RESPIRATORY KEYPOINTS • Trachea - commonly known as the

windpipe. An air-cleaning tube to

Basic foundation: funnel inspired air to each lung.
• Bronchi - tubes that direct air into
- Oxygen main source or molecule the lungs.
acquired by RS • Lungs - labyrinths of air tubes and a
- CO2 (carbon dioxide) waste product complex network of air sacs, called
gathered by RS alveoli, and capillaries. Each air sac is
- Production of ATP O2 is used the site of gas exchange between
- CO2 is a by-product of ATP the air and the blood.
production
- Increased levels of CO2 will lower Functions of the RS
the pH of the blood (more acidic) • Upper respiratory tract - structures
from the nose to the larynx
• Lower respiratory tract - structures
from the trachea through the alveoli
in the lungs
• Conducting zone - structures from
the nose to the air tubes within the
lungs used strictly for ventilation
• Respiratory zone - small air tubes in
the lungs and the alveoli where gas
exchange occurs (found inside the
lungs and alveoli)

Main functions of RS (important concept)

1. Ventilation - breathing, the

movement of air into and out of the
lungs
2. External Respiration - the exchange
of O2 and CO2 between the air in the
Anatomy of the RS lungs and the blood
3. Gas Transport - O2 and CO2 travel in
• External nose - encloses the the blood to and from cells
chamber for air inspiration. Note: blood is the main vehicle for
• Nasal cavity - a cleaning, warming, transferring gas into the body
and humidifying chamber for 4. Internal Respiration - the exchange
inspired air. of O2 and CO2 between the blood
• Pharynx - commonly called the and the tissues
throat, serves as a shared
passageway for food and air.
• Larynx - the voice box.
Additional Functions of the Respiratory NOSE
System
External nose:
• Regulation of blood pH - The • composed of mainly of hyaline
respiratory system can alter blood cartilage
pH by changing blood CO2 levels. Nasal cavity:
Note: CO2 levels are the main factor • extends from naris (nostrils) to the
that can change blood pH choana which are the openings to
• Production of chemical mediators - the pharynx
The lungs produce an enzyme called • the hard palate is its roof
angiotensin-converting enzyme • the nasal septum divides it in half
(ACE), which regulates blood Naris- anterior passageway
pressure. Choana- posterior passageway
• Voice production - Air moving past Hard palate- floor of the nasal cavity
the vocal folds makes sound and
speech possible. Paranasal sinuses: (embedded in frontal
bone, function for voice modulation)
Other Respiratory System Functions • air filled spaces within bone
• open into nasal cavity
• Olfaction - The sensation of smell • lined with mucous
occurs when airborne molecules are Conchae:
drawn into the nasal cavity. • bony projections on each side of
• Protection - The respiratory system nasal cavity
provides protection against some • increase surface area of nasal cavity
microorganisms by preventing them • help in cleaning, humidifying,
from entering the body and warming of air
removing them from respiratory
surfaces. Nasolacrimal ducts:
• carry tears from eyes
• open into nasal cavity

Functions of the Nasal Cavity

• Serves as a passageway for air -
remains open even when the mouth
is full of food.
• Cleans the air - The nasal cavity is
lined with hairs, which trap some of
the large particles of dust in the air.
• Humidifies and warms the air -
Moisture is added to the air as it
passes through the nasal cavity.
• Contains the olfactory epithelium -
upper respiratory tract the sensory organ for smell, is
 located in the most superior part of
the nasal cavity. ANATOMY OF LARYNX
• Helps determine voice sound - The
nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses
are resonating chambers for speech.
Pharynx
3 subparts:

Pharynx: a common passageway for the

respiratory and digestive systems
Nasopharynx: (close to the nasal cavity)
• takes in air
note:
Oropharynx: (directly connected to oral
cavity)
• extends from uvula to epiglottis
• takes in food, drink, and air
Laryngopharynx: (transition point from
larynx to pharynx) NOTE:
• extends from epiglottis to Hyoid bone
esophagus - unpaired bone in the body
note: epiglottis protects larynx - only ligaments are connected
• food and drink pass through Trachea- c-shape rings
Uvula: Corniculate
• “little grape” - function for vocal chords
• extension of soft palate Epiglottis:
Pharyngeal tonsil: • piece of cartilage
Note: it has immune cells to catch • flap that prevents swallowed
microorganisms as they enter into materials from entering larynx
nasal cavity or oral
• aids in defending against infections Vestibular folds:
• false vocal cords
Larynx Vocal Folds:
- voice box • source of voice production
Located in the anterior throat and extends • air moves past them, they vibrate,
from the base of the tongue to the trachea and sound is produced
Consists of 9 cartilages • force of air determines loudness
• tension determines pitch
Thyroid cartilage:
• largest piece of cartilage
• called Adam’s apple
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT Tracheobronchial Tree
Structures become smaller and more
• Trachea numerous from primary bronchi to alveoli.
• Bronchi BRANCHING:
• Tracheobronchial Tree in Lungs 1. Primary bronchi
• Alveoli 2. Lobar (secondary) bronchi
3. Segmental (tertiary) bronchi
Trachea 4. Bronchioles
• Windpipe 5. Terminal bronchioles
• Consists of 16 to 20 C-shaped pieces 6. Respiratory bronchioles
of cartilage called tracheal rings 7. Alveolar ducts
• Lined with ciliated pseudostratified 8. Alveoli (majority of gas exchange
columnar epithelium occurs here)
Note: allows trap microbes
• Smoking kills cilia Bronchial tree from largest to smallest
• Coughing dislodges materials from - Trachea, lobar bronchus, segmental
trachea bronchus, bronchiole

ANATOMY OF TRACHEA AND LUNGS Changes in Air Passageway Diameter

• Bronchodilation - the smooth
muscle relaxes, making the
bronchiole diameter larger.
• Bronchoconstriction - the smooth
muscle contracts, making the
bronchiole diameter smaller.
• Asthma attack - contraction of
terminal bronchioles leads to
reduced air flow

ALVEOLI
The sites of external respiration are the
alveoli.
- Transfer of CO2 and O2 between
BRONCHI blood and alveoli
• Divides into right and left main - small air-filled sacs where air and
(primary) bronchi in the lungs at the blood come into close contact
carina • where gas exchange occurs
• Lined with cilia • surrounded by capillaries
• Contain C-shaped pieces of cartilage • 300 million in lungs
• From the terminal bronchioles to
the alveoli, there are multiple levels
of branching.
 • Respiratory bronchioles have a few
attached alveoli. Alveolus and the Respiratory
• Alveolar ducts arise from the Membrane
respiratory bronchioles and open - Gas exchange occurs
into alveoli.
• Alveolar sacs are chambers
connected to two or more alveoli at
the end. Respiratory Membrane

• In lungs where gas exchange

between air and blood occurs
• Formed by walls of alveoli and
capillaries
• Alveolar ducts and respiratory
bronchioles also contribute
• Very thin for diffusion of gases
Concept of diffusion:
Movement of molcules will go to higher
concentration to a region of lower
concentration

Layers of Respiratory Membrane

• Thin layer of fluid from alveolus

NOTE: • Alveolar epithelium (simple
- Alveoli contains capillaries where squamous)
external respiration happens • Basement membrane of alveolar
epithelium
• Thin interstitial space
• Basement membrane of capillary
endothelium
• Capillary endothelium (simple
squamous

Thoracic Wall and Muscles of Respiration

The thoracic wall consists of:

• thoracic vertebrae
• ribs
• costal cartilages
• sternum
• associated muscles
Thoracic cavity - the space enclosed by the • Blood becomes oxygenated and
thoracic wall and the diaphragm returns to the heart through
• Diaphragm - a sheet of skeletal pulmonary veins.
muscle separating the thoracic
cavity from the abdominal cavity Lymphatic Supply to the Lungs
- Main muscle responsible for Superficial lymphatic vessels:
respiration
• The diaphragm and skeletal muscles • deep to the connective tissue
of the thoracic wall change thoracic that surrounds each lung
volume during ventilation • drain lymph from the
superficial lung tissue and
LUNGS the visceral pleura.
• Primary organ of respiration
• Cone shaped Deep lymphatic vessels:
• The base rests on the diaphragm • follow the bronchi
• The apex extends above the clavicle • drain lymph from the bronchi
• Right lung has 3 lobes and associated connective
• Left lung has 2 lobes tissues
• Contains many air passageways Pleural Membranes and Cavities
(divisions)
Pleural cavity:
• space around each lung
Pleura:
• double-layered membrane around
lungs
Parietal pleura:
• membrane that lines thoracic cavity
Visceral pleura:
• membrane that covers lung’s
NOTE: you can find alveoli in the lungs: the surface
main respiratory organ of the body

Blood Flow to Lungs

• Oxygenated blood has passed

through the lungs and picked up O2
• Deoxygenated blood has passed
through the tissues and released
some of its O2.
• Pulmonary arteries carry
deoxygenated blood to pulmonary
capillaries.
 • Labored expiration - more air moves
out of the lungs due to the forceful
contraction of the internal
intercostals and the abdominal
muscles.

Pressure Changes and Air Flow (explains

Ventilation why u inhale and exhale)

Ventilation (breathing): • When the volume of a container

• the process of moving air in and out increases the air pressure decreases.
of the lungs • When the volume of a container
Two aspects to ventilation: decreases air pressure increases.
• actions of the muscles of • Air flows from areas of high to low
respiration pressure.
• air pressure gradients Inspiration
• Diaphragm descends and rib cage
Muscles of Respiration expands
Muscles of inspiration: increase the volume • Thoracic cavity volume increases,
of the thoracic cavity. pressure decreases
• diaphragm • Atmospheric pressure(inside) is
• external intercostals greater than alveolar pressure
• pectoralis minor (outside lungs)
• scalene muscles • Air moves into alveoli (lungs)
when these contracts, it will increase the Expiration
volume of thoracic cavity • Diaphragm relaxes and rib cage
recoils
Muscles of expiration: decrease thoracic • Thoracic cavity volume decreases,
volume by depressing the ribs and sternum. pressure increases
• internal intercostals • Alveolar pressure (inside the lungs)
• transverse thoracis is greater than atmospheric
• abdominal muscles pressure (outside lungs)
- reflex contraction • Air moves out of lungs

Quiet versus Labored Breathing

• Quiet breathing - expiration is a

passive process due to elastic tissue
in the thorax wall and the lungs.
• Labored inspiration - more air
moves into the lungs because all of
the inspiratory muscles are active.
Pulmonary Volumes Inspiratory capacity (IC):
Spirometer: - the amount of air a person can
• device that measures pulmonary inspire maximally after a normal
volumes expiration
Tidal volume (TV): IC = TV + IRV
• volume of air inspired and expired
during quiet breathing Vital capacity (VC):
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): - maximum amount of air a person
• volume of air that can be inspired can expire after a maximal
forcefully after a normal inspiration inspiration

Spirometry: study of different lung volumes VC = IRV + ERV + TV

Functional residual capacity (FRC):

- the amount of air remaining in the
lungs at the end of a normal
expiration
FRC = ERV + RV

Total lung capacity (TLC):

TLC = IRV + ERV + TV + RV

Alveolar Ventilation
• Alveolar ventilation is the measure
of the volume of air available for gas
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): exchange per minute.
• volume of air that can be • Only a portion of each breath
expired forcefully after a reaches the alveoli for gas exchange.
normal expiration The remaining area where no gas
Residual volume (RV): exchange occurs is called the dead
• volume of air remaining in space. (no gas exchange happens)
lungs after a maximal • Anatomical dead space areas
expiration (can’t be include all the structures of the
measured with spirometer) upper respiratory tract, and
structures of the lower respiratory
PULMONARY CAPACITIES tract to the terminal bronchioles.
 • Physiological dead space is the • the upper case letter P represents
combination of the anatomical dead partial pressure of a certain gas (Po2)
space and the volume of any alveoli Lung Recoil
with lower than normal gas
exchange. • is the tendency for an expanded
lung to decrease in size
• occurs during quiet expiration
• is due to elastic fibers and thin film
Alveolar Pressure Changes During of fluid lining alveoli
Inspiration and Expiration
Surfactant

• a mixture of lipoproteins
• is produced by secretory cells of the
alveoli
• is a fluid layer on the surface lining
the alveoli
• reduces surface tension
• keeps lungs from collapsing

Pleural Pressure

Pleural pressure is:

• pressure in the pleural cavity
• less than alveolar pressure
• keeps the alveoli from collapsing
Factors Affecting Ventilation Pneumothorax
- if the thoracic wall or lung is pierced
• Gender the lungs collapse
• Age
• Body Size Diffusion Through the Respiratory
• Physical Fitness Membrane
Three factors influence the rate of gas
diffusion through the respiratory
Partial Pressure membrane:
• partial pressure gradients for
• the pressure exerted by a specific O2 and CO2
gas in a mixture of gases • thickness of the respiratory
• the total atmospheric pressure of all membrane
gases at sea level is 760 mm Hg • surface area of the
• the atmosphere is 21% O2 respiratory membrane
• the partial pressure for O2 is 160 mm
Hg Partial Pressure Gradients
 • Gas diffuses from a higher partial • Rate of gas exchange is decreased
pressure on one side of the • O2 exchange is affected before CO2
respiratory membrane to a lower because CO2 diffuse more easily
partial pressure on the other side. than O2

• If the partial pressure gradient of a Respiratory Membrane Surface Area

gas is higher in the alveolus, it will • Total surface area is about 70 square
diffuse across the respiratory meters
membrane into the blood. • May be decreased due to removal of
lung tissue, destruction from cancer,
• If the partial pressure of a gas is emphysema, tuberculosis
higher in the blood, it will diffuse O2 and CO2 Transport in the Blood
across the respiratory membrane • Once O2 and CO2 enter the blood
into the alveolus they interact with components that
increase their solubility.
• Both O2 and CO2 are transported by
the protein, hemoglobin.
• CO2 is also transported in other
ways.
• CO2 can have a dangerous impact on
the blood pH.

Carbon Dioxide Transport and Blood pH 1

CO2 diffuses from cells into capillaries
CO2 enters blood and is transported in three
ways:
7% is dissolved in blood plasma
93% enters red blood cells where
Gas Exchange in the Tissues • 23% is bound to hemoglobin
• Blood traveling from the lungs and • 70% is transported as
through capillaries in the tissues has bicarbonate ions
a higher partial pressure of O2 and a
lower partial pressure of CO2 than Carbon Dioxide Transport and Blood pH 2
the interstitial fluid. CO2 reacts with water to form carbonic acid
• Oxygen diffuses from capillaries into CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3
interstitial fluid.
• CO2 diffuses from the interstitial Carbonic acid dissociates into a hydrogen
fluid into the blood in the capillaries. ion and a bicarbonate ion
H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3-
Respiratory Membrane Thickness
• Increased thickness decreases rate Carbonic anhydrase (RBC) increases rate of
of diffusion of gases CO2 reacting with water
• Pulmonary edema decreases As CO2 levels increase, blood pH decreases
diffusion
 1. Starting inspiration - medullary
respiratory center establishes the • The Hering-Breuer reflex limits the
basic rhythm of ventilation. depth of inspiration preventing
2. Increasing inspiration - Once overinflation of the lungs.
inspiration begins, more and more
neurons are activated resulting in • Depends on stretch receptors in the
progressively stronger stimulation of bronchi and bronchioles.
the respiratory muscles. Lasts about
2 seconds. BASIC CONCEPT OF CO2
3. Stopping inspiration - neurons
stimulating muscles of respiration - Increase in amount of CO2 makes
also stimulate neurons responsible the blood more acidic
for stopping inspiration. - Decrease of CO2 makes the blood
more alkaline
Factors Affecting Respiratory Rate
• Decrease in Po2 (hypoxia) causes an
increase in respiratory rate.
• Increase in Pco2 (hypercapnia)
causes an increase in rate and depth
of ventilation.
• Decrease in Pco2 (hypocapnia )
causes a decrease in rate of
ventilation.
• Chemoreceptors in the medulla
oblongata and blood vessels near
the heart respond to changes in Pco2
and pH.

• Increases in CO2 cause decreases in

pH.
• Central chemorectors in the medulla
oblongata detect changes in CO2.
• Carotid and aortic bodies in blood
vessels detect changes in pH.
• Decreases in pH cause increases in
the rate and depth of breathing
which restores CO2 and pH to
normal levels.
• The Hering-Breuer reflex limits the
depth of inspiration preventing
overinflation of the lungs.
• Depends on stretch receptors in the
bronchi and bronchioles.