Lecture:4

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 Blood
Methods of vessel Response

intercellular (a) Endocrine signaling

communication by
secreted molecules
Response

(b) Paracrine signaling – short distances

Response

(c) Autocrine signaling – short distances

Synapse

Neuron

Response

(d) Synaptic signaling

Neurosecretory
cell

Blood
vessel Response

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What is Endocrine System??
 The word endocrine derives from the Greek words
"endo," meaning within, and "crinis," meaning to
secrete.
 The endocrine system is the collection of glands
that produce hormones that regulate metabolism,
growth and development, tissue function, sexual
function, reproduction, sleep, and mood, among
other things.

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Major Organ In Endocrine System
 Major endocrine organs include the: –
 pituitary gland
 thyroid gland
 parathyroid glands
 Thymus
 adrenal glands
 pancreas
Endocrine System is composed of all of the major
endocrine glands and hormone secreting cells of
other organs including the brain, heart, kidneys,
organs of the digestive system, and reproductive
organs.
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Differences between Exocrine Glands and
Endocrine Glands
 Exocrine Glands
 Exocrine glands have ducts that carry a secretion to a body
surface or an organ cavity.
 Exocrine glands produce extracellular effects. Example:
sweat glands release sweat onto the skin.
 Endocrine Glands
 Endocrine glands do not have ducts.
 Endocrine glands release hormones into intercellular space
and can be absorbed into the blood.
 Endocrine glands produce intracellular effects in target
cells that will change the target cell’s metabolism.Example:
insulin is a hormone that causes cells to absorb glucose
that is used as fuel for cell metabolism.
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Differences between the Nervous
System and Endocrine System
Means of communication:
nervous system has both electrical and chemical methods
endocrine system has only chemical methods
Speed and persistence of response:
nervous system reacts quickly (1 - 10 sec) and stops quickly
endocrine system reacts more slowly (hormone release in
seconds or days) and effect may continue for weeks
Adaptation to long-term stimuli:
nervous system adapts quickly and response declines quickly
endocrine system has more persistent responses
Area of effect:
nervous system effects are very specific (one cell or organ)
endocrine system usually has more general, widespread effects
on many organs

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Hormones
 A chemical released from living cells that travels
some distance to target tissues to have a biological
effect
 Secreted in very small amounts
 Transported, usually, in the blood
 Target cells have specific receptors
 Regulates cell reactions by affecting gene expression
(often gene transcription factors)

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Classes of Hormones
1. Peptides and proteins
-Glycoproteins
2. Amino acid derivatives
-Catecholamines
-Thyroid hormones
-Melatonin
3. Steroids
-Sex steroids
-Corticosteroids

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Classes of Hormones
Hormones may be categorized as:
-Lipophilic (nonpolar) = fat-soluble
-Steroid hormones and thyroid hormones
-Bind to intracellular receptors
-Hydrophilic (polar) = water-soluble
-All other hormones
-Bind to extracellular receptors

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• The endocrine system broadcasts
its hormonal messages to
essentially all cells by secretion into
blood and extracellular fluid.
• Like a radio broadcast, it requires
a receiver to get the message - in
the case of endocrine messages,
cells must bear a receptor for the
hormone being broadcast in order
to respond. 10
Most hormones circulate in the blood, coming into
contact with essentially all cells. However, a given
hormone usually affects only a limited number of cells,
which are called target cells. A target cell responds to
a hormone because it bears receptors for the
hormone.

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 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Endocrine gland
Axon
Neurotransmitter

Hormone
carried
by blood
Receptor
Paracrine proteins
regulator

Target cell

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Endocrine Glands and Hormones
 Neural and endocrine interactions
 Endocrine system also interacts and cooperates
with the nervous system to regulate the activities
of the other organ systems of the body.
 Secretory activity of many endocrine glands
controlled by nervous system like
 Adrenal medulla, posterior pituitary, and pineal
gland
 major site for neural regulation is the brain’s
regulation of the anterior pituitary by the
hypothalmus
However many are not under neural control
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Paracrine Regulation
 Prostaglandins – most diverse group of paracrine
regulators
 participate in regulation of:
 immune system – inflammation, pain and fever
 reproductive system – reproductive function
ovulation, labor
 digestive system – inhibit gastric secretions,
increase motility and fluid absorption
 respiratory system - blood vessels constriction and
dilation in lungs
 circulatory system - blood platelets in blood
clotting
 urinary system - renal blood flow vasodilation
increasing urine excretion
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Hormones That Enter Cells
 Lipophilic hormones pass through the target cell’s
plasma membrane and bind to intracellular receptor
proteins.
 hormone receptor complex then binds to specific
regions of DNA
 activate genes and regulate target cells

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Hormones that do not enter cells :peptide
Hormones

 Peptide hormones do not enter the cell directly.

These hormones bind to receptor proteins in the cell
membrane.
 When the hormone binds with the receptor protein, a
secondary messenger molecule initiates the cell
response.
 Because peptide hormones are water soluble, they
often produce fast responses.

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 peptide or amino
acid-derived 2 Hormone–receptor binding
hormone activates an enzyme that catalyzes
(first messenger) the synthesis of a second messenger,
1 The hormone binds to such as cyclic AMP
a receptor on the plasma cyclic AMP-
membrane of a target cell synthesizing (cytoplasm)
enzyme
(extracellular
fluid) ATP

active
enzyme
receptor product
cyclic AMP
(second messenger) 4 The activated enzymes
catalyze specific reactions
plasma membrane

inactive reactant
enzyme
3 The second nuclear
messenger activates envelope
other enzymes (nucleus)

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 The Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland is also known as the hypophysis
It hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus
The pituitary gland consists of two parts:
 Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
 Appears glandular
 Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)

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Anterior Pituitary
Disorders
Growth hormone stimulates
growth of muscles and
connective tissue
 It also promotes the
production of insulin-like
growth factors
 Stimulate cell division in the
epiphyseal growth plates, and
thus bone elongation In contrast, pituitary
Gigantism is caused by an dwarfism is caused
excessive secretion of growth by a deficiency in GH
hormone in a child secretion during
childhood
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 Anterior Pituitary Gland
 Develops from a pouch of epithelial tissue that pinches off the roof of
the embryo’s mouth.
 produces the hormones it secretes:
 growth hormone (GH) stimulates muscles and bones to grow
 adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) regulates glucose
homeostasis
 thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulates the production of
thyroxin by thyroid gland
 luteinizing hormone (LH) ovulation and testosterone production
in testes
 follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) develops ovarian follicle and
sperm in males
 prolactin (PRL) stimulates mammary glands to produce milk
 melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) synthesis and dispersion
of melanin pigment

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Negative Feedback
 Negative feedback is the primary mechanism
through which your endocrine system maintains
homeostasis
 Secretion of a specific hormone s turned on or off by
specific physiological changes (similar to a
thermostat)
 EXAMPLE: plasma glucose levels and insulin
response

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 The Endocrine Glands and Their
Hormones
 Thyroid Gland
 Located along the midline of the neck
 Secretes two nonsteroid hormones
 Triiodothyronine (T3)
 Thyroxine (T4)
 Regulates metabolism
 increases protein synthesis
 promotes glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, glucose
uptake
 Calcitonin: calcium metabolism
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Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands
 Parathyroid gland and calcium homeostasis
 four small glands attached to the thyroid
 produces parathyroid hormone (PTH)
 one of only two hormones in humans that are absolutely essential

for survival
 stimulates osteoclasts in bone to dissolve calcium phosphate

crystals and release Ca++ into the blood

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 The Parathyroid Glands
The parathyroid glands are
four small glands attached to
the thyroid
 Produce parathyroid
hormone (PTH) in response
to falling levels of Ca2+ in
blood
 Stimulates osteoclasts to
dissolve calcium phosphate
crystals in the bone matrix and
release Ca2+ into blood
 Stimulates the kidneys to
reabsorb Ca2+ from the urine 27
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 The Endocrine Glands
 Adrenal Medulla
 Situated directly atop each kidney and stimulated by
the sympathetic nervous system
 Secretes the catecholamines
 Epinephrine: elicits a fight or flight response
 Increase H.R. and B.P.
 Increase respiration
 Increase metabolic rate
 Increase glycogenolysis
 Vasodilation
 Norepinephrine
 House keeping system
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 The Endocrine Glands
 Adrenal Cortex
 Secretes over 30 different steroid hormones
(corticosteroids)
 Mineralocorticoids
 Aldosterone: maintains electrolyte balance
 Glucocorticoids
 Cortisol:
 Stimulates gluconeogenisis
 Mobilization of free fatty acids
 Glucose sparing
 Anti-inflammatory agent
 Gonadocorticoids
 testosterone, estrogen, progesterone 30
 The Endocrine Glands
 Pancrease:
 Located slightly behind the stomach
 Insulin: reduces blood glucose
 Facilitates glucose transport into the cells
 Promotes glycogenesis
 Inhibits gluconeogensis
 Glucagon: increases blood glucose

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The Pancreas
Insulin
-Secreted by beta () cells of
the islets
-Stimulates cellular uptake
of blood glucose and its
storage as glycogen in the
liver and muscle cells or as
fat in fat cells
Glucagon
-Secreted by alpha () cells
of the islets
-Promotes the hydrolysis of
glycogen in the liver and fat
in adipose tissue 32
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Diabetes Mellitus
 Diabetes mellitus is perhaps the best-known endocrine
disorder
 It is caused by a deficiency of insulin or a decreased
response to insulin in target tissues
 It is marked by elevated blood glucose levels
 Type 1 diabetes mellitus (insulin-dependent) is an
autoimmune disorder in which the immune system
destroys pancreatic beta cells
 Type 2 diabetes mellitus (non-insulin-dependent) involves
insulin deficiency or reduced response of target cells due
to change in insulin receptors

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© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Other

Endocrine
Ovaries and testes
Glands
 produce androgen
 secondary sexual characteristics
 Pineal gland
 secretes melatonin
 regulates biological clocks

 Molting and metamorphosis in insects

 Hormone secretions influence both molting and metamorphosis
in insects.
 Brain hormone stimulates production of ecdysone (molting
hormone).
 high levels cause molting to occur

 juvenile hormone

 high levels prevent transformation to an adult

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Endocrine disrupting chemicals
 chemicals that interfere with hormone function
 Any chemical that can bind to receptor proteins and mimic
the effects of the hormone is called a hormone agonist.
 Any chemical that binds to receptor proteins and has no
effect, but blocks the hormone from binding is a hormone
antagonist.

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