Chapter 3 Basics of Energy and its Various Forms Learning Objectives In this chapter you will learn about o gm a Energy types & forms Stages in energy conversion Terms and definitions used in electrical energy Terms and definitions used in thermal energy Energy- units and conversion MTOE conversions3. BASICS OF ENERGY AND ITS VARIOUS FORMS. 3.1 Introduction Energy is described as the ability to do work oras the ability to carry a heat transfer. Energy is required for doing work or involving in a heat transfer. A body is said to possess energy when it has the capacity to do work or the capacity to carry 2 heat transfer with another body. Work and heat transfer are the transfer of energy from one body to another-so they are called transitory energy. In practical terms ‘energy is what we use to manipulate the world around us, whether by exciting our muscles, by using electricity or by using mechanical devices such as automobiles. Broadly, energy can be classified as potential (stored) energy and kinetic (working) energy. Potential Energy Potential energy is the energy a body possesses because of its position or configuration. For example, driving head of a pile driver has potential energy of position when raised above. On release, driving head comes down to do the piling work. Stretched rubber band or compressed steel spring possesses potential energy of configuration, Both have ability to do work because of their tendency to return to their normal position, Potential energy exists in various forms: chemical energy, nuclear energy, stored mechanical energy, gravitational energy ete. Potential energy stored in a body due to its height above a datum level is expressed by: Potential energy (E,) = mass x gravitational acceleration x height=m gh. Chemical Energy Chemical energy is the energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules and released as heat in a chemical reaction. This is specific to each reaction and is usually given as energy unit mass (e.g. kI/ kg) or number of molecules (¢.g. kl/mol). Biomass, petroleum, natural gas, propane and coal are ‘examples of stored chemical energy. ‘Nuclear Energy ‘Nuclear energy is the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom - the energy that holds the nucleus together. The nucleus of an Uranium atom releases nuclear energy when its’ fission (split in two parts) results in a loss of mass and the corresponding loss of mass(m) is converted to nuclear energy by following famous equation of Einstein: ‘Nuclear energy (E,) = mass x speed of light squared =m e? (where e=3 x 10" m/s) ‘Bureau of Energy Efficiency 63. Basis of Energy and its various forms ‘Stored Mechanical Energy Stored mechanical energy is energy stored in objects by the application ofa force. Compressed springs and stretched rubber bands are examples of stored mechanical energy Gravitational energy is the energy of place or position, Water in a reservoir behind a hydropower dam is an example of gravitational energy. When the water is released to spin the turbines, it becomes motion energy in the form of mechanical power-which drives the Generators/Alternators to produce electrical energy. Kinetic Energy It is the energy a body possesses by virtue of motion or velocity. For example, a moving vehicle, a flowing fluid and moving parts of machinery all have kinetic energy because of their motion. It exists, in various forms: radiant energy, thermal energy, electrical energy, motion energy, sound energy, electrical energy ete. Kinetic energy (E,) = mv? = half x mass x velocity squared Radiant Energy Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Radiant energy includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays and radio waves. Solar energy is an example of radiant energy. Thermal Energy Thermal energy is the internal energy in substances - the vibration and movement of atoms and molecules within substances. Geothermal energy is an example of thermal energy. Motion energy The movement of objects or substances from one place to another is motion, Wind and hydropower are manifestations of motion energy. Sound energy Sound is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal (compression/rarefaction) waves, Electrical Energy Electrical energy is the movement of electrons. Lightning and electricity are examples of electrical energy. Bureau of Energy Efficiency Cy3. Basics of Energy and its various forms 3.2. Work, Energy and Power Work The unit of work or energy is the joule (J) where one joule is one Newton meter. The joule is defined as the work done or energy transferred when a force of one Newton is exerted through a distance of cone meter in the direction of the force. Energy is the capacity for doing work Thus, Work done on a body, in Joules W”'= Fs Where, Fis the force in Newtons and sis the distance in meters moved by the body in the direction of the force. In case of rotating body work done is expressed in Joules as: W’= T*(0/2n) Where Tis the Torque in Newton-Meter and 0 is the angle in radian the body rotated. Kilojoule (1 kJ = 1000J) is more common among engineers. Even kilojoule is too small a unit when considering national or global amounts of energy. In such cases Megajoule (10°D), Gigajoule (10°3), terrajoule (10!2J) and petajoule (10"J) are used. Energy and Power Energy represents potential to do work. To actually do the work, one has to use energy of one form at a given rate and convert to another form. Power is defined as the rate of doing work or rate at which energy is used and converted, The unit of power is Watt (WW), where one Watt is one Joule per second, Thus, power in Watts, P= W/t Where, Wis the work done or energy transferred in Joules and fis the time in seconds. Thus, energy, in joules, W= Pr 1 kWh = 3600KJ =3.6MJ In case of rotating body, power in Watts, P=T4w= (2n*T*N)/60, Where T is the Torque applied in Newton-Meter, w is angular velocity in radian/sec. and N is the revolution per minute(RPM), Example 3.1 A portable machine requires a force of 200 N to move it. How much work is done if the machine is moved 20 m and what average power is utilized if the movement takes 25 s? Bureau of Energy Efficiency 83. Basis of Energy and its various forms Solution Work don force x distance =200N x 20m = 4000 Nm or 4 kJ Power = Work done / time taken = 4000 J /25 s 60 sis =160 W 3.3 Electricity Basies Direct Current (DC) A current which is a non-varying, unidirectional current, e.g. current produced by batteries. Alternating Current A current which reverses in regularly recurring intervals of time and which has alternate positive and negative values occurring specified number of times., e.g. current from utilities. In 50 Cycle (Hertz) AG, current re} ses direction 100 times per second i.e. two times in one eycle. Amps or Ampere (A) Current is the rate of flow of charge. Ampere is the basic unit of electric current. Voltage or Volts (V) It is a measure of electric potential or electromotive force. A potential of one Volt (V) appears across a resistance of one Ohm when a current of one Ampere flows through the resistance. In case of Alternating, Current (AC) the Voltage or Current value normally mentioned is Root Mean Squared (RMS) value so that we can use the same formula for calculating power just like a Direct Current (DC) application Resistance and Conductance The unit of electric resistance is the ohm (O) where one ohm is one volt per ampere. Itis defined as the resistance between two points in a conductor when a constant electric potential of one volt applied at the two points produces a current flow of one ampere in the conductor. Thus, resistanee, in ohms R= Volts /Amp = VT where Mis the potential difference across the two points in volts and / is the current flowing between the two points in amperes. The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance and is measured in siemens (S). Thus, conductance, in mho or Siemens G = 1/R, where R is the resistance in ohms. Bureau of Energy Efficiency 43. Basis of Energy and its various forms Frequeney (Hertz) The supply frequency is the number of cycles at which alternating current changes. The unit of frequency is cycles / second or Hz. In India-the normal supply frequency by utilities is at 5O Hz. Electrical Energy When a direct current (DC) of / amperes is flowing in an electric circuit and the voltage across the circuit is V volts, then, Power, in Watts P= VI Electrical energy = Power x time = Vx xt Joules ‘The same formulae can be used in AC applications as well (since voltage and current are normally expressed in RMS values for AC applications) Although the unit of energy is the Joule, when dealing with large amounts of energy, the unit used is the kilowatt hour (kWh ) where 1 kWh = 1000 Watt hour = 1000 x 3600 Watt seconds or Joules 600,000 J Example 3.2 An electric heater consumes 1.8 MJ when connected to a 250 V supply for 30 minutes. Find the power rating of the heater and the current taken from the supply? Solution Energy = power x time, Power ~ Energy time = 1.8 x 105/30 x 60s = 1000 4/s = 1000 W 1kW i.e., Power rating of heater Power Vithus, 1 = P/V = 1000/250 Hence, the current taken from the supply is 4 A. Bureau of Energy Efficiency 6S3. Basis of Energy and its various forms Example 3.3 A 100 W electric light bulb is connected to a 250 V supply. Determine (a) the current flowing in the bulb, and (b) the resistance of the bulb Solution Power P= V x I from which, current [= P/V 00/250 =0.4.A 11 =250/0.4 = 625 2 (a) Current, (b) Resistance, R Example 3.4 ‘An electric kettle has a resistance of 30 0. What current will flow when it is connected to a 240 V supply? Find also the power rating of the kettle, Solution Current, = V/R = 240/30 = 8 A Power, P=VI=240x8 =1920W = 192 kW Power rating of kettle Example 3.5 A 100 W electric light bulb is connected to a 250 V supply. Determine (a) the current flowing in the bulb, and (b) the resistance of the bulb Solution Power P= V x I from which, current [= P/V (a) Current, 1= 100/250 =0.4.4 (b) Resistance, R = V/I = 250/0.4 = 625 W Example 3.6 Anelectric heater of 230 V, 5 KW rating is used for hot water generation in an industry. Find electricity consumption per hour (a) at the rated voltage (b) at 200 V. Solution (a) Electricity consumption (kWh) at rated voltage = 5 kW x | hour=5 kWh. (b) Electricity consumption at 200 V (kWh) = (200 / 230)°x 5 kW x I hour = 3.78 kWh, Bureau of Energy Efficiency 663. Basics of Energy and its various forms Power Factor The total power requirement is comprised of two components, as illustrated in the power triangle, Figure 4-1. This diagram shows the resistive portion or kilowatt (kW), 90° out of phase with the reactive portion, kilovolt ampere reactive (kvar). The reactive current is necessary to build up the flux for the magnetic field of inductive devices, but otherwise it is non-usable. The resistive portion is also known as the active power which is directly converted to useful work. The hypotenuse of the power triangle is referred to as the kilovolt ampere or apparent power (kVA). The angle between kW and kVa is the power factor angle. KW =KVA cos 0 AVA = kIW/ cos 0 KVAR = kVA sin 0 PF = cos 0 PF is referred to as the power factor Only power portions in same phase with each other can be combined, For example: resistive portions of one load can be added to resistive portions of another. The same will hold for reactive loads also. Active or Resistive Power (eW) Reactive Power (kVA) Apparent Power (kVA) Relationships between Power, Voltage, and Current For a balanced three-phase load, Power, Watts = V3 V, x1, Cos0 For a balanced single-phase load, Power, Watts = V, x1, Cos® Where, y, = Line Voltage = Line current. Bureau of Energy Efficiency 673. Basics of Energy and its various forms Which applications use single-phase power in an industry? Single-phase power is mostly used for lighting, fractional HP motors and electric heater applications, Example 3.7 ‘A 400 Watt mercury vapor lamp was switched on for 10 hours per day. The supply volt is 230 V. Find the energy consumption per day? (Volt = 230 V, Current = 2 amps, PF = 0.8) Solution Electricity consumption (kWh) =V x1 x Cos @ x No of Hours = 0.230 x 2.x 0.8 x 10 = 3.7 kWh or Units Motor Loads h electrical load in a system has an inherent power factor. Motor loads are usually specified by horsepower ratings. These may be converted to KVA, by use of Equation KVA = (HP x 0.746)/(n) x PF) Where, 11= Motor efficiency PF. = Motor power factor HP = Motor horsepower (i.e. Rated Output power), Most motor manufacturers can supply information on motor efficiencies and power factors. Smaller motors running partly loaded are the least efficient and have the lowest power factor. Example 3.8 ‘A 3-phase AC induction motor (20 kW capacity) is used for pumping operation. Electrical parameters such as current, volt and power factor were measured with power analyzer. Find the energy consumption of motor in one hour? (Volts. = 440 V, current = 25 amps and PF = 0.90) Solution Measured Energy consumption = v3_ x 0.440 x 25 x 0.90.x 1 = 17.15 kWh Motor loading calculation The name plate details of motor, KW or HP indicates the output of the motor at full load The other parameters such as volt, amps , PF are the input condition of motor at full load. Bureau of Energy Efficiency 83. Basis of Energy and its various forms Example 3.9 A 3ephase 10 kW motor has the name plate details as 415 V, 18.2 amps and 0.9 PF. Actual input measurement shows 415 V, 12 A and 0.7 PF which was measured with power analyzer during motor running, Find out the motor loading and actual input power of the motor. Solution Rated output at full load =10KW Rated input at full load = 1,732x0.415x18,2x0.9 = 11.8 kW. The rated efficiency of motor = 10/11.8= 85% Measured (Actual) input power = 1.732x 0.415 x 12x 0.7 = 6.0 kW Motor loading (%) Measured kW = 6.0. x 100 = 51.2% Rated InputkW 1.8 3.4 Thermal Energy Basics ‘Temperature Temperature is a physical property that quantitatively expresses the common notions of hot and cold. Objects of low temperature are cold, while various degrees of higher temperatures are referred to as warm or hot. Temperature is measured with thermometers, which may be calibrated to a variety of temperature scales. Much of the world uses the Celsius scale for most temperature measurements, In Fahrenheit scale (British system), the freezing point of water is 32°F and the boiling point of water is 212°F at atmospheric pressure The Kelvin scale is the temperature standard for scientific or engineering purposes. It has the same incremental scaling(1°) as the Celsius scale, but fixes its origin, or null point, at absolute zero (°K -273.15°C) Conversion of the degree Celsius into Fahrenheit = (degrees C x 1.8) +32 Conversion of the Fahrenheit into degree Celsius = (degrees F - 32) / 1.8 Degrees Celsius (C) to degrees Kelvin (K) = (C) +273 = (K) Pressure It is the force per unit area applied to outside of a body. P=F/A=ma/A= mg/A (when g=a) Bureau of Energy Efficiency 83. Basis of Energy and its various forms Where, Pis the pressure in N/m? or Pascals F is the force in Newtons (N) a.is the acceleration in mist gis the acceleration due to gravity in mis Absolute pressure The absolute pressure (ps) is total or true pressure. Itis measured relative to the absolute zero pressure - the pressure that would occur at absolute vacuum, All calculation involving the gas laws requires pressure to be in absolute units and temperature in Kelvin, Gauge Pressure Gauge pressure (pg)_ is the pressure indicated by @ gauge. All gauges are calibrated to read zero at atmospheric pressure. Gauges indicated the pressure difference between a system and the surrounding atmosphere, The gauge pressure can be expressed as Pg = ps-pa Where, auge pressure ‘ps = system pressure (absolute) pa srmospherie pressure Atmospheric Pressure Atmospheric pressure (pa) is pressure in the surrounding airat the surface of the earth. The atmospheric pressure varies with temperature and altitude above sea level Standard Atmospheric Pressure Standard Atmospheric Pressure (aim) is used as a reference for gas densities and volumes. The Standard Atmospheric Pressure is defined at sea-level at 273°K (0°C) and is 1.01325 bar or 101325 Pascal (absolute). The temperature of 293°K (20°C) is also used. 1 atm = 1.01325 bar = 101.3 KPa= 760 mmblg =10,33 meter H,O = 1013 mbar = 1.0332 kg/en? Heat Heat is transferred from one body to another body at a lower temperature by virtue of temperature difference i.e, Heat is energy in transition or transitory energy. The quantity of heat depends on the quantity and type of substance involved. Bureau of Energy Efficiency 703. Basics of Energy and its various forms Calorie is the unit for measuring the quantity of heat. It is the quantity of heat, which can raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C, Calorie is too small a unit for many purposes. Therefore, a bigger unit Kilocalorie (1 Kilocalorie 1000 calories) is used to measure heat. 1 kilocalorie can raise the temperature of 1000g (ie. 1kg) of water by 1°C, However, nowadays generally Joule as the unit of heat energy is used, Its the internationally accepted unit, Its relationship with calorie is as follows: 4.1873 425 1 Calorie Specific Heat Ifthe same amount of heat energy is supplied to equal quantities of water and milk, their temperature goes up by different amounts. This is due to different specific heats of different substances. Specific heat is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of Ikg of a substance through 1°C or 1 K. Specific heat is expressed in terms of keal/kg*C or J/kg K. Specific heat varies with temperature, In case of gases-there are an infinite number of processes in which heat may be added to raise gas temperature by a fixed amount and hence a gas could have an infinite numbers of specific heat capacities. However-only two specific heats are defined for gases i.e. specific heat at constant pressure, ¢, and specific heat at constant volume ,c,. For solids and liquids, however, the specific heat does not depend on the process. The specific heat of water is very high as compared to other common substances; it takes a lot of heat to raise the temperature of water. Also, when water is cooled, it gives out a large quantity of heat. The specific heats of common substances are given in Table 3.1 Substance Specific heat (S/kg’C) Lead 130 Mercury 140 Copper 390 Aluminium 910 Water 4200 ‘Alcohol 2400 Tron 470 Sensible Heat The amount of heat which when added to any substance causes a change in temperature. The changes in temperature that do not alter the moisture content of ai, It is expressed in calories or Joules. Sensible heat = mass x specific heat x change in temperature Q=mGAT Bureau of Energy Efficiency 73. Basics of Energy and its various forms Phase Change The change of state from the solid state to a liquid state is called fusion. The fixed temperature at which a solid changes into a liquid is called its melting point. The change of a state from a liquid state to a gascous is called vaporization, The fixed temperature at which a liquid changes into @ vapour is called its boiling point. The change of a state from gascous state to a liquid state is called condensation, Latent heat It is the change in heat content of a substance, when its physical state is changed without a change in ‘temperature. Latent heat of fusion The latent heat of fusion of a substance is the quantity of heat required to convert I kg solid into liquid state without change of temperature. It is represented by the symbol hi, Its unit is Joule per kilogram (Kg) Thus, Q, (ice) = 335 Ki/kg. The change in phase occurs in either direction at the fusion temperature i.e, liquid to solid and solid to liquid. The temperature and quantity of heat to bring about the change will be the same in either case and can be determined from the following equation: 2. Where Q, = The quantity of latent heat in kilojoules m = The mass in kg h, = The latent heat of fusion in kI/kg mxh, Example 3.10 Ifthe latent heat of fusion of water is 335 ki/kg, determine the quantity of latent heat given up by 10 kg of water at 0°C when it freezes into ice at 0°C. Q, = 10 kg x 335 ki/kg = 3350 KI Example 3.11 120 kJ of heat is supplied to 25 kg of ice at 0°C, how many kilograms of ice will be melted into water? m= Q\/h, =20 K/335 kiikg = 0.06 kg Latent Heat of Vaporiza The quantity of heat that a 1 kg mass of liquid will absorb in going from the liquid phase to the vapour phase, or give up in going from the vapour phase to the liquid phase, without change in temperature, is called latent heat of vaporization, Bureau of Energy Efficiency 23. Basics of Energy and its various forms Itis also denoted by the symbol Q, and its unit is J/kg. The latent heat of vaporization of water is 2257 Ki/kg. When 1 kg of water at 100°C vaporizes to form steam at 100°C, it absorbs 2257 keal/kg (540 keal/kg) of heat. Q,=mxh,, Where, Q, = The quantity of latent heat in kilojoules m mass in kg. h,,= The latent heat of vaporization in kirkg Condensation Condensation is the change by which any substance is converted from a gaseous state to liquid state ‘without change in temperature, When I kg of steam at 100 condenses to form water at 100°C, it gives out 2260 kJ of heat. Example 3.12 Determine the quantity of heat required to vaporize 2 m° of water at 100°C if the latent heat of ‘vaporization of water at that temperature is 2257 kI/kg Q,, = 2000 kg x 2257 kWykg = 4514000 KI Super Heat Super heating is the heating of vapour, particularly saturated steam to a temperature much higher than the boiting point (also called saturation temperature) at the existing pressure, This is done in power plants to improve efficiency and to avoid condensation in the turbine. Here itis noteworthy to mention that higher the pressure of water-higher the saturation temperature at corresponding pressure. This property of water can be depicted by the following Temperature- entropy(T-S) diagram: "ES Steam Diagram aes Bese 23 8 Temperature in PC] Tal o 1 2 8 «© § 6 7 6 810 Specfi entropy in k(kg-K)] Bureau of Energy Efficiency B3. Basis of Energy and its various forms Entropy in horizontal axis is commonly understood as a measure of disorder of a substance. ‘The area under the dome is the binary phase i.e. water and steam mixture, The blue lines are constant pressure line and these lines under the dome represent the latent heat region (i.e. constant temperature and pressure heating resulting into phase change from water to steam). Xdryness factor of steam=in 1 kg of water-steam mixture, x kg is mass of steam and (1-x) kg is mass of water. Thus the zone in right side of X=1.0 line represents the superheated region of steam, Humidity Moisture contained in air is expressed as Humidity. Saturated air holds all the moisture it can at that temperature and pressure. The unit for humidity is kg of moisture / kg of dry air. Dew Point Itis the temperature at which water vapor in the air becomes saturated with moisture and the moisture starts to condense into water droplets. It is equal to the saturation temperature at the partial pressure of the water vapour in the mixture, Specific Humidity or Humidity Ratio It is the mass (kg) of the water vapor in each kg of dry air (kg/kg). Relative Humidity (RH) Itis the ratio of mass of water vapour actually held by the air in a given volume to that which air could hold at the same temperature if the air were saturated, It is expressed as a percentage, Warmer air will hold more water vapour and saturated air cannot hold any more water vapour. Relative humidity affects comfort conditions. An air sample that is at 50% RH is holding half the moisture it is capable of holding at the same temperature (at dew point or saturated), Dry bulb and Wet bulb Temperatures Dry bulb measures sensible heat content in air-vapour mixtures. Dry bulb temperature is not influenced by RH. It is the temperature recorded by the thermometer with a dry bulb. Wet bulb thermometer has wick saturated with distilled water enveloping the bulb of the thermometer. The evaporation of water lowers temperature, taking the latent heat from the water-soaked wick-thus decreasing the temperature recorded. Wet bulb temperature takes into account RH. Iftrelative humidity is 100%, dew point, wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures are all the same. Bureau of Energy Efficiency ™3. Basics of Energy and its various forms Enthalpy of air It is the measure of total heat content of air and water vapor mixture measured from pre-determined bbase point. Itis expressed as kcal/kg or Joules/kg. Enthalpy of airstream can be determined by measuring, dry and wet bulb temperature and referring the psychometric chart. Fuel Density Density is the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the fuel at a stated temperature, Density is expressed in kg/m’ Specific gravity of fuel The specific gravity of fuel is the ratio of density of fuel to that of water. The specific gravity of water is defined as 1. As itis a ratio there are no units. Higher the specific gravity, higher will be the heating values. Specific gravity has no dimensions. Viscosity The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow. All liquid fuels decrease in viscosity with increasing temperature, Viscosity is measured in Stokes / Centistokes. Sometimes viscosity is quoted in Engler, Saybolt or Redwood. Energy Content in Fuel Energy content (Calorifie Value) in an organic matter can be measured by burning it and measuring the heat released. This is done by placing a sample of known mass in a bomb calorimeter, a device that is completely sealed and insulated to prevent heat loss, A thermometer is placed inside (but it can be read from the outside) and the increase in temperature after the sample is burnt completely is measured, From this data, energy content in the organic matter can be found out. The heating value of fuel is the measure of the heat released during the complete combustion of unit weight of fuel. It is expressed as Gross Calorific Value (GCV) or Net Calorific Value (NCV). The difference between GCV and NCV is the heat of vaporization of the moisture and atomic hydrogen (conversion to water vapour) in the fuel. Typical GCV and NCV for heavy fuel oil are 44100 kg (10,500 kcal/kg) and 41160 J/kg (9,800 keal/kg).. Heat transfer Heat will always be transferred from hot to cold independent of the mode. The energy transferred is measured in Joules. The rate of energy transfer, more commonly called heat transfer, is measured in Watts (1/5) Bureau of Energy Efficiency 53. Basis of Energy and its various forms Heat is transferred by three primary modes: * Conduction (Energy transfer in a solid) * Convection (Energy transfer in a fluid) *+ Radiation (doesn’t need a material to travel through) Conduction is the primary mode of heat transfer through solid. Conduction occurs by two mechanisms ¥ Mol of lesser energy. ‘ular Motion. Molecule: of higher energy (motion) impart that energy to adjacent molecules Y Migration of fr Jectrons. This is primarily associated with pure metals Conveetion occurs when a fluid exchanges energy with an adjacent solid. The fluid motion adjacent to the solid surface assists in the transfer of energy There are two types of convection heat transfer: ¥ Forced convection - Fluid motion is induced by an external source such as a fan or pump ¥ Natural convection - Heating a fluid results in natural convection heating. Air will circulate due to natural convective heating. The temperature gradient in the fluid creates variations in density within the fluid, The colder fluid (heavier) will sink, and the hotter fluid (lighter) will Radiation mode heat transfer requires no medium for the transport of heat. Energy can be radiated from a body over a wide range of wavelengths. Thermal radiation is only a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum shown and it encompasses infrared light to ultraviolet light. Radiant energy that strikes a surface can be reflected, absorbed and transmitted, Steam Properties Evaporation ‘When a liquid evaporates it goes through a process where Y The liquid heats up to the evaporation temperature Y The liquid evaporate at the evaporation temperature by changing state from fluid to gas ¥ The vapor heats above the evaporation temperature - superheating The heat transferred to a substance when temperature changes is often referred to as sensible heat. The heat required for changing state as evaporation is referred to as latent heat of evaporation. The most common vapor is evaporated water - steam. Bureau of Energy Efficiency 763. Basics of Energy and its various forms Enthalpy of steam Enthalpy of a system is defined as the mass of the system - m - multiplied by the specific enthalpy = h- of the system and can be expressed as: H=mh Where, H= enthalpy (ki) 8 (ke) = specific enthalpy (ki/kg) Specific Enthalpy Specific enthalpy is a property of the fluid and can be expressed as: Wher lbsolute pressure (N/m) v= specific volume (m'/kg) Part of the water vapor - steam - properties can be expressed in a table as: au, 4, Ah, Ss, Pp t vy, », V iy A iy 7 (ar) 6) hag) ewrlagy OY oe (hiheg) ( os 0.006112 0.01 0,0010002 206.10 2,375 0.0006 2,501 0 0010 7.0 0.001001 1292-29 «2,385 29 «2,514 0.106 1.01325 1000 0.001044 1.673. 419.—-2,507 419 «2,676 1.307 220 373.7 0.00269 000368 1,949 2,097 2,008 2,178 4289 2212 37418 0.00317 000317 2,014 2,014 2.084 2,084 4430 + sis the steam entropy + suffix -f- referrer to saturated liquid + suflix - g - referrer to saturated vapor — steam. + p (bar) in terms of absolute pressure Le pg +pa (Ki Ag. K) 9.155 8.974 7.355 4.552 4.430 Bureau of Energy Efficiency 73. Basis of Energy and its various forms Specific Enthalpy of Saturated Water Specific enthalpy of saturated water - f,~ can be obtained from tables as above. The value depends on the pressure. For saturated water at standard atmosphere -the specific enthalpy - h, - is 419 ki/kg. At standard starts boiling at 100°C (212°) atmosphere - I bar (14.7 psi) - wa ‘The specific enthalpy of water (in SI units) can be calculated from: h, cy (tpt) Where, h, = enthalpy of water (kJ/kg) ©, = specific heat of water = 4.19 (klikg.°C) aturation temperature (°C) {, = refer temperature = 0 (°C) Specific Enthalpy of Saturated Steam Specific enthalpy of saturated steam - h, - can be obtained from tables as above. The value depends on the pressure For saturated steam at standard atmosphere - the specific enthalpy - h, - is 2676 ki/kg. The specific enthalpy of evaporation can be calculated from: hah hy Where, h, = specific evaporation enthalpy (kJ/kg) Specific evaporation enthalpy for water at standard atmosphere is: h, = (2676 kifkg) - (419 kiikg) = 2257 (kik) Specific Enthalpy of Superheated Steam The specific enthalpy of superheated steam can be calculated from: h, wht ea t-td Bureau of Energy Efficiency 783. Basics of Energy and its various forms Where, h, = Enthalpy of superheated steam (k/kg) 7 Specific heat of steam at constant pressure ~ 1.860 (kW/kg °C) t, = Saturation temperature (°C) t, = Superheated steam temperature (°C) © = 1.860 (ki/kg,*°C) at standard atmosphere. Note that ¢ varies with temperature. The laws of thermodynamics Thermodynamics is the study of heat and work, and the conversion of energy from one form into another. There are actually three laws of thermodynamics, although the majority of thermodynamics is based on the first two laws, The first law of thermodynamics The first law of thermodynamics is also known as the law of conservation of energy. It states that the energy in a system can neither be created nor destroyed. Instead, energy is either converted from one form to another, or transferred from one system to another. The term ‘system’ can refer to anything from a simple object to a complex machine. If the first law is applied to a heat engine, such as a gas turbine, where heat energy is converted into mechanical energy, then it tells us that no matter what the various stages in the process, the total amount of energy in the system must always remain constant. The second law of thermodynamics While the first law of thermodynamics refers to the quantity of energy that isin a system, itsays nothing about the direction in which it flows. It is the second law which deals with the natural direction of energy processes. For example, according to the second law of thermodynamics, heat will always flow only from a hot object to a colder object. Another term arising from the second law of thermodynamics is the term ‘entropy’ which means disorder. Entropy can be used to quantify the amount of useful work that can be performed in a system. In simple terms, the more chaotic or disorderly a system, the more difficult it isto perform useful work. It is the second law of thermodynamics that accounts for the fact that a heat engine can never be 100% efficient. Some of the heat energy from its fuel will be rejected to the surroundings, with the result that it will not be converted into mechanical energy. The third law of thermodynamics The third law of thermodynamics is concerned with absolute zero (ic, -273 °C). It simply states that it is impossible to reduce the temperature of any system to absolute zero, Bureau of Energy Efficiency 92. Basis of Energy and ils various forms 3.5 Energy Units and Conversions SI system has 6 base units on which other units are derived. The base units are: Base quantity Name | Symbol Length meter | m Time Second | _$ Electric current Ampere | A Temperature Kelvin | __K ‘Amount of substance | Mole | Mol Luminous intensity [Candela] ed The examples of derived units from base units are: Derived quantity Name Symbol ‘Area Square meter Ey Volume Cubie meter om a Meter per second 2 Acceleration Squared mis ‘Mass density | Kilogram per cubic meter kent Specific volume _| Cubic meter per kilogram mike Luminance Candela per square Cam? meter SI derived units are given special names and symbols for better understanding. Some derived SI units relevant to Energy Management & Audit are listed below: Expression in| pression in terms Derived quantity Name Symbol terms rs base unit of other units Frequency Hertz Hz = s Foree N = kgs? Pressure Pa Nim? mrt kes? Energy, work, quantity of J Nem mkg's? heat Power Watt W Us m kgs Electric potential differ- ence, electromotive force Vole v wa mikes A Capacitance Farad F cv me kgs AP electric resistance ‘Ohm VIA mekg-sA2 electric conductance Siemens s AW me kg sD Bureau of Energy Efficiency 803. Basics of Energy and its various forms Celsius temperature degree °c - K Celsius luminous flux Tumen Im edsr mmed=ed | Mluminance Tux Ik mim? Temperature Units Conversion of the degree Celsius into Fahrenheit = degrees C x 1.8 +32 Conversion of the Fahrenheit into degree Celsius = (degrees F - 32.) / 1.8 Degrees Celsius (©) to degrees Kelvin (K) = (C) + 273.15 = (K) Pressure Units atm’ 760mm Hg __| atmosphere (standard) 1 atm 101325 Pa atmosphere (standard) bar 100000 Pa bar TemHg(0°C) _ | 1333.22 Pa centimetre of mercury (0°C) Tem H,0 98.0638 Pa centimeter of water (4 °C) 1 kgflem? 98066,5 Pal kilogram force per square centimetre Lkgiim? 9.80665 Pa kilogram force per square meter 1 kPa 1000 Pal Kilopaseal 1 MPa 1000000 Pa__| megapascal I mbar 100 Pa millibar 1 Nim? 1Pa pascal 1 bgt 6894.76 Pa pound force per square inch Energy Units and Conversions 1 Joule = 1 Watt/s 1kW = 1000 W. 1kWh 36x 10°F =3.6 million Joules 1 Mega-joule =278 Wh 1 Watt-hour (Wh) = 3600 Joules 1 British thermal unit (BTU) | =252 Cal 1 BTU 1055 1 Buwh 0.293071 Wh 1 Kilocalorie/hour (kcal/h) 1163 Wh 1 HP = 745.7 Watts Bureau of Energy Efficiency a13. Basis of Energy and its various forms Energy Conversion values used for working out annual energy consumption in terms of metric tone of oil equivalent (as per Gazette of India Part IT Sec 3 Sub-sec(ii) 19-03-2007) + 1 kWh - 860 kilocalories (keal) + I kg, Coal/Coke - Gross Calorific Value as per supplier’s (coal company's) latest certificate + 1 kg. Charcoal - 6,900 keal or as per supplier's latest certificate + 1 kg. Fumace Oil/RFO/LSHS/NAPTHA - 10,050 keal (density ~ 0.9337 kgilitre) or as per supplier's latest certificate + kg. HSD - 11,840 kcal (density = 0.8263 kg/litre) or as per supplier’s latest certificate + 1 kg, Petrol - 11,200 keal (density = 0.7087 kg/litre) or as per supplier's latest certificate + 1 kg. Kerosene - 11,110 keal (density of SKO = 0.7782 kg/litre) or as per supplier's latest certificate + 1 kg. LPG - 12,500 keal or as per supplier's latest certificate + 1 m' Natural Gas - 8,000-10,500 kcal (Actual calorific value as per supplier’s latest certificate may be considered. In case of non-issue of certificate by the supplier, average of the range 8000 -10,500 keal/m? may be considered). For the purpose of this table YL kg of Oil Equivalent: 10,000 keal YI Metric Tonne of Oil Equivalent (MTOE) : 1 x 10" keal ¥ Incase of coal, petroleum products and other fuels in absence of supplier certificate, GCV of the above fuel (fuel sample) will be considered as per the test Certificate from a NABL Accredited Lab or State Government Lab or Gov. recognized Lab For different type of fuel these following formulas can be used for MTOE conversion: 1. For solid fuel, (Quantity of solid fuel used in kg X GCV of fuel used in keal/kg)/10" 2. For Liquid fuel, (Quantity of liquid fuel used in kg or liters X GCV of fuel used in keal/kg or liters)/10" 3. For gaseous fuel, (Quantity of gaseous fuel used in kg or Nm’ X GCV of fuel used in kcal/kg or Nm°)/10" Bureau of Energy Efficiency 23. Basics of Energy and its various forms Objective Type Questions ‘An example of stored mechanical energy is a) water in a reservoir b) an arrow in a stretched bow ©) an air-borne aeroplane __d) you on top of a mountain “Mega Volt Ampere (MVA) in a three phase electrical circuit could be written as a) Voltage x Ampere b) Voltage x Ampere 1000 1,000,000 ©) Voltage x Ampere x1,000 4) none of the above ‘When the current lags the voltage in an alternating current system, its caused mainly due wo a) resistiveload__b) capacitiveload __¢) inductiveload __d) none of the above Which energy source is indirect in an overall energy balance in the generation of electri- city by a photovoltaic cell? a) commercial energy _b) wave energy _¢) sun lightd) none of the above “The rate of energy transfer from a higher temperature to a lower temperature is measured a) keal b) Watt ) Watts per Second 4) none of the above ‘What is the “toc” of 125 Ton of coal which has GCV of 4000 keal /kg a) 40 b) 50 ©) 400 a) 500 “The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1° Cis known as a)sensibleheat __b) specificheatc) heat capacity __) latent heat, ‘Active power in an alternating current (AC) circuit is given by a) KVA x power factor ) (kVA? - kVAr)! ©) [kVA + kVAr) x (KVA - kVAn)}'* 4) all of the above Nameplate kW or HP rating of a motor indicates a) input KW to the motor b) output kW of the motor ©) minimum input kW to the motor ) maximum input kW to the motor 10, ‘Among which of the following fuel is the difference between the GCV and NCV maximum? a) coal b) furnace oil ©) natural gas 4) rice husk Short Type Questions Sa List five forms of energy with examples. 82 ‘A 10 KW rated motor has a full load efficiency of 85%. Actual input measurement at a particular loading shows 415 Volt, 10 Amps, and PF of 0.68. Find out the motor loading in percentage. Bureau of Energy Efficiency 833. Basis of Energy and its various forms ‘A250 W sodium vapor lamp is installed on a street. The supply voltage for the streetlight is $-3. | 230 V and it operates for around 12 hours in a day. Considering the current of 2 amps and power factor 0.85 calculate the energy consumption per day. 4 | Whatis the load factor ofa continuously operating facility that consumed 900,000 kWh of S| eneray during a 30-day billing period and established a peak demand of 2000 kW? ‘A400 Watt mercury vapor lamp was switched on for 10 hours per day. The supply volt is S-5_ | 230 V. Find the energy consumption per day? (Volt = 230 V, Current = 2 amps, PF = 0.8) Long Type Questions Define the following: Ll a) specific heat b) power factor Define the following, L2 a) relative humidity _b) wet bulb temperature _) dew point REFERENCES 1. Energy Dictionary, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York - V Daniel Hunt. 2. Cleaner Production - Energy Efficiency Manual for GERIAP, UNEP, Bangkok prepared by National Productivity Council 3. Engineering Thermodynamies-2™ Edition by P K NAG, Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT-Kharagpur. 4, Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologists (Fifth Edition) by EASTOP, McConkey www.cia.doe gov/kids/btudef html www.calculatororg/properties. html www-katmarsoftware.com wwwbeeindia.gov.in Bureau of Energy Efficiency 4