Another important
characteristic is represented by the viscosity, a low value of viscosity allows to reduce the load
losses within the circuit and thereby reduce the proportion of energy absorbed by the pump for
the circulation of the fluid.

The heat transfer fluid must not also be subjected to chemical modifications in time to not
generate corrosion in the materials used in the plant, have a low cost and does not present
problems from the environmental point of view.

3.1.5 Water
In the case of installations in which there is a risk of freezing it is possible to directly use the water
as the heat transfer fluid; this choice also allows to avoid replenishing of additives, necessary to
lower the freezing point, and thus results in a lower cost in economic thermal.

Choices of this type are typically carried out in the case of flat collectors discovered and in some
cases "bucket systems" and drain-back, as better described in the following paragraph

3.1.6 Mixtures of Water + Glycol

The use of non-toxic glycol + water mixtures allows to lower the freezing point of the fluid for use
in climates where the outside temperatures can drop below 0 °C.

The mixtures contain stabilizers and anti-corrosion agents for the plant components, but do
introduce an increase in the viscosity of the fluid and the expansion coefficient with temperature
and a specific heat of reduction. So they must be calculated.

[ 46 ]
Table 3.2: Properties of antifreeze fluid ([Link])

Table 3.3: Density variation ([Link])

3.2 SOLAR AIR COLLECTORS

Particular installation using air as the heat transfer fluid.

The advantages are: the heat transfer fluid and the system has a lower cost than conventional
systems; lightness; no problem related to corrosion; the absence of heat exchangers and a good
speed of response.

By contrast, the air having a specific heat value about 4 times lower than water, are required high
volumes of exchange and channels for the transport of heat, heat exchange worst, problems
concerning the possibility of thermal storage and the speed response is sometimes too fast.
Installation to enliven air also large quantities of dust.
[ 47 ]
Fig. 3.3: Solar air system for wood drying: solar collectors (the author)

Fig. 3.4: Solar air system for wood drying: drying chambers (the author)

[ 48 ]
3.3 VACUUM COLLECTORS
The technology of vacuum tubes is mainly exploited in 3 different types of collectors:

• Vacuum tubes;
• CPC;
• Heat pipes.

The own efficiency increase of this technology is due to the creation of a cavity in which the
vacuum is created; this interspace surrounds the tube in which the heat transfer fluid is contained.
The presence of the vacuum layer allows separating the fluid circuit from the environment,
eliminating in this way the transmission of heat by conduction and convection.

A cross section of the vacuum tube, in three different types, consisting of some common elements:

1. Control line  6.4 mm within which circulates the

heat transfer fluid (or direct heat-pipe)
2. Absorber
3. Bag for air inlet revelation

4. Outer glass tube inside which the vacuum is

created.

Fig. 3.5: Transparent section of a single tube collector

3.3.1 Classic vacuum tube collector

Like the flat-plate collector, vacuum tube is made up of some characteristic components:

GLASS TUBE

The selectively glass tube has to ensure the transmission of the direct and diffuse solar radiation,
the selectivity of the glass must, however, prevent the emission of the infrared radiation emitted
from the hot heat transfer fluid circuit, so as to ensure the greenhouse effect inside of the
collector.

The two layers of glass and the cavity of empty enclose the absorbent layer in which the solar
energy is stored and supplied to the fluid.

[ 49 ]
The absorbent layer as the case may be deposited in the inside of the glass tube wall, so as to
absorb "360 °" the incident radiation, in other cases this is a flat plate or absorbent curve to which
the tubes are welded in which flows the heat transfer fluid.

Fig. 3.6: Single tube collector

3.3.2 Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC)

The CPC technology exploits the principle that the reflective material slabs parabolic shape allow
to concentrate the radiation in a single defined point focus of the parabola.

Fig. 3.7: CPC in cross section

Arranging small parabolas developed according to the length of each tube is then able to
concentrate towards the layer of absorbent material the radiation, both direct and diffused. In
these applications it is also necessary that the layer of absorbent material is deposited within the
wall of the pipe to be able to fully absorb the incident radiation portion.
[ 50 ]
The use of CPC vacuum collectors thus allows to exploit the further radiation that share in tube
collectors is lost in space that is created between the same of the collector tubes. At constant gross
area of the collector, it is then able to increase the area of the absorbing surface thereby improving
the energy produced in equal surface area occupied.

3.3.3 Heat-Pipe Collector

Fig. 3.8: Heat pipe vacuum tube in cross section

The use of heat pipes consists in the realization of a block circuit for the heat transfer fluid, the
fluid (water or freon low boiling liquid) is brought into depression to allow evaporation at
temperatures of the order of 30 °C.

Within the fluid circuit it is realized in this way a continuous evaporation and condensation of the
steam in the liquid, with the consequent formation of convective motions that bring the steam
towards the highest part of the collector.

After reaching the upper part of the collector the primary fluid yields heat to the water, condensing
and taking back to the lower part of the circuit.

To the heat-pipe technology allows the achievement of very high temperatures, even of the order
of 200 ° C, making this particular type of collectors also suitable for the production of heat at higher
temperature levels.

[ 51 ]
3.3.4 Heat Exchange in Vacuum Tubes

Different possibilities are used in heat transfer from the absorber to the solar fluid:

• Using direct flow of solar fluid into the tube

• Using a contact exchanger between the low boiling fluid into the heat pipe and the
solar fluid

Fig. 3.9: Heat pipe and Direct Flow ([Link])

Fig. 3.10: Heat pipe and direct flow in operation, in cross section

3.4 INTRODUCTION TO THE THERMAL BALANCE OF THE SOLAR COLLECTOR

Whatever the type of thermal collector used (therefore also valid for vacuum collectors), you can
make the analysis of the heat balance according to the scheme in the figure:

where:

[ 52 ]
 I = solar radiation;
Ti = temperature input heat transfer fluid;
Tu = outlet temperature of the heat transfer fluid;
m = Flow of heat transfer fluid;
heat loss = losses due to dispersion of the transparent surface and insulation losses.

Fig. 3.11: Thermal balance in solar collector

By performing the thermal balance it is clear that the energy gained by the heat transfer fluid will
Q
be equal to the difference between the incident solar energy ( sol ), and trapped by the selective
Q disp
glass in the collector and the dispersed energy from the collector itself ( ):

Q sol  Q disp  m c p Tu  Ti 

where:

Cp = Specific heat of the heat transfer fluid used;

3.4.1 Efficiency Concept

The efficiency of a collector is expressed by the ratio of the energy transferred to the heat transfer
fluid (useful energy) and solar energy En incident on the surface of the collector Ac (the incoming
energy)

where:

[ 53 ]
 m c p T
  = Efficiency of the collector;
Ac IT

Through statements made previously and expressing the two terms:

Q sol  Ac I T ;

Q disp  U L Ac Tm  Te 
;

where:
 = Spectral transmission of glass area;
 = Spectral absorption of the absorbing plate;
U L = transmittance referred to the collector area Ac;
Tm = Average temperature of the heat transfer fluid;
Te = Outside temperature;
I T = Irradiation;

It is possible to express the efficiency as:

Tm  Te
    U L
IT

Which, defined the characteristic parameters of the analyzed collector, can be used to obtain the
average return temperature of the heat transfer fluid, in function of irradiation and the outside
temperature, by the formula is also possible to note how the efficiency decreases with the increase
of the average operating temperature the collector, since the higher is the value the higher are
thermal losses.

3.4.2 Collector Efficiency

For energy characterization of the collectors is used the following expression:

   0  a1 x  a2 x 2 I where:
x
Tm  Te
I
where:

η0 = conversion factor;
a1 = first loss coefficient;
a2 = second loss coefficient;

[ 54 ]
3.4.3 Comparison of Collectors

Applying the formula to different types of manifolds, to vary the parameter x, we are obtained the
following results.

Fig. 3.12: Efficiency curves for different kind of solar collectors

As it can be seen, the efficiency is high for unglazed collectors for very low values of x, attributable
to cases in which the temperature difference between the environment and fluid are negligible, in
this case in fact the thermal losses are negligible and the optical losses very small, not being this
fact the glass roof. The efficiency of these collectors, however, tends to decrease rapidly with the
increase of the value of x. Indeed the absence of thermal insulation results in a considerable
emission of energy by the absorbing surface.

The glazed flat collectors, thanks to the presence of the glass cover, and the related optical losses,
have lower efficiencies for low values of temperature differences between environment and
module temperature of the heat transfer fluid. The efficiency decreases more slowly with
increasing value of x, because the insulation and the selectivity of the materials used result in a
lower incidence of heat loss.

The vacuum modules, thanks to the reduced losses by conduction and convection due to the
interspace insulating, made between the environment and the heat transfer fluid, allow to have a
nearly constant efficiency value even for large temperature differences between the heat transfer
[ 55 ]
fluid and environment, confirming the goodness of operation in harsh climates or for powering
units at high temperatures.

The following graph shows the comparison between collectors with selective surfaces and
traditional surfaces.

Fig. 3.13: Flat plate collectors without and with selective layer deposition on the absorber

The image represents the different behaviour for direct circulation and CPC tube collectors

Fig. 3.14: Various tube type collector performances

[ 56 ]
3.5 THE WATER SYSTEM
Important distinctions are to be made in the analysis of hydraulic circuits for use in solar thermal
systems.

They may in fact be made of different plant layout, in relation to the use of the heat energy and
the necessity of having to separate the fluid circuit heat transfer from the ACS circuit or the heating
system.

We can distinguish four major plant families:

• Natural circulation systems of water;

• Forced circulation systems with antifreeze mixtures;
• On – off Systems "bucket mode";
• Drain back systems.

Natural circulation
The principle of natural convection is used, heating the water decreases its density and thus
triggering an upward motion while cooler circulating water passes into the collector. The collector
must be positioned lower than the storage.

Forced circulation
The more widely used. The motion of the heat transfer fluid is ensured mechanically by a pump
connected to the control unit. Water is added with antifreeze to prevent freezing problems in the
winter season.

Fig. 3.15: Natural circulation (left) and Forced flow(right)

[ 57 ]
On-Off System “bucket mode”
Use water as a heat transfer fluid. The circulation pump only starts when the temperature inside
the modules reaches the desired temperature. Use the stored heat to prevent freezing.

Drain-back System
At the top of the buffer tank a free space is present , which serves to accommodate the fluid
automatically downloaded from the circuit during periods of non-operation. Prevents freezing and
stagnation problems.

Fig. 3.16: On-Off System “bucket mode”(left) and Drain back system (right)

3.5.1 Heat exchanger and storage

The heat exchanger serves to allow the passage of heat produced by the solar thermal and
transported from the heat transfer fluid to the end-use system, consisting of domestic hot water
or system water.

The storage tank serves to contain a fluid, generally water, in which accumulate heat; to make it
available in the requested moments. As previously analyzed, the production of thermal energy
hardly occurs in the hours of the request by the user.

To the tank it is also often given the task of interfacing the two existing pipings: the heat-carrying
fluid circuit and domestic system circuit (DHW or heating), and then performing the dual function
of the accumulation and heat exchanger.
[ 58 ]
BUILDING INTEGRATION AND INSTALLATION
EXAMPLES

[ 59 ]
4. BUILDING INTEGRATION AND INSTALLATION EXAMPLES

As with other technologies (eg solar PV) solar thermal system installation necessarily involve the
installation of some components on the cover or in the building envelope, bringing a possible visual
impact of the installation, as some components are "at sight".

A good design and installation therefore requires the architectural integration of the system in the
building, thus minimizing the impact and making it aesthetically pleasing presence of the
collectors.

According to the building type and location of the components it will be made architectural
integration; in the following paragraphs we are described and analyzed the laying systems and the
most common installation and describes some special cases of achievement in the alpine
environment.

4.1 STRUCTURES ON A FLAT ROOF

The installation on flat roofs is realized by means of support structures, anchored to the same
coverage or anchored to pedestals in cement, in order to ensure the resistance to the wind. The
installation is typically done by tilting the modules according to the optimum angle, depending on
the use (seasonal / annual) plant.

The structures are assembled and subsequently to them the modules (both individually pre-
assembled modules) are anchored. It is shown in the following photos Some of the installation.

Fig. 4.1: Installation on flat roof

4.2 MOUNTING ON ROOF TILES

The typical installation is realized on roofs of residential buildings, single and Multi-Family.

In the case of classic roofing tiles there are different types of integration:
[ 60 ]
  structure anchored to the cover;
 Full integration in coverage;
 Integration in roof window;
 integration in photovoltaic systems.

But each of the previous cases must ensure coplanarity between the existing roof and collector. In
Piedmont Region they are not allowed inclinations of the upper manifolds to the roof; it is
therefore necessary to adapt the inclination of the module surface to the existing building on
which it will be installed, so not being able to optimize the tilt in relation to the use of the same
(annual / seasonal).

4.2.1 Anchored structure to cover

When fastened to the roof of the structure, they are typically anchored to the roof rafters two
guides (galvanized steel, stainless steel or aluminum). For each pair of profiles is then anchored to
the module (or the row of modules) as by drawings and photos shown below.

Fig. 4.2: Installation over the tiles

4.2.2 Full integration in coverage

The integration of the complete system type involves the insertion of the implant in the same
coverage.

[ 61 ]
Fig. 4.3: Integration in a roof

Below the collector it will therefore be necessary to install a metal sheet to ensure the function of
waterproofing of the roof, and the drainage of rain water into the gutter, or will be donated to the
collectors themselves a watertight seal.

The metallic faldali installation, along the perimeter of the collectors complete the integration,
thereby making the system an integral part of the cover.

The integrated design of the plant cover and ensures a better realization of the work. In fact the
installation phase will be made during the construction of the roof, reducing the labor necessary
to pose the plant and guaranteeing an optimal integration of the same inside the cover.

Fig. 4.4: Large scale solar collectors integrated in the roof

4.2.3 Integration with windows and roof photovoltaic

In order to ensure the minimum impact of the plant, from the point of optical and scenic view, it
is good to make the laying of windows supplementing manifolds and, if present, in photovoltaic

[ 62 ]
systems. In this way they minimize the surface areas occupied on the cover, making it less obvious
the existence of the collectors, as evidenced by the pictures.

Fig. 4.1: Integration wirh PV system and roof windows

4.2.4 Plants that create the cover

The design of plants of medium and large dimensions already in the phase of design of the building
becomes very useful in case that it is carried entirely solar flaps. In this case the system will not
integrate with the cover, since it performs the same functions of cover, in addition to contribute
to satisfying the thermal requirements of the building. In the pictures you can see some first
installation and examples of "fully solar roof".

Fig. 4.2: The entire roof is pre-fabricated as a solar collector

[ 63 ]
Fig. 4.3: Integral solar roof

4.2.5 Facade installation

Of particular interest is the installation of modules in degliedifici facade. From the point of view of
the system architecture can seamlessly integrate into the aesthetics of the building, as evidenced
by the photos on the redevelopment of a hostel located in the town of Dornbirn in Austria. The
plant surface is about 112 m2.

Fig. 4.4: Façade installation

4.2.6 Special installations in alpine environment

Below are some photos from installation of plants on rooftops of houses in the alpine
environment. Below are images of different types of cover, drawing attention to cases in which
the integration is almost or completely non-existent, the better to understand the importance of
architectural design integration of the correct construction of the plant.

[ 64 ]
COMPLETE COVERAGE ON INTEGRATION IN LOSE

Fully integrated solar systems roof with “lose”:

Fig. 4.5: Alpine architecture integration

COMPLETE COVERAGE ON INTEGRATION IN SHINGLES

Works on wood roofs. The realization of a good architectural integration is realized cashing inside
the cover the solar thermal collector. The total integration allows to minimize the visual impact. It
also shows a detail in which it is possible to note the collector point of connection with the heat
transfer fluid circuit.

[ 65 ]
Fig. 4.6: Integration in wood tiles roof

4.2.7 Absence of architectural integration

In the following pictures show some installations in which they are not in any way met the inclusion
criteria and architectural aesthetics of the components. This is mainly due to its intention to ensure
excellent thermal producibility, the realized impact, however, strongly penalizes the work making
it very unpleasant the presence of collectors.

Fig. 4.7: Performances must face with building integration

[ 66 ]
SIZING EXAMPLES

[ 67 ]
5. SIZING EXAMPLES

5.1 ESTIMATE OF HOT WATER NEEDS

In residential buildings heating requirements for the production of hot water remains constant
throughout the year. An indication of the hot water demand is the number of people inhabiting
the building.

Usually the daily per capita consumption of hot water at 45 °C is estimated as follows:

 Low comfort 35 L / (person / day);

 Reasonably comfortable 50 l / (person / day);
 Comfort top 75 l / (person / day);

In case you want to connect the washing machine and dishwasher, their requirement must be
added to the solar system:

 washing machine 20 l / day (1 wash per day);

 dishwasher 20 liters / day (1 wash per day);

5.2 ESTIMATED SURFACE OF COLLECTORS

For a situation with ideal orientation using the reference values reported below for sizing the
collector area. This is then calculated in relation to the daily requirement of hot water.

Areas in Italy Reference values:

 North 1.2 m2 50 l / day

 Center 1.0 m2 50 l / day (similar to Albania)
 South 0.8 m2 50 l / day

These design values make it possible to cover all existing needs during the summer months, ie in
the summer all the domestic hot water is heated by the solar system. Calculated over the year, the
energy savings obtained is about 50-70%. The surface area values in the table must be reduced by
30% in the case in which use vacuum tube collectors.

The figures are approximate values. The actual surface of the collectors is to actually calculate the
size of existing modules. 20% of differences may exist.

Different orientations from ideal reduce system performance much less than you would normally
think. In most cases this can be offset by a minimum increase of the surface of the collectors. A

[ 68 ]
support structure to obtain a better orientation of the collector is, where possible, be avoided for
aesthetic reasons. The surface of the collector calculated as described so far must therefore be
divided by the correction factor.

5.3 ESTIMATE OF THE VOLUME TANK

The tank serves to balance the time difference between the presence of irradiation and hot water
usage. Tanks from the large volume ensures that even over long periods of bad weather, but also
cause more heat loss. The tank volume corresponds to about 50 - 100 l / (m² of collector surface).

In systems with auxiliary heating integrated in the tank (for example, a second heat exchanger or
an electric coil) the volume in temperature, i.e. the part of the tank that is always maintained at
the desired temperature for the hot water, it is always calculated according to the requirements
daily of hot water. Should be about 20 l / person.

When making the design of large systems, it is necessary to calculate the volume to be kept in
temperature (often it is a second smaller tank) taking into account the power of the boiler.

5.4 NOMOGRAM
A simple rough dimensioning can be done through the use of nomograms, like the one shown in
the following figure.

Knowing the number of people and type of ACS daily consumption yields the total consumption of
ACS and then the accumulator volume, defined the energy from solar sources and the geographic
location of the plant is thus obtained an estimate of the area of collectors needed.

The use of different types of collectors and the azimuth and tilt angle its each city, as well as any
shading will present to affect the validity of the estimate.

[ 69 ]
Fig. 5.1: Nomogram for dimensioning

5.5 SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM FOR STUDENTS HOUSE - 100 M2

DESCRIPTION
It is a solar thermal system for domestic hot water at the service of a University College, in Turin.
The plant has been included in the European project SOLARGE.
The reasons that led to the decision to install the system are numerous:

 High heat requirement (185 students live in college);

 Availability of regional subsidies;
 The university is located in the vicinity of the college; both entities have shown interest in
the facility;
 Availability of a detailed study (dissertation).
 The solar thermal system will be a destination for study visits organized for students and
interested people.

BUILDING
Type of building: university college
Number of users / apartments / rooms: 185 inhabitants.

[ 70 ]
Year built: 1961
Heated area: 5858 m2
and domestic water consumption: 2150 m3 / a
Total energy consumption for heating after the solar energy system installed: 92500 kWh / a (acs)

SYSTEM FEATURES
Year Built 2007
Type of flat plate collectors Collectors
Thermal power 70 kWtermici
Collector area of 101 m2 opening field *
Backup tank 4 m3
DHW storage 2 m3
total power of 1096 kW boilers
Central Heating System DHW; Central heating system
* Aperture area = front glass surface

COSTS
Total solar system cost € 89,800
Cost / gross area of collectors field € 816 / m2
Subsidies 40%

PERFORMANCES
Solar energy Yield ** 50000 kWh / a
Reduction of final energy *** 60000 kWh / a
CO2 emissions avoided 13.8 t CO2 / a
Solar performance guarantee
** Measured at the downstream of the heat storage
*** Refers to the solar yield

INNOVATIVE ASPECTS OF THE SYSTEM, LARGE SCALE SOLAR PLANT

The total surface area of 110 m2 panels is achieved by the use of solar collectors of 7x2 m size, for
a surface area of 14 m2 (single collector), the use of pre-assembled panels allows a more rapid
installation and the realization of a limited number of water connections on site. The panel frame
is made of wood, allowing a reduction in the cost and easy disposal at end of life.

The circulation of the heat transfer fluid takes place according to the principles of Low-flow (15 l /
m² h), the solar pump is powered directly by a dedicated photovoltaic system; there is a
performance monitoring system; the instantaneous operating data is displayed to the college
inhabitants through a display located at the entrance.
[ 71 ]
BUILDING INTEGRATION
The realization of the floor of the collectors was carried out in adherence to the flap of the cover,
thus reducing the cant with respect to the original plane of the roof. A sheet metal weathering has
been inserted between the collectors and all along the perimeter to complete integration with the
roof tiles.

Fig. 5.2 : Large scale solar collector and perfect building integration

[ 72 ]
ENERGY BALANCE IN SOLAR THERMAL
COLLECTORS

[ 73 ]
6. ENERGY BALANCE IN SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTORS

6.1 PARAMETERS AFFECTING THE PERFORMANCES OF THE COLLECTOR

Solar collectors are basically heat exchangers, where the primary circuit is heated from solar
radiation and the solar fluid goes across the secondary circuit to transport heat to the load or heat
storage.

For the best exploitation of the system, it is necessary to analyze single components and optimize
their common operation. The useful energy exchanged by the solar collector is indicated below,
as a net enthalpy flux.

Heat losses
G
Ti
u

m
Fig. 6.1: Thermal balance of the solar collector

disp  U L A c Tm  Ta 
Heat loss 
Q

Net enthalpy flux

 Q
Qsol
  cp Tu  Ti 
disp  m

Incident solar radiation   A G

Q sol c T

Fig. 6.2: Net enthalpy flux

The analysis of the energy balance is conducted assuming steady-state conditions.

[ 74 ]
The useful energy can be calculated as the difference between the energy absorbed and the energy
lost. For the calculation of the absorbed energy it is necessary to calculate the product
transmission-absorption (), while for the lost energy, it is necessary to calculate the overall
coefficient of thermal dispersion UL.

The instantaneous heat balance equation is given by:

du p
I  AC ( )  qu  q p 
dt

Where:

I = incident solar radiation in the time unit;

AC = area of the collector;
() = the product of the sheet of transparency and absorption coefficient of the plate;
qu = useful power transferred to the heat transfer fluid;
qp = power lost by convection and / or radiation;
dup/dt = power accumulated in the plate, negligible assuming a steady-state collector
behavior.

The heat-carrying fluid circulates in metal tubes formed in the plate or welded, or flows freely
between the plate and the transparent walls (very rare case, used in American collectors of the
fifties and sixties): in the first case heat loss by radiation of the plate will prevail, in the second
case, major losses will be due to convection of the heat transfer fluid. The power dispersed by the
collector is calculated as:

q p  U L AC (tm  ta )

where UL is the coefficient of loss (global coefficient of heat exchange between the collector and
the air), tm is the mean temperature of the plate and ta is the ambient temperature.

The heat loss coefficient is usually 5 - 8 W / m2 K for collectors with one a glass cover with a non-
selective black plate and 2.5 to 4 W / m2 K for collectors with selective absorption plate. This
represents the sum of the three loss coefficients upwards direction, towards the sides and towards
the bottom (UNI 8212).

6.1.1 Useful power

For the evaluation of the useful power qu, it is necessary to specify a number of boundary
conditions, starting with the type of heat transfer fluid, or by its specific heat cp, …

[ 75 ]
The power transferred to the fluid in a pipe length x is proportional to its increase of temperature
according to the equation:

dqu x   m c p t fu  t fi 

where 𝑚̇ is the fluid flow rate in the tube, tfu the temperature of the fluid in output and tfi the
temperature of the incoming fluid. Introducing the coefficient of thermal removal F '

Ic p t
F'
 I  U L t m  t a 
one can derive the amount of instantaneous heat collection in a unit of time, known the
characteristics of the collector, the operating and weather conditions, by means of the
relationship:

  t  ta 
q ut  AC IF '    U L  m 
  I 

6.1.2 Collector efficiency

The ratio between the energy produced (Net enthalpy flux) and the incident solar radiation gives
the efficiency of the collector.

The instantaneous thermal efficiency of a solar collector (referred to a standard of 15 minutes)

monitoring is expressed by the ratio between the useful power and the radiant power incident on
the collector:

m c p T Tm  Ta
    U L
AC I I

or, in terms of the fluid inlet in the manifold temperature (ti), with the formula of Willier:

qut t t 
  F ' ( )  F 'U L  i a 
AC I  I 

In terms of the parameters measured the efficiency of a collector is expressed as:

Vc p (Tu  Ti )

AC G

[ 76 ]
where Tu is the outside temperature, Ti than the input G and the power of the incident solar
radiation on a collector surface square meter.

In reality, the UL loss coefficient is not a constant, but varies depending on the ambient
temperature and that of the absorber plate, therefore it is considered:

F 'U L  c1  c2 Tm  Ta 
Then the amount of heat collected on a unitary collector surface is expressed as:

 F '  G  c1 Tm  Ta   c 2 Tm  Ta 

Q 2

AC
and efficiency is expressed by the formula:
Tm  Ta  Tm  Ta 2
  F '    c1  c2
G G
Tm  Ta 
It is possible to identify the parameters c0  F '   and x  , getting:
G
  c0  c1 x  c 2 Gx 2

this is the expression used in the tests performed in accordance with UNI 8212, performed in Italy
by E.N.E.A. at Trisaia Research Centre.

To evaluate and compare the performance of collectors, the efficiency lines are used, where the
instantaneous efficiency is correlated with the ratio (Ti - Ta) / G (ASTM E 904-87, 2001). This is the
representation used in the experimental tests of collectors and allows an immediate evaluation of
F '() and F' UL.

[ 77 ]
Fig. 6.3: Experimental curve following the test of performances; Performance levels measured experimentally, for a
collector with a cover and absorber with selective treatment

From previous observations, one can notice that the efficiency of the collector decreases as the
operating temperature decreases (and with the increase of the temperature difference between
the absorber plate temperature and the environment).

The tests are usually performed outdoors on days with stable conditions and good sky radiation (>
500 W / m2). Hours across midday are used, to have a high direct component of the solar radiation
and for ensuring that this is perpendicular to the collector, so as to minimize variations of ()
during the test. A series of tests at different inlet temperatures are made, the measured values are
used for the definition of the line of efficiency, as shown in Figure 6.3.

Various expressions for the collector efficiency have been developed, depending on the parameter
available for measurement, and the representation needed.

It is possible to refers the efficiency calculation to the temperature of the fluid flow (Ti, Tu), or to
the average temperature of the absorber plate (Tm). Obviously, the technical specifications of the
collectors influence the performances (, , UL).

 cp Tu ,i
m Tm  Ta Efficiency decreses
    U L
AcG T GT increasing the temperature

Whillier’s formula

 T T  Expression of efficiency linked

  FR    U L i a  to the T inlet into the collector
 GT 

Generally, tests are made to define the efficiency of the collector, in various operation conditions.
The results of the tests are summarized in the form:

  0  a1 x  a2 x 2G

Where the efficiency coefficients are used to describe the collector performances under precise
working conditions.

Optical factor 0

[ 78 ]
 Loss coefficient a1

Loss coefficient a2

x = (Tm – Ta) / G

Depending on the direction of the solar radiation and the incident angle on the collector surface,
the incident angle modifier coefficients have been developed.

Angular factor: the two parameters K1 and K2 describe the dependency of the efficiency from the
incidence angle of solar radiation in the longitudinal direction (referred to the longitudinal axle in
case of evacuated tubes) and transversal at 50°. In case of irradiance normal to the collector, the
angular factor is defined = 1.

 longitudinal K1
 transversal K2

6.1.3 Mixtures of water and glycol

The heat absorbed by the absorber must be removed and conveyed in the heat storage, through
the heat transfer fluid flowing in the absorber pipes. The fluid used must achieve a good value of
heat exchange coefficient with the plate, having a high specific heat, low viscosity (not to oppose
high resistance during flowing), does not cause damage in the event of frost, not be corrosive to
metals and not attack the rubber parts, if possible, be non-toxic and inexpensive and readily
available. A mixture of water and glycol is used in general: water has in itself all the features listed
above, except frost resistance, which, however, is obtained adding a variable percentage of glycol
as a function of the protection to be obtained.

The addition of glycol leads to a slight loss of heat capacity and viscosity increase, but in it, it is
possible to add compounds inhibiting corrosion. It should be kept in mind that because the anti-
freeze liquid may come into contact with the sanitary water, it must always be non-toxic. In general
all manufacturers of collectors provide appropriate antifreeze, either pure or already mixed to suit
the customer's requirements: it is often based on propylene glycol, non-toxic.

Propylen Glycol
Aspect and colour Liquido incolore
Odor No odor
pH (50% in water) 9,0
Boiling point 160 °C (at 760 mm Hg)

[ 79 ]
 Flash point 106 °C (open system)
Autoignition 429 °C
Vapour pressure 10 Pa at 20 °C
Relative density  1,04 gr/cm3 (25 °C)
Solubility in water (20 °C) complete
Cost 3,9 €/kg
Table 6.1: Physical and chemical properties of the non-toxic propylene glycol

Propylene glycol degrades over time when exposed to high temperatures, it should therefore be
checked for its quality through periodic checks of the system.

Glicole in miscela
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0
Punto di Glicole propilenico
congelamento per 100 l di miscela
°C kg -10

-1,6 5
-3,2 10 -20

-5,7 15
T (°C)

-7,5 20 -30

-10 25
-40
-13 30
-16,5 35
-50
-20,8 40
-25,8 45
-60
-32 50
-40 55 % di glicole
-57 60

Table 6.2: Variation of freeze point with the glycol concentration

6.1.4 Performance variation in solar collectors

In the following images it is possible to observe the differences in efficiency, at a given x value.

Example 1: DHW production

Assume an air ambient temperature Ta = 10°C, a flow temperature Tout=50, a inlet temperature
Tin = 35. The Tm (average temperature in inlet and outlet) = (50+35)/2 = 42,5. When a irradiation
of 800 w/m2 is present, the x value is: x=42,5/800 = 0,053.

[ 80 ]
 Efficiency characteristic curves (referring to Absorber area) 420 (Energie Solaire AS)
1.0 344 (GreenOneTEC VK29)
474 (GreenOneTec IMK)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
x [m² K / W]
Fig. 6.4: Performance comparison (1)

The blue line represent a flat plate, the violet one a vacuum tube and the green one a unglazed
collector.

It is possible to see that the efficiency, at given conditions, can vary significantly: the flat plate has
an efficiency of approximately 0,68, the evacuated of 0,56 and the unglazed of 0,44.

In the case of higher external temperatures and lower output temperatures (like in preheating
during spring, or in drying systems), the performances can change significantly.

Example 2: DHW pre heating, drying

Assume an air ambient temperature Ta = 20°C, a flow temperature Tout=30°C, a inlet temperature
Tin = 20°C1. The Tm (average temperature in inlet and outlet) = 25°C. When a irradiation of 800
w/m2 is present, the x value is: x= 0,006.

In that case, it is possible to see that the efficiency become: unglazed = 0,92, flat plate = 0,8,
evacuated = 0,6.

1
In drying systems open loop cycles are often used
[ 81 ]
 Efficiency characteristic curves (referring to Absorber area) 420 (Energie Solaire AS)
1.0 344 (GreenOneTEC VK29)
474 (GreenOneTec IMK)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
x [m² K / W]

Fig. 6.5: Performance comparison (2)

Example 3: Process heat, district heating

Assume an air ambient temperature Ta = 5°C, a flow temperature Tout=80°C, a inlet temperature
Tin = 60°C. The Tm (average temperature in inlet and outlet) = 70°C. When a irradiation of 800
w/m2 is present, the x value is: x= 0,081.

In that case, it is possible to see that the efficiency become: evacuated and flat plate = 0,52, while
the unglazed ones are no more working.

Efficiency characteristic curves (referring to Absorber area) 420 (Energie Solaire AS)
1.0 344 (GreenOneTEC VK29)
474 (GreenOneTec IMK)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
x [m² K / W]

Fig. 6.6: Performance comparison (3)

[ 82 ]
TYPYCAL PERFORMANCE VALUES

In the same condition of irradiation, ambient temperature and Tin and outlet of the solar collector,
compare the efficiency of single glazed and double glazed ones.

Table 6.3: Coefficient of performance of single and double glased flat plate collectors

Single Double Single Double Single Double

glass glass glass glass glass glass
η 0,850675 0,821 0,55285 0,605125 0,519025 0,582875
Tin °C 20 20 50 50 60 60
Tout °C 30 30 90 90 80 80
Tm °C 25 25 70 70 70 70
Ta °C 20 20 10 10 5 5
G W/m2 800 800 800 800 800 800
η0 0,871 0,838 0,871 0,838 0,871 0,838
a1 W/m2K 3,162 2,685 3,162 2,685 3,162 2,685
a2 W/m2K2 0,018 0,007 0,018 0,007 0,018 0,007
x m2K/W 0,00625 0,00625 0,075 0,075 0,08125 0,08125

Table 6.3: Variation of efficiency for single and double glazed collectors, depending on T in and Tout

6.2 HOT WATER LOADS

Very detailed models of daily domestic hot-water use have been proposed that include such
variables as the number of occupants and their ages, the presence or absence of dishwashers and
clothes washers, the size of storage tank, the season of the year, the ambient and delivery
temperatures, and whether or not the occupants pay for the hot water (Lutz et al., 1996). It is well
known that domestic hot-water use varies considerably day by day, hour by hour, and minute by
minute. For use in simulations the average daily load needs to be distributed over days and hours
(or even shorter time periods). One approach is to estimate the standard deviation of the daily
load and create a day-to-day sequence that has the correct long-term average daily usage. The
hourly fluctuations can then be assumed to follow a typical normalized profile such as shown in
Figure

[ 83 ]
Fig. 6.7: Water load

Jordan and Vajen [see Weiss (2003)] investigated draw profiles on 1-min, 6-min, and hourly time
scales. They conclude that modeling systems on a 1-min time scale is best but for most systems
hourly simulations provide adequate results. The maximum difference in predicted annual energy
savings using long- and short-term water draws was 3.5%.

The loads to be met by water heating systems can be considered to include three parts.

First, the sensible heat requirements of the water must be met. If water flowing at a rate of ˙m is
to be heated from a supply temperature Ts to a delivery temperature Td , the required rate of
addition of sensible heat will be ˙Lw= ˙mCp (Td − Ts)

Second, losses from the distribution system must be met. These can be estimated by conventional
methods. If continuous recirculation is used (as in large buildings where ‘‘instant’’ hot water is
required at locations far from the water heater), the losses from the piping may be of the same
magnitude as the sensible heat requirements.

Third, losses from storage tanks may be significant. The rate of tank losses ˙Lt is estimated from
the tank loss coefficient–area product (UA)t and the temperature difference between the water in
the tank and the ambient temperature surrounding the tank: ˙Lt= (UA)t (Tt − T_a)

However, estimation of the loss coefficient based on the thickness and thermal conductivity of
insulation will lead to underestimation of tank losses if significant effects of supports, piping, and
other heat leaks are ignored. Measured values of tank loss coefficients are often two to four times
those calculated from insulation thickness and conductivity.

In the case of water heaters located in heated buildings, losses from the hot-water tanks are
uncontrolled heat gains for the building.

See also the Focus on the Standard Calculation Methods.

[ 84 ]
6.3 HEAT STORAGE
The storage tanks have the function of real thermal flywheels; they must in fact constitute a store
of energy when the energy captured by the collectors is in excess compared with the energy
demand; they have to make solar energy available when instead the energy required is greater
than that collected, and also when there is no solar radiation.

There may be daily, weekly or even seasonal heat storages, based on the ratio of the charge and
discharge times for the energy storing process. For example, seasonal storages are heated up
during summer to reach temperatures close to 90 ° C, and provide integration to the heat demand
for heating (DHW and space heating) all over the year (Schulz, 2000).

The dimensioning of the heat storage should be performed taking into account the characteristics
of the entire plant and the load: the technology used for the collectors, the type of solar system,
the maximum thermal level reached by the solar collectors and in the heat storage, the periodicity
of solar power expected availability, the final use for solar energy (DHW in houses, Solar District
Heating, industrial process), its distribution during the day and the year, the level of temperatures
in which it can or must work, and the kind of the auxiliary system. Special attention has to be made
to possible limitations due to the load and to the availability of space, in the case of very large
storages.

Due to its high heat capacity, water is mainly used as heat storage material; in air systems large
volumes of medium size pebbles are used, that are heated by flowing between them directly the
warmed air coming from the solar panel.

Heat storages of chemical energy (by thermal decomposition of metal oxides) and of change phase
of some salts (decahydrate of sodium sulfate and others- Glauber salt), or by melting and
solidification of paraffin have been applied, but remain for now at non commercial level (Duffie,
1991).

6.3.1 Process and Technology Status

([Link]
ETSAP%20Tech%20Brief%20E17%20Thermal%20Energy%[Link])

Energy storage systems are designed to accumulate energy when production exceeds demand and
to make it available at the user’s request. They can help match energy supply and demand, exploit
the variable production of renewable energy sources (e.g. solar and wind), increase the overall effi
ciency of the energy system and reduce CO2 emissions. This brief deals primarily with heat storage
systems or thermal energy storage (TES). An energy storage system can be described in terms of
the following properties:
[ 85 ]
  Capacity: defines the energy stored in the system and depends on the storage process, the
medium and the size of the system;
 Power: defines how fast the energy stored in the system can be discharged (and charged);
 Efficiency: is the ratio of the energy provided to the user to the energy needed to charge
the storage system. It accounts for the energy loss during the storage period and the
charging/discharging cycle;
 Storage period: defines how long the energy is stored and lasts hours to months (i.e. hours,
days, weeks and months for seasonal storage);
 Charge and discharge time: defines how much time is needed to charge/ discharge the
system; and
 Cost: refers to either capacity (€/kWh) or power (€/kW) of the storage system and depends
on the capital and operation costs of the storage equipment and its lifetime (i.e. the
number of cycles).

Capacity, power and discharge time are interdependent variables and in some storage systems,
capacity and power can also depend on each other. For example, in TES systems, high power
means enhanced heat transfer (e.g. additional fi ns in the heat exchanger), which, for a given
volume, reduce the amount of active storage material and thereby the capacity. Thermal energy
(i.e. heat and cold) can be stored as sensible heat in heat storage media, as latent heat associated
with phase change materials (PCMs) or as thermo-chemical energy associated with chemical
reactions (i.e. thermo-chemical storage) at operation temperatures ranging from -40°C to above
400°C.

6.3.2 Sensible Thermal Energy Storage

The use of hot water tanks is a wellknown technology for thermal energy storage. Hot water tanks
serve the purpose of energy saving in water heating systems based on solar energy and in co-
generation (i.e. heat and power) energy supply systems. State-ofthe- art projects have shown that
water tank storage is a cost-effective storage option and that its effi ciency can be further improved
by ensuring an optimal water stratifiation in the tank and highly eff ective thermal insulation.

Today’s R&D activities focus, for example, on evacuated super-insulation with a thermal loss rate
of _ = 0,01 W/mK at 90°C and 0,1 mbar and on optimized system integration. Hot water storage
systems used as a buff er storage for domestic hot water (DHW) supply are usually in the range of
500l to several m3. This technology is also used in solar thermal installations for DHW combined

[ 86 ]
with building heating systems (Solar-Combi-Systems). Large hot water tanks are used for seasonal
storage of solar thermal heat in combination with small district heating systems.

These systems can have a volume up to several thousand cubic meters (m3). Charging
temperatures are in the range of 80-90°C. The usable temperature diff erence can be enhanced by
the use of heat pumps for discharging (down to temperatures around 10 °C). For example the solar
district heating “Am Ackermann-bogen” (Munich, Germany) supplies solar energy for space
heating and domestic hot water for about 320 apartments in 12 multi-story dwellings with about
30,400 m2 of living area. The system is designed to cover more than 50% of the annual heat
demand (i.e. about 2,000 MWh/a) using solar energy collected by 2,761 m2 of fl at-plate collectors.
The heat collected is used either directly or stored in a 6,000 m3 underground seasonal hot water
storage.

Supplementary heating is provided by an absorption heat pump driven by the city district heating
system using the seasonal storage as a low temperature heat reservoir. This allows for a wide
operation temperature range of the storage (i.e. between 10-90°C). Direct connection of the
district system and heating installations in the houses avoids typical temperature drops at heat
exchangers and increases the temperature spread. The district system is operated at a supply
temperature of 60°C with a return temperature of 30°C, which is properly monitored. The solar
energy fraction in the second year of operation was 45% and could reach values above 50%.

6.3.3 Underground Thermal Energy Storage (UTES)

This makes use of the underground as a storage medium for both heat and cold storage. UTES
technologies include borehole.

[ 87 ]
Fig. 6.8: Large scale heat storage

6.3.4 Aquifer storage, cavern storage and pit storage.

Which of these technologies is selected strongly depends on the local geological conditions.
Borehole storage is based on vertical heat exchangers installed underground, which ensure the
transfer of thermal energy to and from the ground layers (e.g. clay, sand, rock). Many projects aim
for seasonal storage of solar heat in summer to heat houses or offi ces in winter. Ground heat
exchangers are also frequently used in combination with heat pumps where the ground heat
exchanger extracts low-temperature heat from the soil.

Aquifer storage uses a natural underground water-permeable layer as a storage medium. The
transfer of thermal energy is achieved by mass transfer (i.e. extracting/re-injecting water
from/into the underground layer). Most applications deal with the storage of winter cold to be
used for the cooling of large offi ce buildings and industrial processes in the summer (Figure 2). A
major prerequisite for this technology is the availability of suitable geological formations. Cavern
storage and pit storage are based on large underground water reservoirs created in the subsoil to
serve as thermal energy storage systems. These storage options are technically feasible, but
applications are limited because of the high investment costs. For high-temperature (i.e. above
100 °C) sensible heat storage, the technology of choice is based on the use of liquids (e.g. oil or
molten salts, the latter for temperatures up to 550°C. See ETSAP E10). For very high temperatures,
solid materials (e.g. ceramics, concrete) are also taken into consideration. However, most of such
high-temperature-sensible TES options are still under development or demonstration.

[ 88 ]
6.3.5 Phase Change Materials for TES
Sensible heat storage is relatively inexpensive, but its drawbacks are its low energy density and its
variable discharging temperature [2]. These issues can be overcome by phase change materials
(PCM)-based TES, which enables higher storage capacities and target oriented discharging
temperatures. The change of phase could be either a solid/liquid or a solid/solid process. Melting
processes involve energy densities on the order of 100 kWh/m3 (e.g. ice) compared to a typical 25
kWh/m3 for sensible heat storage options. Figure 3 compares the achievable storage capacity at a
given temperature diff erence for storage medium with and without phase change. Phase change
materials can be used for both short-term (daily) and longterm (seasonal) energy storage, using a
variety of techniques and materials. Table 2 shows some of the most relevant PCMs in diff erent
temperature ranges with their melting temperature, enthalpy and density.

For example, the incorporation of micro-encapsulated PCM materials (e.g. paraffin wax) into
gypsum walls or plaster can considerably increase the thermal mass and capacity of lightweight
building walls. The micro-encapsulated PCMs cool and solidify by night and melt during the day,
thus cooling the walls and reducing or avoiding the need for electric chillers (”passive cooling”, see
Figure 4). Other applications for active cooling systems involve the use of macro-encapsulated salts
that melt at an appropriate temperature. The PCM can be stored in the building’s air vent ducts
and cold air can be delivered via large-area ceiling and floor ventilation systems. PCM slurries are
a promising technology. For example, ice-slurries or water-paraffin dispersions can be used for
building or industrial cooling purposes. As slurries can be pumped, they can be used for either
storing or distributing thermal energy.

A number of R&D activities, most of them aimed at industrial applications, currently focus on high-
temperature PCM (above 150°C).

6.3.6 Focus on Chemical Materials and Heat Stratification

 Melting salts (eutectic salts, sodium sulphate)
o heat fusion with anhydrous salt solution formation (endothermic reaction), following
heat release during the reverse process
o r = 160-300 kJ/kg
 Mineral oxides (MgO, CaO)
o it uses the heat of hydration, but need high temperature (300-400 ° C ® concentrating
collectors)
o high energy density (12-30 times that of the salts)
 Phase change materials (paraffins)
o takes place at low temperatures (30-65 °C)

[ 89 ]
 o r = 120-300 kJ/kg

6.3.7 Calculate the heat storage volume2

The hot water demand is decisive for the dimensioning of a solar heater system. However, this
depends on the users requests. For example, if a person is used to have a shower rather than a
bath, the daily hot water demand is significantly lower than if a bath is frequently taken. The daily
hot water demand can be estimated as shown in the table below.

Table 6.5: Hot water demand for different users at a hot water temperature of 50 °C.

When the daily hot water demand has been determined, the volume of the storage tank can be
specified. It should be some 0.8 to 1.2 fold the daily demand for regions with high solar radiation
and 2 to 2.5 fold the daily demand for regions with lower solar radiation (central and northern
Europe) respectively, so that consumption peaks can be met well and cloudy days can be
compensated. [W. Weiss]

Annual system performance is relatively insensitive to storage capacity as long as capacity is more
than approximately 50 liters of water per square meter of collector. When the costs of storage
are considered, there are broad optima in the range of 50 to 200 liters of water per square meter
of collector.

The f -chart was developed for a standard storage capacity of 75 liters of stored water per square
meter of collector area.

In terms of energy, for general calculations:

E
m
c p Tmax  Tmin 

m =mass of liquid in the heat storage [kg]

E = solar energy produced by the solar collector system, during the period h [kWh]

2
Stratification in heat storage is not taken into account in the examples. The heat storage is supposed in a fully mixed
operation mode.
[ 90 ]
 Cp = specific heat of the medium [kWh/ kg ° C]
Tmax = final tank temperature [° C]
Tmin = initial tank temperature [° C]

To define the temperature in the heat storage (monthly) an energy balance of the thank can be
defined (Duffie&Bekman es 21.2.1):

V
Ec * Ac   F  D 
Cs (t fin  tin )

Where:

V = volume of the heat storage [l]

Ec = solar energy produced by a square meter of solar collector, during the period h
[kWh/m2]
Ac = area the solar collector surface [m2]
F = thermal requirement in the period h [kWh]
D = energy used for DHW, other uses and thermal losses of the storage system in the time
period h [kWh]
 = specific load of the medium used to store energy [kg / m3]
CS = specific heat of the medium [kWh/ kg ° C]
tfin = final tank temperature [° C]
tin = initial tank temperature [° C]

In solar systems for DHW, in the heat storage is possible to store technical water or the water that
is then directly sent to the user. Based on experience, manufacturers recommend a ratio of 50 
100 liters / m2, between the storage volume and absorbing surface.

6.3.8 Heat stratification in heat storages

Different layers of water at different temperature have different densities: they will float the
hotter (lower density) over the colder (higher density).

It is important not to mix the different layers of water in the storage tank, and to maximize the
stratification.

This will maximize the heat exchange of the solar loop, and the minimum operating temperature
(thus, the efficiency) if the collector.

Different systems are used for increase the stratification and to reduce the mixing.

[ 91 ]
 L
O
A
D
Fig. 6.9: Stratification with a tree way valve

Fig. 6.10: Stratification system, in the tank

EXAMPLE 1

If the requested energy for DHW production is known, taking into account the solar radiation data
of the location and the performances of the solar collector, it is possible to determine the total
solar surface of the installation as follow.

𝑑 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑆𝐹
𝑆=
𝐸∗𝜂

Q (daily energy request [kWh])= 8,77

d (period of calculation [d]) = 365

[ 92 ]
 E (radiation on the tilted surface [kWh/m2]) = 1.700

 (average annual efficiency of the solar system) = 0,5

SF (annual solar factor) = 0,65%

Solar surface: (365 x 8,77 x 0,65)/(1.700 x 0,5)=3 m2 approx.

SOLAR SURFACE
S Solar collector surface m2 2,85
Q daily energy request (losses included) kWh 10,208
d period of calculation d 365
E radiation on the tilted surface kWh/m2 1.700
 average annual efficiency of the solar system % 0,5
SF annual solar factor % 0,65

number of users 4
average daily DHW use l 50
average DHW utilization temperature °C 50
average inlet temperature °C 10

Table 6.6: Determination of the solar collector surface, given the requested energy for DHW

EXAMPLE 2

For a hotel with 120 beds (B) and an annual occupancy (O) of 80% and an average hotwater
demand (HWD) of 40 litres per person (P), the daily demand (DD) is 3.840 litres. In addition a hot
water demand of 160 litre per day is needed for the restaurant (HWDR). The volume of the storage
tank (Vst) is thus calculated as follows:

VSt = [(B * O * HDW) + HDWR ] * 1.2 = [(120 * 0.8 * 40) + 160] x 1.2 = 4,800 litres

As the manufacturers do not offer tanks in every possible size, the choice has to be made among
those generally available on the market. However, it is recommended that the storage tank
capacity is not less than 90% and not more than 120% of the calculated volume.

6.3.9 Energy capacity of a storage unit

The energy storage capacity of a water storage unit at uniform temperature is given by:

𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑐𝑝 ∗ Δ𝑇

Qs - total heat capacity of the storage tank [kWh]

[ 93 ]
 m - volume of the storage tank [m³], 5 in the previous example.

cp - heat capacity of water [1.16 kWh/m³.K]

ΔT - temperature difference - hot water temperature and cold water temperature [K]

Qs = 5 x 1,16 x 35 = 203 kWh

6.4 HEAT EXCHANGER

The heat exchanger is used to transfer heat from the heat transfer fluid in the solar loop, to the
fluid in the heat storage.

Depending on the fluid, it is possible to find various kind of heat exchanger.

6.4.1 Types of Heat Exchangers

Liquid-to-liquid
A liquid-to-liquid heat exchanger uses a heat-transfer fluid that circulates through the solar
collector, absorbs heat, and then flows through a heat exchanger to transfer its heat to water in a
storage tank. Heat-transfer fluids, such as antifreeze, protect the solar collector from freezing in
cold weather. Liquid-to-liquid heat exchangers have either one or two barriers (single wall or
double wall) between the heat-transfer fluid and the domestic water supply.
A single-wall heat exchanger is a pipe or tube surrounded by a fluid. Either the fluid passing through
the tubing or the fluid surrounding the tubing can be the heat-transfer fluid, while the other fluid
is the potable water.

Double-wall heat exchangers have two walls between the two fluids. Two walls are often used
when the heat-transfer fluid is toxic, such as ethylene glycol (antifreeze). Double walls are often
required as a safety measure in case of leaks, helping ensure that the antifreeze does not mix with
the potable water supply. An example of a double-wall, liquid-to-liquid heat exchanger is the
"wrap-around heat exchanger," in which a tube is wrapped around and bonded to the outside of
a hot water tank. The tube must be adequately insulated to reduce heat losses.

While double-wall heat exchangers increase safety, they are less efficient because heat must
transfer through two surfaces rather than one. To transfer the same amount of heat, a double-
wall heat exchanger must be larger than a single-wall exchanger.

[ 94 ]
Air-to-liquid
Solar heating systems with air heater collectors usually do not need a heat exchanger between the
solar collector and the air distribution system. Those systems with air heater collectors that heat
water use air-to-liquid heat exchangers, which are similar to liquid-to-air heat exchangers.

6.4.2 Heat Exchanger Design

There are many heat exchanger designs. Here are some common ones:

Coil-in-tank
The heat exchanger is a coil of tubing in the storage tank. It can be a single tube (single-wall heat
exchanger) or the thickness of two tubes (double-wall heat exchanger). A less efficient alternative
is to place the coil on the outside of the collector tank with a cover of insulation.

Fig. 6.11: Coil type Heat exchangers

Shell-and-tube
The heat exchanger is separate from (external to) the storage tank. It has two separate fluid loops
inside a case or shell. The fluids flow in opposite directions to each other through the heat
exchanger, maximizing heat transfer. In one loop, the fluid to be heated (such as potable water)
circulates through the inner tubes. In the second loop, the heat-transfer fluid flows between the
shell and the tubes of water. The tubes and shell should be made of the same material. When the

[ 95 ]
collector or heat-transfer fluid is toxic, double-wall tubes are used, and a non-toxic intermediary
transfer fluid is placed between the outer and inner walls of the tubes.

Fig. 6.12: Shell and tube heat exchangers

Tube-in-tube
In this very efficient design, the tubes of water and the heat-transfer fluid are in direct thermal
contact with each other. The water and the heat-transfer fluid flow in opposite directions to each
other. This type of heat exchanger has two loops similar to those described in the shell-and-tube
heat exchanger.

Plate
A plate heat exchanger is a type of heat exchanger that uses metal plates to transfer heat between
two fluids. This has a major advantage over a conventional heat exchanger in that the fluids are
exposed to a much larger surface area because the fluids spread out over the plates. This facilitates
the transfer of heat, and greatly increases the speed of the temperature change

Fig. 6.13: Plate heat exchangers

[ 96 ]
Depending of the application, the power and the allowable cost of the system, several types of
heat exchangers can be used. In small DHW installations with thermosiphon (natural) circulation,
mantle type heat exchangers are used, formed by a shell which wraps around the storage tank; in
the space between the two walls the fluid flows. Increasing the size of the solar surface (when over
3  4 m2) tube types heat exchangers are used, often directly immersed in the heat storage (coiled
tubes and/or finned, with fixed or removable tube bundle); usually they are made by iron, stainless
steel or copper. For larger size of solar collector area, plate heat exchanger are used, with primary
and secondary pumped circuits. This configuration allows to control separately the mass flow in
the primary and secondary loop, meaning that the maximum temperature difference can be
reached in the solar loop (to reduce size of piping) and maximum stratification in the heat
exchanger can be reached.

Coil heat exchangers can be carried out as corded tube heat exchanger or as smooth tube heat
exchanger. Typical U-values are between 100 and 500 W/m²K. The heat exchange power per m²
of a smooth tube heat exchanger is higher than that of a corded tube heat exchanger. But in order
to reach the same heat exchanging area as the finned tube heat exchanger the length of the pipes
must me much longer.

In these applications the ratio between the exchanger surface and the solar collector area must
not be lower than 0.2 m2 / m2 for immersed pipe bundle with natural convection and 0.1 m2/m2
for forced system with plate heat exchangers. These are minimum values!

Tube in Shell and Immersed

Plate
tube tube coil

Heat transfer coefficient *** *** **** *

Head losses *** ** * ***
Cost/area *** **** ** ****
Mass flow mixing (eventual) *** * **** **
Deposits *** ** *** *
Operation & Management issues *** ** **** **
Dimension vs power ** *** **** ***
Pressure resistance **** *** * **
Temperature resistance. *** *** * **

Table 6.7: Resume of main characteristics of heat exchangers

[ 97 ]
6.4.3 Sizing
A heat exchanger must be sized correctly to be effective. There are many factors to consider for
proper sizing, including the following:

 Type of heat exchanger

 Characteristics of the heat-transfer fluid (specific heat, viscosity, and density)
 Flow rate
 Inlet and outlet temperatures for each fluid.

Usually, manufacturers will supply heat transfer ratings for their heat exchangers (in kW) for
various fluid temperatures and flow rates. Also, the size of a heat exchanger's surface area affects
its speed and efficiency: a large surface area transfers heat faster and more efficiently.

6.4.4 Heat exchanger performance

It is convenient in solar process system calculations to use the effectiveness-NTU (number of
transfer units) method of calculation of heat exchanger performance. A brief discussion of the
method is provided here, based on the example of a countercurrent exchanger. The working
equation is the same for other heat exchanger configurations; the expressions for effectiveness
vary from one configuration to another (Kays and London, 1964).

A schematic of an adiabatic countercurrent exchanger with inlet and outlet temperatures and
capacitance rates of the hot and cold fluids is shown.

Fig. 6.14: Temperatures in the heat exchanger

The overall heat transfer coefficient—area product is UA. The maximum possible temperature
drop of the hot fluid is from Thi to Tci ; the heat transfer for this situation would be:

Qmax = (m˙ Cp)h(Thi − Tci)

The maximum possible temperature rise of the cold fluid would be from Tci to Thi. The
corresponding maximum heat exchange would be:

Qmax = (m˙ Cp)c(Thi − Tci)

[ 98 ]
The maximum heat transfer that could occur in the exchanger is thus fixed by the lower of the two
capacitance rates, (m˙ Cp)min, and

Qmax = (m˙ Cp)min (Thi − Tci)

The actual heat exchange Q is given by

Q = (m˙ Cp)c(Tco − Tci) = (m˙ Cp)h(Thi − Tho)

Effectiveness ε is defined as the ratio of the actual heat exchange that occurs to the maximum
possible, Q/Qmax, so

ε = Q/Qmax = (m˙ Cp)h(Thi − Tho) /(m˙ Cp)min (Thi − Tci) = (m˙ Cp)c(Tco − Tci) / (m˙ Cp)min
(Thi − Tci)

Since either the hot or cold fluid has the minimum capacitance rate, the effectiveness can always
be expressed in terms of the temperatures only. The working equation for the heat exchanger is

Q = ε(m˙ Cp)min (Thi − Tci)

For a counterflow exchanger, the effectiveness is given by

ε = 1 – e^(−NTU(1−C∗)/1 − C∗ e−NTU(1−C∗ ) if C∗ ≠1

or ε =NTU/1 + NTU, if C∗ = 1

where NTU is the number of transfer units, defined as NTU = UA (m˙ Cp)min and the dimensionless
capacitance rate is given by C = (m˙ Cp)min/(m˙ Cp)max.

Kays and London (1964) give equations and graphs for effectivenesses for many heat exchanger
types.

The utility of this approach to heat exchanger calculations will be evident when the temperatures
of streams entering exchangers between collectors and storage tanks and between storage tanks
and loads are known.

Example
A heat exchanger is located between a collector and a storage tank. The fluid on the collector side
is an antifreeze, a glycol-water mixture with Cp = 3850 J/kg K. Its flow rate is 1.25 kg/s. The fluid
on the tank side is water, and its flow rate is 0.864 kg/s. The UA of the heat exchanger is estimated
to be 6500 W/K. If the hot glycol from the collector enters the exchanger at 62◦C and the cool
water from the tank enters at 35◦C, what is the heat exchange rate and what are the outlet
temperatures?
[ 99 ]
Solution

First calculate the capacitance rates on the hot (collector) and cold (tank) sides of the heat
exchanger and C∗

Use the symbols Ch and Cc for the hot- and cold-side capacitance rates:

Ch = 1.25 × 3850 = 4812 W/K

Cc = 0.864 × 4180 = 3610 W/K

The cold-side capacitance rate is the minimum of the two. C ∗ = 3610/4812 = 0.75

NTU = UA/Cmin = 6500/3610 = 1.80

The effectiveness is now calculated:

ε = 1 – e^(−1.8(1−0.75)/1 − 0.75e−1.8(1−0.75) = 0.69

The heat transfer is now calculated:

Q = 0.69 × 3610(62 − 35) = 67,300 W

The temperatures of the fluids leaving the exchanger can also be calculated. The leaving-water
temperature is

Tco = 35 + 67,300/3610= 53.6◦C

and the leaving-glycol temperature is

Tho = 62 − 67,300/4812= 48.0◦C

6.4.5 Installation
For the best performance, always follow the manufacturer's installation recommendations for the
heat exchanger. Be sure to choose a heat-transfer fluid that is compatible with the type of heat
exchanger you will be using. If you want to build your own heat exchanger, be aware that using
different metals in heat exchanger construction may cause corrosion. Also, because dissimilar
metals have different thermal expansion and contraction characteristics, leaks or cracks may
develop. Either of these conditions may reduce the life span of your heat exchanger.

The designer has to fix the operating temperature of the system (flow, return), the power that has
to be transferred through the heat exchanger (linked to the collector area and the performance of
[ 100 ]
the collector itself), the temperature in and out to the heat storage and the fluid that has to be
used in the two loops.

6.4.6 Representation

.
Fig. 6.15: Coil heat exchanger connections

[ 101 ]
Fig. 6.16: Plate heat exchanger connections

[ 102 ]
6.5 PIPE SIZING
Pipes connecting the solar collector field and the heat exchanger and heat storage and the user
are significantly linked to the overall performances of the system.

The scope of the piping system is to remove the thermal power from the solar field and this has to
be done:

 Maximizing efficiency of the system

 Minimizing the cost of installation
 Minimizing operation (energy for circulation pumps)
 Providing long lasting functioning and availability of components

Related to energy savings, several issues have to be considered in pipe sizing:

 Reduce head losses, to reduce electric energy consumption for pumping ant, thus the ratio
between power consumption and thermal production;
 Keep a flow speed that can help to transport air bubbles in the liquid flow, to separate them
in the appropriate air remover appliance;
 Minimize heat losses along pipe surface;

When there is not the danger of freezing, water is used as a heat transfer fluid. To avoid corrosion
to metallic parts of solar collector, piping and appendages, proper corrosion inhibitors have to be
used. In location where there is the possibility of low air temperature and water freezing, a mixture
of water and polypropylene glycol is used. Concentration of glycol in water has to be defined
following the specification of the producer and to ensure the antifreeze protection until a
temperature 10K below the minimum average temperature of the location. Corrosion inhibitors
are generally already included in the antifreeze.

Specific mass flow values can vary from 80-100 (high flow) to 12-15 l/(m2h) (low flow), depending
on the specification of the collector producer. An average value of 30-40 l/(m2h) can be used in
many situations, but with larger solar plants, it is possible to install the absorber plates in series,
reduce the mass flow going across them, to reduce it to 12-20 l/(m2h). This will ensure the proper
heat removal, and significantly reduce cost for installation of piping and pump. Too low flow will
create an increase in the average temperature of the absorption plate and thus the reduction of
the efficiency of the collector. As a preliminary design rule, 15-20 °C of temperature increase from
inlet to outlet of the collector can be considered a good value3.

Copper tubes or inox corrugated pipes are generally used in small application; iron is used in larger
plants. Zinc or galvanized pipes are not suitable, because zinc will dissolve at high temperature and

3
This is not valable for low flow systems, where it is possible to reach 30-35 °C of Dt increase.
[ 103 ]
will react with glycol. It is possible to find preassembled coils of copper or inox pipe, formed by a
couple of pipe for flow and return, the necessary insulation and the wire for the collector probe.
Producers will give information about head losses in the pipes and special parts used to connect
them.

external diameter x
flow
thickness
l/h mm
<240 16 x 1
240-410 18 x 1
410-570 22 x 1
570-880 28 x 1,5
880-1450 35 x 1,5

Fig. 6.17: Preliminary sizing of pipings

Dimensioning pipes it is necessary to ensure to remove air bubbles from the whole circuit: flow
speed lower than 0,4 m/s are not allowed. On the other side, an undue speed is to avoid to prevent
noise (0,7 m/s) and erosion in the collectors pipes (1 m/s).

The table below shows the commercial size of pipes used for hydraulic connections:

[ 104 ]
 EXTERNAL WALL INTERNAL
NOMINAL DIAMETER THIKNESS DIAMETER IDENTIFICATION
API Standard
Standard Wall
XS; XXS
in in mm in mm in mm *
0,07 1,7 0,27 6,8 5L Std.
1/8 " 0,405 10,3 0,1 2,4 0,22 5,5 5L XS
0,09 2,2 0,36 9,2 5L Std.
1/4" 0,54 13,7 0,12 3 0,3 7,7 5L XS
0,09 2,3 0,49 12,5 5L Std.
3/8 " 0,675 17,1 0,13 3,2 0,42 10,7 5L XS
0,11 2,8 0,62 15,8 5L Std.
0,15 3,7 0,55 13,9 5L XS
0,19 4,8 0,46 11,8 5L
1/2" 0,84 21,3 0,29 7,5 0,25 6,4 XXS
0,11 2,9 0,82 20,9 5L Std.
0,15 3,9 0,74 18,8 5L XS
0,22 5,6 0,61 15,5 5L
3/4" 1,05 26,7 0,31 7,8 0,43 11 XXS
0,13 3,4 1,05 26,6 5L Std.
0,18 4,5 0,96 24,3 5L XS
0,25 6,4 0,82 20,7 5L
1" 1,315 33,4 0,36 9,1 0,6 15,2 XXS
0,14 3,6 1,38 35,1 5L Std.
0,19 4,8 1,28 32,5 5L XS
0,25 6,4 1,16 29,5 5L
1¼" 1,66 42,2 0,38 9,7 0,9 22,8 XXS
0,15 3,7 1,61 40,9 5L Std.
0,2 5,1 1,5 38,1 5L XS
0,28 7,1 1,34 34 5L
1½" 1,9 48,3 0,4 10,2 1,1 27,9 XXS
0,15 3,9 2,07 52,5 5L Std.
0,22 5,5 1,94 49,3 5L XS
0,34 8,7 1,69 42,8 5L
2" 2,375 60,3 0,44 11,1 1,5 38,2 XXS
0,2 5,2 2,47 62,7 5L Std.
0,28 7 2,32 59 5L XS
0,38 9,5 2,13 54 5L
2½" 2,875 73 0,55 14 1,77 45 XXS
0,13 3,2 3,25 82,6 5L
0,16 4 3,19 81 5L
0,19 4,8 3,12 79,3 5L
0,22 5,5 3,07 77,9 5L Std
0,25 6,4 3 76,2 5L
0,28 7,1 2,94 74,6 5L
0,3 7,6 2,9 73,7 5L XS
0,44 11,1 2,62 66,6 5L
3" 3,5 88,9 0,6 15,2 2,3 58,4 XXS

Table 6.8: Nominal, external, internal size of pipings

EXAMPLE
For mass flow calculation it is possible to define:
[ 105 ]
 𝑃𝑢 = 𝑚̇𝑐𝑝 Δ𝑇

And obtain:

̇ 𝑃𝑢
𝑚̇ =
𝑐𝑝 Δ𝑇

Where:

Pu = specific useful power. Solar power arriving on the tilted surface of solar collectors,
multiplied by the solar collector efficiency; [W/m2]

m=
̇ mass flow of solar heat transport fluid; [kg/h]

cg = specific heat of the solar fluid [Wh/kg °C]. When using antifreeze mixtures, this value is
lower than the value related to pure water.

ΔT = temperature difference between inlet and outlet of the collector; [°C]

ρ = density of the solar fluid; [kg/l]

It is possible to assume a cg value of 1,03 Wh/kg °C and a ΔT = 15°C; with the maximum solar
radiation available at 1000 W/m2 and a good solar collector, with efficiency of 0,65, we’ll have:

𝑃𝑢 = 1000 * 0,65 = 650 [W/m2]

𝑐𝑔 = 1,03 [Wh/kg °C]

Δ𝑇 = 15 [°C]

𝜌 = 1 [kg/l]

And 𝑚̇ = [650 / (1,03 x 10)] x 1= 42 kg/m2h

In the case of a solar plant made with 10 m2 of solar collector, the overall mass flow will be 420
liters. Based on the table, the dimension of pipe will be 22 mm in diameter.

It is possible to calculate the flow speed with different diameters op pipes, to check the proper
value. To perform more detailed calculations, it is necessary to use the internal diameter (nominal,
or “useful” diameter), that can be derived from the related standards or from the producer data
sheet.

[ 106 ]
In this case we can see that with the pipe with external diameter 22mm, that in reality corresponds
to 21,3mm, the internal diameter is 15,8 mm; this brings to flow speed of 0,59 m/s. External
diameters of 18 or 26 mm, will cause flow speed of 0,95 and 0,34 respectively.

Water speed test Water speed test Water speed test

mm 12,5 mm 15,8 mm 20,9
D D D
m 0,0125 m 0,0158 m 0,0209
A m2 0,000123 A m2 0,000196 A m2 0,000343
m3/s 0,000117 m3/s 0,000117 m3/s 0,000117
V V V
l/h 420 l/h 420 l/h 420
v m/s 0,951 v m/s 0,595 v m/s 0,340

Table 6.9: Water speed for different pipe size

The sizing of the components of an hydraulic system often requires some iteration to find the
optimal solution. In fact it is necessary to check also the head losses of the whole systems (pipes,
fittings and appendages, heat exchangers, collectors, …) and sizing the pump.

6.6 PUMP SIZE

The pump must ensure to operate the designed mass flow, to remove the heat from the solar
collector, given the losses that the flow can encounter along the hydraulic system. Two parameters
have to be under control:

 Mass flow
 Head

To properly size the pump, it is necessary to calculate the total head losses in the hydraulic circuit.
The total value is the sum of the head losses in the different components and along pipings.

p tot= p coll + ppipe sol + phx

p coll depends on construction parameters of the collector itself, the design flow rates for solar
collectors are listed on the collectors’ spec sheets and the installation guide. In small plants it is
possible to simply multiply the flow rate of the single collector by the number of collectors that
are used to get the flow rate for the entire solar array.

[ 107 ]
Fig. 6.18: Head losses for a 2 sqm collector
[Link]/uploads/files/ProductAttachment/850001008_0_MANUALE_TECNICO_KF25A.pdf

Fig. 6.19: Head losses for a 8 sqm collector (Greenonetech)

If collectors are connected in parallel, the head losses are equal of that of single collector, if
collectors are in series, the head losses are equal to the single collector head losses multiplied by
the number of collectors.

ppipe sol are formed by the distributed (p distr) and the concentrated (p conc) head losses.

[ 108 ]
Dp pipe are given by the producer of the pipe, varying the mass flow, the pipe material and for
different fluid temperature.

Fig. 6.20: Head losses in copper pipes

[ 109 ]
Fig. 6.21: Pressure drop for water in iron pipe
([Link]

Be aware that glycol systems will typically add about 20% pressure drop to your calculations. This
should be accounted for when sizing the pump for glycol systems. Additionally, the pumps for
drainback systems must be large enough to overcome the head loss necessary for pushing water
from the drainback tank to the top of the collector array as well as its typical circulation duties.

It is important to consider that the fluid used can be a mixture of water and glycol. Correction
factors have to be used:

[ 110 ]
Fig. 6.22: Correction factors for glycol mixtures

p conc are linked to variation in size of pipes, valves, helbows, connections, manifolds, …and are
listed in tables of the producers of the components.

Fig. 6.23: Concentrated pressure drop

([Link]/tabelle/p_carico_concentrato.htm

In simple circuits, it is common to estimate this losses as p conc = 1/3 Dp pipe.

Once flow rate and pressure losses are known, for sizing the pump, find the point on the pump
chart where pressure drop and flow rate cross (if the pump curve is very close to the intersection
point, you may want to move up the next higher model if possible).

[ 111 ]
Fig. 6.24: Hydraulic performance of pump

Fig. 6.25: Circuit vs. pump

It is possible to couple the characteristic curve of head losses of the circuit and the characteristic
of the pump, to evaluate the right model and producer, and the speed at wich the pump will have
to work (in variable speed pumps…).

EXAMPLE

For a small house a 4 m2 solar collector system has to be built, for DHW preparation.
[ 112 ]
The solar collector used is CITRIN SOLAR CS 100F, flat plate collector. The aperture area is 1,9 m 2
for a single collector. Two collectors will be used, for a total surface of 3,8 m 2. The two collectors
will be installed in parallel.

The fact sheet reports a nominal flow rate, used for the performance test EN 12975 (data from
[Link]), of 240 l/h; at this flow rate, the pressure drop of the collector is 2145Pa (0,21 m
water head; 0,021 bar).

Solar collectors are installed on the roof of a two floors house, and they are quite vertical on the
technical room where the heat storage is located. Pipe length is estimated 20 m (10 m flow, 10 m
return).

Copper pre-insulated pipings will be used. To keep fluid speed approximately between 0,6 – 0,8
m/s, a diameter of 12 mm (internal or useful diameter) has to be used. From the producer table,
a head loss of 45 mm/m is expected.

A heat storage with internal heat exchanger is used, with e.g. 3 mbar (0,03 m water column) head
losses.

The head losses calculation is:

Dp pipe = 20 [m] x 45 [mm/m] = 900 mm ( 0,9 m) head losses in piping

In the simple circuit, it is possible to estimate p conc = 1/3 Dp pipe = 300 mm

The total losses are: 0,21 (collector) + 0,9 (piping) + 0,03 (heat exchanger) + 0,3 (concentrated) =
1,44 m head losses at the given mass flow.

From the producer of the pump it is possible to obtain some informations about the characteristics
of the pump: the figure shows the performance of a solar pump from Wilo. A pump with
performances similar to WILO Yonos Pico STG e.g. 15/1-7,5, can be used in the system under
investigation.

[ 113 ]
Fig. 6.26: Working point

6.7 EXPANSION VESSEL

The expansion vessel has to perform 2 duties:

Contain the increase in volume due to the increase in temperature of the solar fluid;

Contain the volume of solar fluid that can became steam, during stagnation phase

[ 114 ]
Different Countries have different norms to fix the proper evaluation of the expansion vessel
volume (and sometimes, norms varies along time…), but all are based on the physical phaenomena
described above. The effective volume of the expansion vessel is calculated by:

𝑉𝑈 = 𝑉𝑁 × (𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑜 − 𝑝𝑖 ) / (𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑜 + 1)

Where:

VN = Nominal volume of the expansion vessel [l];

𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑜 = max operating pressure. This pressure is a relative value, compared to the
atmospheric pressure and it is mandatory not to go over that value. [bar];

𝑝𝑖 = initial pressure of the solar loop. It is the pressure measured at the level of the expansion
vessel, with the system non in operation, the solar fluid cool. Relative pressure. [bar];

The expression (𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑜 – 𝑝𝑖 ) / (𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑜 + 1) is named “pressure factor” and represents the real
volume of the expansion vessel, that is available for volume expansion of the solar fluid.

𝑝𝑖,𝑣 = initial pressure of the expansion vessel. Relative pressure. 𝑝𝑖,𝑣 must be slightly lower
than 𝑝𝑖 , to leave the fluid enter into the vessel. [bar].

In the highest part of the piping and collectors systems it is necessary to keep at least 0,5 bar, to
avoid steam production due to low pressure.

It has to be kept in mind that the expansion vessel is often installed in cellars or underground
technical spaces, so that it is necessary to add the static pressure of the water column of the circuit:

𝑝𝑖 = 0,5 + 𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 ;

where:

𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = ℎ𝑠𝑦𝑠 [m] × 0,1 bar/m;

The maximum operating pressure must be 0,3 bar lower than the operating pressure (opening
pressure) of the security valve.

(𝑝max 𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 max 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑒)

𝑆𝑉

E.g.: if the security valve opening pressure is set at 4 bar, the maximum operating pressure of the
solar system will be 𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑜 (max operating pressure) = 𝑝max 𝑜 - 0,3 = 3,7 bar.
𝑆𝑉

[ 115 ]
 Sizing the expansion vessel for solar thermal systems
Pi= 2 bar Initial pressure (diff pressure than the environment) in the solar circuit which must be reached during the filling of the
cold circuit. It depends on height difference between the highest point of the solar circuit and the expansion vessel.
Eg 10m -> 1 bar. Recommended value (with 0,5 bar supp Safety) pi = 2 bar up to 15m height difference
Pf= 5 bar Final pressure is the press. theoretical (diff. compared to the pressure of the environment) which has never to be
exceeded. It is calculated on to the pressure of the sealed components. It should not exceed 5,5bar.
Recommended Pf = 5 bar
Pve= 1,5 bar Precharge pressure of expansion vessel c.a 0.3-0.5 bar below the initial pressure, so that the membrane is pre-
bent. Pve recommended value = 1.5 bar
Pvs= 6 bar Opening pressure of the safety valve at least + 0,5 bar above the final pressure
Recommended Pvs = 6bar
Df= 0,50 OK pressure factor must not be> 0.5
Vc= 1,2 litri Liquid content single collector
Qc= 75 Number of collectors
Vctot= 90 litri Total content of liquid

Vt= 20 litri Liquid content of piping

Vscamb= 5 litri Liquid content of heat exchanger
Valtro= 10 litri Liquid content of other equipments
Vfl= 125 litri Total content of liquid
V= 8,75 Expansion of liquid (e x Vfl)
e= 0,07 coefficient of expansion e=0,045 (water); e=0,07 (water and glycol)
Vu= 108,625 litri Useful vaolume expansion vessel with 10% security coefficient
Vn= 217,25 litri Nominal volume calculated

[ 116 ]
7. EXAMPLES
7.1 DESIGN OF A SWH SYSTEM FOR A SMALL FAMILY HOUSE
In a single family house it is requested to install a solar system for DHW, coupled with a biomass
boiler.

 The house is located in TIRANA;

 The useful area of the house is: 100 m2;
 The number of people living in the house is: 4;
 The need for DHW is: 4.657 kWh/y;
 The need for space heating is: 10.865 kWh/y.

Monthly energy needs

3,000
Total energy needs kWh
2,500
E heating consumption
2,000 Total energy needs DHW (no efficiency losses)

1,500

1,000

500

Fig. 7.1: Monthly energy NEED for DHW and Heating for a single family house in Tirana

Specifications of the system are as follows:

 The installed solar surface is: 5 m2;

 The nominal power of the system is: 4000W;
 The mass flow is: 229 kg/h;
 Using Copper pipes (16-14 mm), @ 0,5 m/s, specific pressure drops are: 30mm water
column /m;
 Total lenght og piping (Flow/return) is: 40m;
 Pipe head loss is: 1,2 m;
 Special parts drop is: 30%;
 Total drop is: 1,7m;
[ 117 ]
  The pipes used are DN: 15 mm;
 Pump used must ensure >230 kg/h; 1,7 m head;
 The expansion vessel volume (solar circuit) is: 25 l;
 The volume of the tank is: 800l (this volume is also for biomass boiler). The system uses
instantaneous domestic hot water production;
 The back-up system is: biomass boiler;
 The solar system production is: 2.780 kWh/y;
 The solar factor is: 18% (on year base); 78% in the best solar month (July).

3,000 0.90

0.80
2,500
0.70

2,000 0.60

0.50
1,500
0.40

1,000 0.30

0.20
500
0.10

- 0.00

fL (E useful, solar) kWh Monthly load E aux f

Fig. 7.2: Monthly energy SUPPLY for DHW and Heating for a single family house in Tirana

[ 118 ]
Fig. 7.3: Principal drawing for DHW and Heating for a single family house in Tirana
119
7.2 DESIGN OF A SWH SYSTEM FOR A MULTY FAMILY HOUSE, IN COMBINATION WITH THE FLOOR HEATING SYSTEM
In a multi-family house it is requested to install a solar system for DHW, coupled with space
heating, using radiant floor.

 The house is located in TIRANA;

 The useful area of the house is: 4 apartements of 80m2 each, total 320 m2;
 The number of people living in the house is: 16 in total;
 The need for DHW is: 18.600 kWh/y;
 The need for space heating is: 22.000 kWh/y.

Monthly energy needs

8,000
7,000 Total energy needs kWh
E heating consumption
6,000
Total energy needs DHW (no efficiency losses)
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0

Fig. 7.4: Monthly energy NEED for DHW and Heating for a multi-family house in Tirana

Specifications of the system are as follows:

 The installed solar surface is: 15 m2;

 The nominal power of the system is: 12.000 W;
 The mass flow is: 680 kg/h;
 Using Copper pipes (22-20 mm), @ 0,5 m/s, specific pressure drops are: 25mm water
column /meter;
 Total lenght og piping (Flow/return) is: 50m;
 Pipe head loss is: 1,250 m;
 Special parts drop is: 30%;
 Total drop is: 1,78m;
 The pipes used are DN: 25 mm;
120
  Pump used must ensure >680 kg/h; 1,8 m head;
 The expansion vessel volume (solar circuit) is: 50 l;
 The volume of the tank is: 1300l. The system uses instantaneous domestic hot water
production;
 The back-up system is: gas boiler;
 The solar system production is: 8.700 kWh/y;
 The solar factor is: 20% (on year base); 62% in the best solar month (July).

8,000 0.70

7,000 0.60

6,000
0.50

5,000
0.40
4,000
0.30
3,000

0.20
2,000

1,000 0.10

- 0.00

fL (E useful, solar) kWh Monthly load E aux f

Fig. 7.5: Monthly energy SUPPLY for DHW and Heating for a Multi-family house in Tirana

121
Fig. 7.6: Principal drawing for DHW and Heating for a single family house in Tirana

122
7.3 DESIGN OF A SWH SYSTEM FOR A SMALL HOTEL ONLY DHW
In a small hotel it is requested to install a solar system for DHW.

 The hotel is located in TIRANA;

 The number of people in hotel rooms is: 12 in total;
 The need for DHW is: 13.900 kWh/y.

Monthly energy needs [kWh]

Total energy needs kWh E heating consumption Total energy needs DHW (no efficiency losses)
1,400
1,200

1,000
800

600

400
200
0

Fig. 7.7: Monthly energy NEED for DHW of a small Hotel

Specifications of the system are as follows:

 The installed solar surface is: 12 m2;

 The nominal power of the system is: 9.600 W;
 The mass flow is: 551 kg/h;
 Using INOX pipes (22-20 mm), @ 0,5 m/s, specific pressure drops are: 18mm water column
/meter;
 Total lenght og piping (Flow/return) is: 10m;
 Pipe head loss is: 0,54m;
 Special parts drop is: 30%;
 Total drop is: 0,77m;
 The pipes used are DN: 25 mm;
 Pump used must ensure >551 kg/h; 0,77 m head;
123
  The expansion vessel volume (solar circuit) is: 25 l;
 The volume of the tank is: 1200l;
 The back-up system is: gas boiler;
 The solar system production is: 6.800 kWh/y;
 The solar factor is: 49% (on year base); 66% in the best solar month (July);

1,400 0.70

1,200 0.60

1,000 0.50

800 0.40

600 0.30

400 0.20

200 0.10

- 0.00

fL (E useful, solar) kWh Monthly load E aux f

Fig. 7.8: Monthly energy SUPPLY for DHW of a small Hotel

124
Fig. 7.9: Principal drawing for DHW of a small Hotel

125
7.4 DESIGN OF A SWH SYSTEM FOR A BIG HOTEL, IN COMBINATION WITH THE HEATING SYSTEM

In a big hotel it is requested to install a solar system for DHW. The system is also used for space
heating.

 The hotel is located in TIRANA;

 The number of people in hotel rooms is: 120 in total;
 The need for DHW is: 139.700 kWh/y.

Monthly energy needs [kWh]

Total energy needs kWh E heating consumption Total energy needs DHW (no efficiency losses)
60,000

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

Fig. 7.10: Monthly energy NEED for DHW and Heating of a big Hotel

Specifications of the system are as follows:

 The installed solar surface is: 140 m2 (120 m2 net area);

 The nominal power of the system is: 96.000 W;
 The mass flow is: 2.00 kg/h (Dt= 40°C);
 Using INOX pipes (DN 32 mm), for each row of collector, @ 0,7 m/s, specific pressure drops
are: 30mm water column /meter;
 Total lenght og piping (Flow/return) is: 120m;
 Pipe head loss is: 3,6 m;
 Special parts drop is: 35%: 1,2m;
 Collector drop is: 8m;
126
  Total drop is: 13,3m;
 The pipes used are DN: 32 mm;
 Pump used must ensure >2.000 kg/h; 14 m head;
 The expansion vessel volume (solar circuit) is: 200 l;
 The volume of the tank is: 8200l;
 The back-up system is: gas boiler;
 The solar system production is: 69.000 kWh/y;
 The solar factor is: 26% (on year base); 66% in the best solar month (July).

60,000 0.50

0.45
50,000
0.40

0.35
40,000
0.30

30,000 0.25

0.20
20,000
0.15

0.10
10,000
0.05

- 0.00

fL (E useful, solar) kWh Monthly load E aux f

Fig. 7.11: Monthly energy SUPPLY for DHW and Heating of a big Hotel

127
Fig. 7.12: Principal drawing for DHW and heating of a big tel

128
7.5 DESIGN OF A SWH SYSTEM FOR A FIVE STAR HOTEL, IN COMBINATION WITH THE HEATING SYSTEM AND SPA
In a five star hotel it is requested to install a solar system for DHW. The system is also used for
space heating and heat request of the SPA.

 The hotel is located in TIRANA;

 The number of people in hotel rooms is: 80 in total (60 l/d per person, considering the SPA);
 The need for DHW & SPA is: 111.000 kWh/y;
 The need for space heating is: 170.000 kWh/y;

Monthly energy needs [kWh]

Total energy needs kWh E heating consumption Total energy needs DHW (no efficiency losses)
60,000

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

Fig. 7.13: Monthly energy NEED for DHW, Heating and SPA of a five star Hotel

Specifications of the system are as follows:

 The installed solar surface is: 85 m2 (75 m2 net area);

 The nominal power of the system is: 59.300 W;
 The mass flow is: 1.800 kg/h (Dt= 28°C);
 Using INOX pipes (DN 25 mm), @ 0,8 m/s, specific pressure drops are: 45mm water column
/meter;
 Total lenght og piping (Flow/return) is: 90m;
 Pipe head loss is: 4 m;
129
  Special parts drop is: 35%: 1,5 m;
 Collector drop is: 400mm (n. 6 collectors, in which a common manifold realize a parallel
circulation flow. In each collector the flow is 300kg/h);
 Total drop is: 6m;
 The pipes used are DN: 25 mm;
 Pump used must ensure >1.800 kg/h; 6 m head;
 The expansion vessel volume (solar circuit) is: 220 l;
 The volume of the tank is: 4000l (high stratification tank, used also for biomass boiler heat
storage). Another 10 mc tank is used as a secondary storage, coupled with a heat pump;
 The back-up system is: n. 2 biomass boiler (wood logs and pellet);
 The solar system production is: 44.000 kWh/y;
 The solar factor is: 16% (on year base); 53% in the best solar month (July).

60,000 0.50

0.45
50,000
0.40

0.35
40,000
0.30

30,000 0.25

0.20
20,000
0.15

0.10
10,000
0.05

- 0.00

fL (E useful, solar) kWh Monthly load E aux f

Fig. 7.14: Monthly energy SUPPLY for DHW, Heating and SPA of a five star Hotel

130
Fig. 7.15: Principal drawing for DHW, Heating and SPA of a five star Hotel

131
7.6 DESIGN OF A SWH SYSTEM FOR A SWH SYSTEM FOR A SWIMMING POOL
In a swimming pool it is requested to install a solar system for DHW.

 The swimming pool is located in TIRANA.

 The number of people using the swimming pool /day is: 60 in total (30 l/d per person).
 The need for DHW is: 55.800 kWh/y
 The need for space heating is: not considered

Monthly energy needs [kWh]

Total energy needs kWh E heating consumption Total energy needs DHW (no efficiency losses)
45,000
40,000
35,000
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0

Fig. 7.16: Monthly energy NEED for a swiming pool in Tirana

Specifications of the system are as follows:

 The installed solar surface is: 85 m2 (75 m2 net area);

 The nominal power of the system is: 59.300 W;
 The mass flow is: 5.100 kg/h (Dt= 10°C);
 Using INOX pipes (DN 50 mm), , @ 0,8 m/s, specific pressure drops are: 15mm water
column /meter;
 Total lenght og piping (Flow/return) is: 30m;

132
  Pipe head loss is: 0,5 m;
 Special parts drop is: 35%: 0,15 m;
 Collector drop is: 500mm (the total flow – 5.100 kg/h – is divided into 4 rows, made by 18
m2 in parallel. Each collector is irrigated by 68 kg/h);
 Total drop is: 0,6m;
 The pipes used are DN: 50 mm;
 Pump used must ensure >5.100 kg/h; 0,6m head;
 The expansion vessel volume (solar circuit) is: 200 l;
 The volume of the tank is: 3000l (it can be used in series or in parallel with the other tanks);
 The back-up system is: n. 3 gas boilers;
 The solar system production is: 40.000 kWh/y;
 The solar factor is: 18% (on year base); 91% in the best solar month (July).

45,000 1.00

40,000 0.90

0.80
35,000
0.70
30,000
0.60
25,000
0.50
20,000
0.40
15,000
0.30
10,000
0.20

5,000 0.10

- 0.00

fL (E useful, solar) kWh Monthly load E aux f

Fig. 7.17: Monthly energy SUPPLY for a swiming pool in Tirana

133
Fig. 7.18: Principal drawing for a SWH system for a swiming pool

134
7.7 DESIGN OF A SWH SYSTEM FOR A SWH SYSTEM FOR A DAIRY INDUSTRY
In a dairy industry it is requested to install a solar system for process porposes.

(from Quijera, Ariols, Labidi; Integration of a solar thermal system in a dairy process; Renewable
Energy 36 (2011) 1843-1853). The industry is located in Spain, solar irradiation can be compared
to that in ALBANIA. The solar irradiation is >1500 kWh and the comparison beween irradiation and
heat demand from the process is:

Fig. 7.19: Daily overlap between times od Heat demand and solar irradiance

Specifications of the system are as follows:

 The need for process heat is: 1.584 MWh/y;

 The need for space heating is: not considered;
 Some heat recovery can be implemented in the process, to save 680 kWh/y;
 The solar collectors used are: vacuum collectors;
 The installed solar surface is: 2700 m2 (1939 m2 net area); n. 1080 collectors;
 The nominal power of the system is: 1.500 kW;
 The mass flow is: 38.000 kg/h (Δt= 35°C);

135
 Using INOX pipes (DN 100 mm) for main piping , @ 1,4 m/s, specific pressure drops are:
12mm water column /meter;
 Total lenght og piping (Flow/return) is: 600m;
 Pipe head loss is: 7,2 m;
 Special parts drop is: 35%: 2,5 m (in big plants it is necessary to calculate it specifically);
 Collector drop is: 500mm (the total flow – 38.000 kg/h – is divided into 14 rows, made by
192 m2 in parallel. Each collector is irrigated by 14 kg/h);
 Total drop is: 12m;
 The pipes used are DN: 100 mm;
 Pump used must ensure >38.000 kg/h; 12m head;
 The expansion vessel volume (solar circuit) is: 2500 l;
 The volume of the tank is: 3000l a small tank can be used, because solar heat production is
coupled with heat demand;
 The back-up system is: gas boilers;
 The solar system production is: 1350 MWh/y;
 The solar factor is: 100% (on year base); 91% in the best solar month some excess heat can
be used for other pourposes (e.g. feeding an absorbtion chiller).

136
Fig. 7.20: Share of solar contribution for for a dairy industry

Fig. 7.21: Principal drawing for a SWH system for a dairy industry

137
BIBLIOGRAPHY

[Link]. SPF Info-CD, 2002, Termische Sonnenenergie, Institut fur Solartechnik SPF, Rapperswill,
CH.

Alberti D. & Mazzon A., 1996. Legge 10/91. Guida al calcolo, Flaccovio Editore, Palermo.

Ambienteitalia, 2000. Manuale per l’autocostruzione dei collettori solari – Raccoglitore Agrisol:
dispense dei corsi, in [Link]/AMBIENTEITALIA

Anderson B., 1980. Energia solare. Manuale di progettazione. F. Muzzio & C., Padova.

ASTM, E904-87, 2001. Standard practice for generating All-Day thermal peformance Data for solar
collections.

ASHRAE, 1988. Active solar heating systems design manual. Cap. 3 Intrumentation and control
subsystem design; Cap. 5 Lesson Learned.

Boland J., Dik M., 2001. “The level of complexity needed for wheather data in models of solar
system performance”, in Solar Energy, vol. 71, n. 3.

Bradley R., 2003. Why renewable energy is not cheap and not green. Solar: the smaller, the better.
National centre for policy analisys, [Link]/[Link]

Brock F.V. & Richardson S. J., 2001. Meteorological measurement Systems. Oxford University
Press.

Cimmieri S. & Lazzarin L.,1983. La progettazione degli impianti solari. Sistemi solari attivi 3. F.
Muzzio & C., Padova.

Coniglio M., 1981 Applicazioni pratiche della energia solare con collettori piani. Thermograph,
Varese.

Coulson K. L., 1975. Solar and Terrestrial Radiation, Academic Press, New York.

Cucumo M.A., Marinelli V. & Oliveti G., 1994. Ingegneria solare. Principi e applicazioni. Pitagora
Editrice, Bologna.

Duffie J. A. & Beckman W. A., 1991. Solar engineering of thermal processes. Wiley Interscience,
2nd ed., U.S.A.

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Fracastoro G. V. & Lyberg M. D., 1983. Guiding Principles Concerning Design of Experiments,
Instrumentation, and Measuring Techniques. IEA, Swedish Council for Building Research,
Stockolm, Sweden.

Fracastoro M.G., 1945. Misure di energia raggiante. Società Editrice Universitaria, Firenze.

ISO, 1990. Solar energy. Specification and classification of instruments for measuring
hemispherical solar and direct solar radiation – Norma ISO 9060, Genève, CH.

Joffre A.& Roditi D., 1994. Garanzia di risultati per Impianti Solari Termici ad Uso Collettivo.
Commissione Europea, DG XVII, versione italiana prodotta da Regione Lombardia, Milano.

Kreider J & Kreith F., 1981. Solar Energy handbook. Mc Graw-Hill, USA

Lazzarin R., 1993. L’energia Solare e la produzione del freddo, PEG, Milano.

Lazzarin R.,1981. Sistemi solari attivi. Manuale di calcolo. F. Muzzio & C., Padova.

McCartney K., 1980. I pannelli solari, montaggio ed installazione. Longanesi & C. Milano.

Perlin J., 2000. Dal Sole. L’energia solare dalla ricerca spaziale agli usi sulla Terra. Ed. Ambiente.

Petrarca S. , Spinelli F., Cogliani E. & Mancini M., 1997. Profilo climatico dell’Italia, Vol.1 Valle
d’Aosta, Piemonte, Liguria - ENEA.

Petrarca S., Cogliani E. & Spinelli F., 2000. La radiazione solare globale al suolo in Italia. Valori medi
mensili stimati sulle immagini del satellite Meteosat. Anni 1998-1999 e media 1994 –1999. ENEA,
Dip. Energia, Roma.

Righini G & Nebbia G., 1966. L’energia solare e le sue applicazioni, Feltrinelli, Milano.

Sayigh A., 1979. Solar Energy Application in Buildings. Academic Press, New York, U.S.A.

Schulz M.E. et al. , 2000. Guest editorial in “Large scale solar heating” (Special issue), Solar Energy
Vol. 69, n. 6, pag. 423.

Silvestrini V. 1980. Uso dell’energia solare. Editori Riuniti, Roma.

Streicher., 2000. Solar Combisystems, Institute of thermal engineering, Gratz University of

tecnology.

Systèmes Solaires, 1999. Numero speciale Chauffe-eau solare: le grand retour. N. 133.

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The European Solar Radiation Atlas, 2000. Vol.1: Fundamentals and maps e Vol.2: Database and
exploitation software, con CD, pubblicato dall’Ecole des Mines de Paris.

UNI 8477, 1983. Energia solare. Calcolo degli apporti per applicazioni in edilizia. Valutazione
dell’energia raggiante ricevuta.

UNI EN 12975, 2002. Impianti termici solari e loro componenti. Collettori solari. Requisiti generali.

UNI EN 15316, 2008. Heating systems in buildings. Method for calculation of system energy
requirements and system efficiencies.

UNI TS 11300 4, 2011. “Prestazioni energetiche degli edifici. Utilizzo di energie rinnovabili e di altri
metodi di generazione per riscaldamento di ambienti e preparazione acqua calda sanitaria”.

Weiss W., 2000. Solar combisystems. “Thinking big for a sustainable energy future”, in Renewable
Energy World, n. 2, marzo-aprile.

140
APPENDIX – I / SOLAR STANDARDS: UNI 11300-4, UNI EN 15316-4-3 AND THE F-CHART
METHOD
The calculation procedure is based on the F-Chart method and it comprises following steps:

1) Energy requirement applied to the solar thermal and calculation of PH and PW; ratio;
2) Calculation of the dimensionless factor X;
3) Calculation of the factor dimensionless Y;
4) Calculation of solar energy produced monthly for space heating and / or sanitary hot
water;
5) Calculation of the energy requirement of the auxiliary;
6) Calculation of thermal losses;
7) Calculation of recoverable losses.

Energy requirement applied to the solar thermal system

The requirement applied to the solar system is that of heating distribution networks and / or hot
water. In the only case of installations of solar preheating the applied requirement is that in the
solar heat storage output, corresponding with the needs in the heat storage input.

In case of combined system it is to be calculated:

PH ratio between requirements due to space heating and the total energy requirement:

PH = QH,gn,out / (QH,gn,out+ QW,gn,out) [-]

PW relationship between the demand for hot water and the total requirements:

PW = QW,gn,out / (QH,gn,out+ QW,gn,out) [-]

In case of system for space heating only:

PH = 1

PW = 0

In case of system for hot water production only:

PH = 0

PW = 1

Energy produced by the solar thermal

141
The calculation of monthly production of solar energy Qsol,out is carried out in the following three
cases:

Domestic hot water production (DHW)

In this case the thermal energy produced by the solar system, QW,sol,out is calculated with the method
described using the only energy requirement for DHW and the plant characteristics (surface of
collectors, heat storage capacity, etc.).

To calculate the average needs for hot water it is possible to use the data provided by UNI
9182:2014 (which is linked to European standards EN 806-1; 806-2; 806-3; 806-4; 806-5).

Daily average hot water requirements

HOT WATER USE PER PERSON

Users l/person-day
Residential homes
- popular type From 40 to 50
- average type From 70 to 80
- luxury type From 150 to 200
Hotels and guesthouses
- rooms with bathrooms with bathtub From 180 to 200
- rooms with bathrooms with shower 130
- rooms with a sink and bidet 60
Offices From 15 to 200
Hospital and clinics From 130 to 150
Sport centers From 50 to 60
Dressing rooms of factories From 30 to 50

The values specified for residential homes must be multiplied by the correction factors given below
to take account of the number of housing, the size of each room and the living standards of users.

142
Space heating (SH)

In this case the energy produced by the solar heating, QH,sol,out,, is calculated by the following method
using the only requirement for space heating and the installation (collector surface area, heat
storage capacity, etc.);

Combined production of domestic hot water and space heating

In this case the solar energy produced, is calculated using the method described by summing the
energy requirements for space heating, QH,sol,out,, and that for DHW , QW,sol,out :

Qtot,sol,out = QW,sol,out + QH,sol,out [kWh

where:

QW,sol,out is the energy produced by the solar subsystem for hot water [kWh];

QH,sol,out is the energy produced by the solar subsystem for space heating [kWh].

Subdivision of collector surface

In case of DHW / SH combined system the opening surface of collectors is divided into:

- A part related to SH, proportional to PH value;

- A part, related to DHW, proportional to PW value

For the calculation of the factors X, Y and fst collector area must be multiplied by PH value to
calculate the energy produced for space heating and for PW value to calculate the energy produced
for DHW.

Subdivision of storage volume

In case of the combined system with single heat storage system:

- The volume of the storage used for the energy calculation produced for SH is equal to the total
capacity multiplied by PH;

- The volume of the storage used for the calculation of the energy produced for production of
DHW is equal to the total capacity multiplied by PW.
143
In the presence of two distinct storages, one for the DHW production and the other for SH
integration, the corresponding calculation is carried out according to the respective capacities of
storages.

Calculation of solar energy production

Solar energy produced is calculated on a monthly basis using the following equation:

Qsol,out,mese = ( aY + bX + cY² + dX² + eY3 + fX3 ) × Qgn,out,mese [kWh]

where:

Qgn,out,month is the monthly requirement applies to the system of solar heating [kWh]

a, b, c, d, e, f are correlation coefficients that depend on the characteristics of the storage

tank. The coefficients are differentiated according to whether the solar generation
subsystem is connected to the storage tank or directly to the heating system. [-]

X, Y are dimensionless factors.

Correlation Type of system

coefficients System connected to heat storage Direct system (underfloor
a 1,029 heating)
0,863
b -0,065 -0,147
c -0,245 -0,263
d 0,0018 0,008
e 0,0215 0,029
f 0 0;025

The energy produced from the solar heating can not be negative. In this case the production of
energy is set equal to 0.

If the production of solar energy is greater than the demand it is considered equal to the needs.

144
Determination of X factor

The non-dimensional X-factor value is determined, respectively, for SH and DHW, with the
following relationships:

3
XH = A × Uloop× ηloop× ΔΤ× fst× tm /(QH,gn,out,month × 10 )

Where 0 ≤ XH ≤ 18

Where
XW = A × U0loop 18 × ΔΤ× fst× tm /(Qw,gn,out,month × 103)
≤ X×Wη≤loop

Qw, gn, out, month is the monthly requirement applied to the solar heat, respectively, referring to
domestic hot water and heating [kWh];

A is the area of solar collector opening (net captation area) [m²];

Uloop is the coefficient of collector circuit energy loss, including the collector and
pipes, [W / (m² K)];

ηloop is the performance of the circuit comprising collectors, pump, pipes and heat
exchanger. When this is not provided by the manufacturer it assumes ηloop = 0.8.
If the data provided by the manufacturer is known is calculated as follows:

ηoloop = 1 – Δη

Δη = (ηl0 × A × a1 ) / (Ust)hx

where:

ηl0 is the efficiency of the collector in void losses;

A is the collector aperture area [m2];

a1 coefficient of first order of the collector dispersion;

(Ust) hx heat exchange coefficient of the heat exchanger [W / K];

ΔT is the difference of the reference temperature calculated;

fst is the capacity correction coefficient accumulation;

145
 tm is the duration of the calculation period considered equal to the hours of the
month [h].

Calculation of the coefficient Uloop of collector circuit energy loss

The Uloop parameter represents the total loss coefficient of the solar circuit that includes both the
thermal losses of the collector which those due to the connecting pipes. This parameter is defined
as follows:

Uloop = a1 + 40 a2 + Uloop,p / A [W/(m²K)]

where:

a1 is the global loss coefficient of solar collector of the first order (simple)
determined according to the UNI EN 12975-2 [W / m2K].

a2 is the global loss coefficient of solar collector of the second order (quadratic)
determined according to the UNI EN 12975-2 [W / m2K].

Uloop,p is the global coefficient of heat loss in the piping circuit including collectors, piping between
the collectors and the piping between the collectors and the storage system, calculated as:

Uloop,p = 5 + 0.5 [W/(m2× K)]

where:

A is the area of the collector aperture area [m2]

In case of combined solar systems, in previous equations you should enter the same value as Uloop,p
calculated by the area A total of collectors.

Calculation of the difference of reference temperature ΔT

The difference of reference temperature ΔT is calculated with the equation:

ΔT = θref - θe,avg [K]

where:

θref is the reference temperature;

θe,avg is the average temperature of the external environment during the period considered [° C].
146
In case of solar thermal systems for SH is assumed:

θref = 100 ° C

In case of solar thermal systems for DHW:

θref = 11,6 + 1,18 θw + 3,86 θcw – 2,32 θe,avg [°C]

where:

θw is the temperature of hot water equal to 40 ° C;

θcw is the cold water temperature at the entrance in the heat storage[° C].

The average monthly temperature of the cold water is assumed to be 15 ° C except in the particular
cases referred to in the technical specification.

Calculation of the correction coefficient of the heat storage capacity fst

In case of water heat storage, the correction coefficient fst is given by:

fst =(A × Vref/Vsol)0,25 [-]

where:

fst = (A × Vref / Vsol) 0.25 [-] (C.11)

A is the area of the collector opening [m²];

Vref is the reference volume of 75 l / m² of solar collector aperture area [l];

Vsol is the volume of the tank (part heated by the solar system) [t].

The allowed values of fst are those in the range 0,25 ≤ fst≤ 2

In case of solar pre-heating solar systems the ability heat storage coincides with the nominal value
(Vsol = Vnom).

In case in which there is an auxiliary heater the capacity of the heat storage is given by:

Vsol = Vnom × (1 – faux) [l]

where:

147
faux fraction of the heat storage volume used for the auxiliary systems;

Vnom storage nominal capacity [l].

The faux value is given by:

faux = x × Vbu/Vnom

where:

Vbu is the volume heated by the back up system (volume contained between the top of the
tank and the lower thread of the heater (electric resistance or heat exchanger);

x is the assumed control coefficient equal to:

1 if the integration is permanent;

0,7 if the integration takes place only during the night; 0.3 if the integration is emergency only.

a1 a2
Collector type ηo IAM
[W/(m2× K)] [W/(m2× K)]
Vacuum tube collectors with flat absorber 0,90 1,8 0,008 0,97
Vacuum tube collectors with circular 0,90 1,8 0,008 1,00
absorber
Plate glazed collectors 0,78 3,5 0,015 0,94
Unglazed collectors 0,76 15 0 1,00

Calculation of factor Y

The value of Y is given by the following equation:

Y = A × IAM × η0 × ηloop × Im× tm / (Qgn,out,mese× 103) [-]

with the condition: 0 ≤ Y ≤ 3

where:

A surface of the collector [m²];

IAM modifier of the angle of incidence;

148
In the absence of data provided by the manufacturer, default values are provided by standard EN
15316-4-3. The incidence angle modifier depends on the collector type Default values are:

- for flat plate glazed collectors, IAM = 0,94

- for unglazed collectors, IAM = 1,00

- for evacuated tubular collectors with flat absorber, IAM = 0,97;

- for evacuated tubular collectors with circular absorber, IAM = 1,00

η0 is the efficiency of the collector (with zero-losses) related to the collector surface;

In the absence of data provided by the manufacturer, default values are provided in the previous
Table.

ηloop is the efficiency of the circuit comprising collectors, pump or fan, pipes and heat exchanger.
When this is not provided by the manufacturer we assume ηloop = 0.8;

Im is the value of solar irradiance on collector plane over the period [W / m2]. In the absence
of clear indications to the contrary does not consider shading;

tm is the duration in hours of the month [h];

Qgn,out,month is the heat requirement applies to the system of solar heating In case of combined
systems must be distinguished between the portion for heating and domestic hot water for share
[kWh].

Electricity requirements of the auxiliaries

In the natural circulation subsystems you have a null electricity requirements.

The electricity needs of auxiliary solar thermal systems with forced circulation is given by:

Qsol,aux,m = Waux,nom × taux,m /1000 [kWh]

where:

Waux,nom , is the total rating of circulators [W].

In the absence of such data it may be assumed:

149
Waux,nom = 50 + 5A [W].

where: A is the area of the collector opening [m2].

In case of solar systems combined in the previous equation we introduce a single value Waux,nom
calculated with the total area of the collectors.

taux,m ; number of monthly hours of operation of the circulator.

To determine the monthly hours of operation of the electrical auxiliaries, we assume the annual
operating time of the duration of 2000 h. The monthly values of the period of operation of the
auxiliaries, are determined by multiplying the annual operating period for the monthly percentage
solar irradiance of each month.

For the calculation for SDW we have:

taux,W, m = (2 000 × Isol × PW) / ΣIsol

for the calculation of the warming we have:

taux,H, m = (2 000 × Isol × Ng,H,mese × PH) / (ΣIsol × Ng,H)

where:

Ng,H,month is the number of heating days in the month

Ng,H is the number of days in the heating season.

Solar thermal system losses

The total losses are calculated on a monthly basis and are the sum of the losses of the storage
tanks for SDW and for SH and distribution losses between the solar thermal subsystem and the
auxiliary subsystem integration:

Qsol,ls,m= QWol,s,ls,m+ QH,sol,sts,ls,m+ Qbu,dis,ls,m

where:

QWol,s,ls,m are the heat storage losses for DHW;

QH,sol,sts,ls,m are the heat storage losses for SH;

150
Qbu,dis,ls,m are the distribution losses between the solar thermal subsystem and the auxiliary
subsystem integration.

Thermal losses of solar storage tank(s)

The thermal energy losses of the storage tank can be calculated according to the thickness and the
characteristics of the dispersing surface and the difference between the average water
temperature in the tank and the average temperature of the environment in which the storage is
installed .

The attribution of these losses of solar generation subsystem must be performed taking into
account the actual configuration of the storage tanks and of the functions which they are
dedicated, with particular attention to the case where the solar subsystem is part of a multi-
generation system (for exampe solar thermal generator + biomass boiler / gas boiler). In the latter
case it is in fact frequent the adoption of multifunction accumulations that, thanks to the interior
exchangers, can fulfill the same time to a plurality of tasks (for example buffer storage for solar
thermal, buffer storage for biomass generators and / or for gas condensing boilers, hot water
storage in temperature, etc.).

In general, with the adoption of multifunctional heat storages, allocating losses to individuals of
the same generation subsystems constituting the polyvalent system must be performed in
proportion to the energy produced by them useful. Even allocating losses to individual services
(heating or domestic hot water) is performed in proportion to the energies of the individual income
attributable services.

By way of example, the following section some cases.

case 1

In case of single heat storage dedicated to both the inertial function for solar is to back up, only
for the production of domestic hot water, for which the manufacturer has provided the value of
Ust , the share of the monthly loss attributable to the heat storageof solar generation subsystem
is,

QW,sol,st,ls,m = Ust × (θset point – θa,avg) × (QW,sol,out,m / QW,sol,us,m) × tm×10-3 [kWh]

where:

tm are the hours in the month [h];

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θset point is the average temperature in the heat storage of domestic hot water, assumed equal to 60
° C;θa,avg temperature of the air in which the heat storage is installed, in the calculation period [° C].

The share of the monthly loss attributable to the heat storage subsystem backup instead:

QW,bu,st,ls,m = Ust × (θset point –θa,avg) × [(QW,sol,us,m - QW,sol,out,m ) / QW,sol,us,m] × tm×10-3 [kWh]

The total loss of the heat storage is:

QW,st,ls,m = QW,sol,st,ls,m + QW,bu,st,ls,m [kWh]

case 2

In case similar to the case 1, but for plant dedicated only to the heating, the share of the monthly
loss attributable to the heat storageof solar generation subsystem:

QH,sol,st,ls,m = Ust× (θset point – θa,avg) × (QH,sol,out,m / QH,sol,us,m) × tm× 10-3 [kWh]

where: θset point is the average of the temperature of the heating system distribution system [°
C]. The share of the monthly loss attributable to the heat storage subsystem backup instead:

QH,bu,st,ls,m = Ust × (θset point – θa,avg) × [(QH,sol,us,m - QH,sol,out,m) / QH,sol,us,m] × tm× 10-
3 [kWh]

The total loss of the heat storage is:

QH,st,ls,m = QH,sol,st,ls,m + QH,bu,st,ls,m [kWh]

In a completely analogous to the two cases 1 and 2 mentioned above, but in the event that, in
place of Ust, the following data are available:

Ss, the outer surface of the heat storage[m2];

ds, the insulating layer thickness [m];

s, the insulating layer conductivity [W / mK].

Thermal losses of the distribution between the thermal solar system and the back-up heater

Calculation of the thermal losses Qbu,dis,ls,m of the distribution between the thermal solar
system and the back-up heater is given by:
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If the pipes are insulated:

Qbu,dis,ls,m = 0,02 × Q,sol,,out,m [kWh]

If the pipes are not insulated:

Qbu,dis,ls,m = 0,05 × Q,sol,,out,m [kWh]

Total system thermal losses from the thermal solar system

The total system thermal losses from the thermal solar system are calculated, month by month,
by:

Qsol,ls,rbl,mese = Qsol,s,ls,rbl,m + Qsol,,d,,ls,rbl,m + Qsol,aux,rbl,m

where:

Qsol,s,ls,rbl,m are the losses recoverable from the storage tank;

Qsol,d,ls,rbl,m are the losses recoverable from the connection line between the storage tank and
the auxiliary heater;

Qsol,aux,rbl,m is the thermal energy recovered from the control gear;

Recoverable losses and retrieved from the storage tank

In case of solar plant designed to integrate only the production of sanitary hot water, the losses
solar heat storage are considered recoverable during the heating of the activation period, when it
is installed in a heated environment. In this case the losses are considered recoverable retrieved
diverted from the demand for heating Qh,

In case of solar preheating system with solar heat storage distinct compared to the heat
storageembodying the back-up, the losses retrieved from the heat storageintended to Solar are
given by:

QW,sol,st,ls,rvd,m = QW,sol,st,ls,m × (1- bg,W) [kWh]

where:

bg, W = 0 if in a heated environment

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bg, W = 1 if from the outside heated.

In case instead of only one dedicated tank is solar heat storage is to back up, the losses retrieved
from the entire heat storage(so for both the solar altitude for both the portion back up) are given
by:

QW,st,ls,rvd,m= QW,st,ls,m × (1- bg,W) [kWh]

where:

bg, W = 0 if in a heated environment;

bg, W = 1 if from the outside heated.

In case of solar plant for heating, or mixed, it being understood that the losses of the solar heat
storage are considered recoverable during the heating of the activation period, when it is installed
in a heated environment, the losses are considered recoverable retrieved subtracting, prior
multiplication by the factor 0.8, referred to the losses of the solar plant of generation subsystem
forms part.

Distribution losses between the heating system to solar energy and the auxiliary heater

Losses recovered Qbu,dis,ls,rvd,m are determined by multiplying the losses calculated or the correction
factor (1 - bg) and by the factor 0.8.

Recoveries by thermal control gear

We assumes a recovery of thermal energy equal to 0.8 of the electricity requirement:

Qsol,aux,l,rbl = 0,8 × Qsol,aux,m [kWh]

Reduction of energy use

With the monthly calculation we determine the monthly solar fraction:

fsol = Q,sol,,out,m / Q,gn,out,m [kWh] m [kWh]

So thermal energy demand reduces proportionally to the previous ratio over the production of
thermal energy with other systems (heat generators using fossil fuels, power generation, etc.).
Primary energy requirement depends on the average monthly efficiency of considered generator.
Except in the case of thermal generation with an electrical resistance generating, monthly average

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efficiency it depends on the monthly load factor of the generator. In the assessment of the
reduction of primary energy needs must be taken into account the different load factor in the two
cases:

 energy production without solar thermal system.

 energy production with generating solar thermal system and integration with other
subsystems.

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