Optical Communication System

Unit Two:
Optical Fibers

1 Prepared by: Seife G.

 Objectives of the Chapter
 Geometrical-Optics Description o Dispersion-Induced
o Structure of fiber Limitations[reading assignment]
o Fiber index profiles  Fiber Losses
o Step-index fiber: o Attenuation coefficient
 Refractive index o Material absorption,
 Prismatic refraction o Rayleigh scattering,
 Typical fiber NA o Waveguide imperfections,
o Graded-index fiber o Connector and splicing losses
 Wave Propagation o Nonlinear Optical loses
o Maxwell equations
o Meridional and skew rays
o Fiber modes: SMF, MMF
o Normalized frequency
o Number of modes
 Dispersion in optical fiber
o Modal dispersion
o Chromatic Dispersion
o Polarization Mode Dispersion
2
 Structure of the fiber
 An optical fiber is a thin, transparent, flexible dielectric waveguide
which operates at optical frequencies.
 A single optical fiber is composed of three layers: Core,
Cladding, and buffer coating.

 Core
o A solid cylindrical dielectric with radius a and refractive index n1
o Made from glass or plastic
o Light signal propagates inside the core by means of total internal
reflection

3
 Structure of the fiber
 Cladding
o Often plastic, sometimes glass, refractive index n2 slightly less than n1
o Reduces loss due to radiation and scattering, due to discontinuities at
the core surface
o Shields the core, hence the light signal from external interferences
 Buffer Coating
o Provides mechanical strength and isolation from outside particles
 Both the core and the cladding are made from a type of glass
known as silica (SiO2) which is almost transparent in the visible
and near-IR.
 The higher core refractive index (~ 0.3% higher) is typically
achieved by doping the silica core with germanium dioxide
(GeO2).
4
 Fiber Index Profiles
 Two types of fiber optics(fiber index profiles)
o Step-index fibers: there is an abrupt index change at the core-cladding
interface
o Graded-index(GRIN) fiber: the refractive index decreases gradually inside the
core.

5
 Geometrical-Optics Description
 Geometrical-Optics Description explain the guiding mechanism of light
in the optical medium.
o It is referred also to Ray model
 The geometrical-optics description, although approximate, is valid when
the core radius a is much larger than the light wavelength λ
o In this case the light wave can be indicated by a light ray
 Large scale optical effects such as reflection & refraction can be
analyzed by simple geometrical process called ray tracing.
o This view of optics is referred to as ray optics or geometrical optics.
 When the two become comparable(core radius and the light wavelength
), it is necessary to use the wave-propagation theory

6
 Refractive Index

 The velocity of propagation of light rays/waves varies in different

media.
 Refractive index of a medium is defined as:

n
c velocity of light(EM wave) in vacuum
 
 = 𝜇𝑟 𝜖𝑟
v velocity of light(EM wave) in a medium  0 0

r: Relative magnetic permeability

r: Relative electric permittivity

 For non-magnetic media(𝜇𝑟 =1)

n 𝜖𝑟

7
 Refractive Index
 How do you think a rainbow is formed?
o Rainbows, occur due to water droplets in the atmosphere act as
small prisms that split the white sunlight into the various
wavelengths, creating a visible spectrum of color.

8
 Prismatic refraction
 When an electromagnetic wave passes from a more dense material into a
less dense material, the light ray is refracted away from the normal
otherwise bend toward the normal
 ‘Normal’ is imaginary line drawn perpendicular to the interface of the two
mediums
 Refraction occurs at both air/glass interfaces

9
 Step-index Fibers
 When a light ray travels from a medium of higher refractive index to a
medium of lower refractive index, the waves may be refracted or
reflected, depending on the angle of incidence

Small angle of incidence Critical angle of incidence Total internal reflection

10
 Step-index Fibers(Cont’d)

 When a ray making an angle θi with the fiber axis is incident at the
core center, due to refraction at the fiber-air interface, the ray
bends toward the normal.
 Using Snell’s law, the angle θr of the refracted ray is given by
𝑛0 sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑛1 sin 𝜃𝑟
where n1 and n0 are the refractive indices of the core and air, respectively

11
 Step-index Fibers(Cont’d)
 The refracted ray hits the core–cladding interface and is refracted
again.
 Minimum critical angle for total internal reflection(TIR)
n1 sinc  n2 sin( / 2)  sinc  n2 / n1
where n2 is the cladding index,
 The ray experiences total internal reflection at the core-cladding
interface, when n1>n2 and  >
 Since such reflections occur throughout the fiber length, all rays
with  > remain confined to the fiber core.
 This is the basic mechanism behind light confinement in optical
fibers
 Meridional rays: rays that meet the TIR
12
 Step-index Fibers(Cont’d)
 The maximum angle that the incident ray should make with the fiber
axis to remain confined inside the core(max. acceptance angle)
𝑛0 sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑛1 cos 𝜙𝑐 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
 Numerical aperture(NA): It represents the light-gathering capacity of an
optical fiber, for n1≈ n2, the NA can be approximated by
𝑛1 − 𝑛2
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛0 sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑛1 2∆ , ∆=
𝑛1
where ∆ is the fractional change at the core-cladding interface(relative n)
o It seems logical to have NA as large as possible with as large as
possible to couple maximum amount of light in to the fiber.
o However, such large-NA fibers tend to be multimode and are not
suitable for high speed communications because of a limitation known
as multipath or modal dispersion.

13
 Typical fiber NA
 Silica fibers used for long-haul transmission
o Low NA=0.1 to 0.3.
o Poor coupling efficiency
o But improve fiber’s bandwidth
 Plastic optical fibers are available for short range
communications
o High attenuation in plastic materials.
o High NA=0.4-0.5
o Improve coupling efficiency
o Induce dispersion

14
 Questions
 Apply snell’s law at the fiber input face for a ray that meets the
critical angle condition at the core-cladding interface and assume
that the medium outside the fiber has a refractive index of (n0 =
1) to prove that the maximum acceptance angle is given by

Ɵa(max) = sin-1 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2

 If the refractive indices of the core and cladding are 1.46 and 1.44
respectively, Calculate:
i. The acceptance angle
ii. The Numerical Aperture (NA)
iii. The normalized difference of refractive index

15
 Step-index Fibers(Cont’d)
 Multipath dispersion: occurs where different rays travel along paths
of different lengths
— A short pulse (called an impulse) would broaden considerably as a
result of different path lengths
— By taking the shortest path that occurs for θi = 0 and is just equal
to the fiber length L and the longest path which occurs for max θi
and has a length L/sin c [ NA equation]
— By taking the velocity of propagation v = c/n1, the time delay is
given by

— The time delay between the two rays taking the shortest and
longest paths is a measure of broadening experienced by an impulse
launched at the fiber input

16
 Step-index Fibers(Cont’d)
 It is clear that ∆T should be less than the allocated bit slot (TB
= 1/B). Thus, an order-of-magnitude estimate of the bit rate
is obtained from the condition B∆T < 1
 The bit rat-distance product is given by
𝑛2 𝑐
𝐵𝐿 < 2
𝑛1 ∆

 Example: for n1=1.5 and n2=1, BL<0.4(Mb/s)-km.

 Most fibers for communication applications are designed
with ∆ < 0.01
o Δ ≈ 1–3% for MM fibers
o Δ ≈ 0.1–1% for SM fibers
 Typical fiber: Δ = A = 2 x 10-3 ⇒ BL < 100 (Mbit/s) × km
o 1 Gbit/s over 100 m or 10Mb/s over 10km distance,
17
suitable for LAN.
 Graded index Fibers
 The refractive index decreases gradually from its maximum value
n1 at the core center to its minimum value n2 at the core–cladding
interface

where a is the core radius.

 The parameter α determines the index profile. A step-index
profile is approached in the limit of large α(approximate to
infinity). A parabolic-index fiber corresponds to α = 2.
 Graded-index fibers are preferred for LAN

18
 Graded-index Fibers
 Intermodal or multipath dispersion is reduced for graded-index
fibers than step-index fibers
 The time-delay for graded-index fiber is given by
𝑛1 ∆2
∆𝑇 = 𝐿
8𝑐
 The limiting bit rate–distance product is obtained by using the
criterion ∆T < 1/B and is given by
8𝑐
B𝐿 <
𝑛1 ∆2
 Have large core, resulting in a high numerical aperture and high
coupling efficiency but they exhibit high losses (>50 dB/km)
 Graded-index plastic optical fibers provide an ideal solution for
transferring data among computers and are becoming increasingly
important for Ethernet applications(<1km) requiring bit rates in
20
excess of 1 Gb/s.
 Wave Propagation
 Ray model of light
o Explains the reflection and refraction mechanisms of light, but it
fails to explain the fine-scale optical phenomena such as
interference, diffraction and dispersion.
o Indicates that all rays that are incident at the core-cladding interface
satisfying the conditions for total internal reflection can propagate
in the fiber. In practice, only rays which are incident at certain
discrete angles can propagate along the fiber core.
 The EM wave theory explains all the propagation phenomena of
light
o Interference, diffraction, dispersion, discrete number of modes
o Describe optical modes that are guided inside a fiber
o Maxwell’s equations describe all EM wave phenomena
21
 Meridional and skew rays
 A meridional ray is one that has no φ component – it passes
through the z axis, and is guide ray.
 Ray propagation in a fiber is complicated by the possibility of a
path component in the φ direction, from which arises a skew
ray.
 Such a ray exhibits a spiral-like path down the core, never
crossing the z axis

23
 Vectorial characteristics of modes in
optical fibers
 TE (i.e. Ez = 0) and TM (Hz = 0) modes are also obtained within
the circular optical fiber. These modes correspond to meridional
rays (pass through the fiber axis).
 As the circular optical fiber is bounded in two dimensions in the
transverse plane,
 two integers, l and m, are necessary in order to specify the modes
i.e. We refer to these modes as TEmn and TMmn modes.

24
 Vectorial characteristics of modes in
optical fibers
 Hybrid modes are modes in which both Ez and Hz are nonzero.
 These modes result from skew ray propagation (helical path
without passing through the fiber axis). The modes are denoted as
HEmn and EHmn depending on whether the components of H or E
make the larger contribution to the transverse field.
 The full set of circular optical fiber modes therefore comprises:
o TE, TM (meridional rays), HE and EH (skew rays) modes.

25
 Fiber Modes-Summary
 There are three propagating modes[Guiding modes]
o Transverse electric field(TE0n), TE modes, Ez = 0,
o Transverse magnetic field(TM0n), TM modes, Hz = 0,
o Hybrid modes, with both Ez and Hz are non-zero(HEmn or EHmn)
 HE modes, Ez dominates
 EH modes, Hz dominates
 Inside the core, for each order m, the field will have n
zeros.
o The modes are represented as TEmn, TMmn, HEmn, and EHmn.
o TE0n, TM0n correspond to meridional rays
 A different notation LPmn is sometimes used for weakly
guiding fibers for which both Ez and Hz are nearly zero (LP
stands for linearly polarized)
28
 Fiber Modes-Normalized Frequency
 For guided modes, the optical field decays exponentially inside the cladding
 A mode is cutoff when it is no longer bound to the core of the fiber, its field
no longer decays outside of the fiber.
 A parameter that plays an important role in determining the cutoff condition is
normalized frequency (V ∝ ω) is defined as
2𝜋𝑎 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
𝑉=
𝜆
 A fiber with a large value
of V supports many
modes.
 The minimum value of
V corresponds to 2.405

30
 Fiber Modes
 There exist two types of optical fibers: MMF and SMF
 Propagation modes can be s either multimode or single mode, and
then multimode can be further divided into step index or graded
index.
 Single-Mode Step-Index Optical Fiber
o Single-mode fibers support only the HE11 mode, also known as
the fundamental mode of the fiber:
 The fundamental mode has no cutoff and is always supported by
a fiber
o The fiber is designed such that all higher-order modes are cut off
at the operating wavelength
o A fiber designed such that V < 2.405 supports only the
fundamental HE11 mode.
o Most telecommunication fibers are designed with a <4𝜇𝑚
31
 Fiber Modes
 Multimode Step-Index Optical Fiber
o The number of modes for step-index fiber is given by(V>20)
𝑉2
𝑁≈
2
o Has larger core size than single-mode step-index fibers
o Has larger NA, thus couple more light to the cable
o The light rays that strike the core/cladding interface at an angle
greater than the critical angle are propagated down the core in a
zigzag fashion, reflecting off the interface boundary
o It can be seen that there are many paths that a light ray may
follow as it propagates down the fiber. As a result, all light rays
do not follow the same path and, consequently, do not take the
same amount of time to travel the length of the cable.

32
 Fiber Modes
 Multimode Graded-Index Optical Fiber
o The number of modes for multi-mode is given by
α 𝑉2
𝑁=
α+2 2
𝑉2
o For a parabolic graded index fiber, α=2, 𝑁 =
4
o Graded-index fibers are characterized by a central core with a non-
uniform refractive index
o Light rays propagate down this type of fiber through refraction
rather than reflection
o Reduce intermodal dispersion in multimode fibers
o Since the refractive index decreases as a function of the radial
distance from the core, the fundamental mode travels the shortest
distance while the critical mode travels at the highest speed.
o Therefore, the fractions of pulse carried by the different modes
arrive at the Rx end almost at the same time.
33
 Fiber Modes
 .

Core index profiles: (a) single-mode step index; (b) multimode step index; (c) multimode graded index
34
 Exercises:
 Determine the cutoff wavelength for a step-index fiber to
exhibit single-mode operation when the core refractive index
is 1.46 and the core radius is 4.5 µm, with the relative index
difference of 0.25 %
 A multimode step-index fiber with a core diameter of 80 µm
and a relative index difference of 1.5 % is operating at a
wavelength of 0.85 µm. If the core refractive index is 1.48,
estimate (a) the normalized frequency for the fiber; (b) the
number of guided modes.

35
 Transmission characteristics of optical
fibers
 The transmission characteristics of most interest: attenuation
(loss) and bandwidth.
 Now, silica-based glass fibers have losses less than 0.2 dB/km (i.e.
95 % launched power remains after 1 km of fiber transmission).
This is essentially the fundamental lower limit for attenuation in
silica based glass fibers.
 Fiber bandwidth is limited by the signal dispersion within the
fiber.
 Bandwidth determines the number of bits of information
transmitted in a given time period. Now, fiber bandwidth has
reached many 10’s Gbit over many km’s per wavelength channel.
36
 Dispersion in Optical Fiber
 Dispersion is used to describe any process by which an
electromagnetic signal propagating in a physical medium is degraded
because the various wave components (i.e., frequencies) of the signal
have different propagation velocities within the physical medium.
o Dispersion limits the available bandwidth.
o As bit rates are increasing, dispersion is becoming critical aspect of
most systems.
o Dispersion can be reduced by fiber design.

37
 Dispersion in Optical Fiber
 Types of dispersion, relating to optical fibers, are

— Modal dispersion
— Chromatic dispersion
MMF/LAN  Material dispersion Single mode
 Waveguide dispersion Fibers/Telecom systems

— Polarization dispersion

38
 Dispersion in Optical Fiber
 Modal Dispersion:
o In multimode fiber different modes travel at different velocities
o If a pulse constitute from different modes then intermodal dispersion
occurs
o Occurs only in MM fibers and is greatest in multimode step index
fibers
o Reduced by using graded index multimode fiber and single mode
fiber
o Multimode dispersion does not depend on the source linewidth
 Single wavelength can be carried by multiple modes in a waveguide)
o If only one mode is excited in a fiber, only intramode chromatic
dispersion has to be considered even when the fiber is a multimode
fiber.

39
 Dispersion in Optical Fiber
 Modal dispersion in multimode step index fiber

40
 Dispersion in Optical Fiber
 Chromatic Dispersion:
o It may occur in all types of optical fiber.
o The optical pulse broadening results from the finite spectral linewidth of the optical
source.
o Different wavelengths travel with different velocities even for single mode fibers
o Laser sources are spectrally thin but not monochromatic.
 Input pulse has several wavelength components, travelling at different speeds, lead pulse spread.

o It results in the slower wavelengths of one pulse intermixing with faster

wavelengths of adjacent pulse, causing intersymbol interference.
o Is characteristic of the material and impossible to avoid but can be minimized

41
 Dispersion in Optical Fiber
 Spectral linewidth
o Real sources emit over a range of wavelengths. This range is the
source linewidth or spectral width.
o The smaller is the linewidth, the smaller the spread in
wavelengths or frequencies, the more coherent is the source.
o A perfectly coherent source emits light at a single wavelength. It
has zero linewidth and is perfectly monochromatic

42
 Dispersion in Optical Fiber
 Material dispersion:
o In an optical fiber the propagation velocity varies with wavelength.
Thus a pulse, made up of many wavelengths will be spread out in
time as it propagates.
o It occurs because the refractive index of silica, the material used for
fiber fabrication, changes with the optical frequency
o Because every optical signal has a finite spectral width, material
dispersion results in spreading of the signal. Is one factor
contributing to chromatic dispersion
 Waveguide Dispersion:
o Is chromatic dispersion which arises from waveguide effects such as
the core radius and the refractive index difference: the dispersive
phase shifts for a wave in a waveguide differ from those which the
wave would experience in a homogeneous medium.
o Chromatic dispersion = Material dispersion + Waveguide
dispersion
o Dispersion-shifted fibers that involve multiple cladding layes reduce
the waveguide dispersion.
43
 Dispersion in Optical Fiber
 Polarization mode dispersion (PMD):
o Is a form of modal dispersion where two different polarizations
of light in a waveguide, which normally travel at the same
speed, travel at different speeds due to random imperfections
and asymmetries, causing random spreading of optical pulses.
o In an ideal optical fiber, the core has a perfectly circular cross-
section. In this case, the fundamental mode has two orthogonal
polarizations (orientations of the electric field) that travel at
the same speed.
o The signal that is transmitted over the fiber is randomly
polarized, i.e. a random superposition of these two
polarizations, but that would not matter in an ideal fiber
because the two polarizations would propagate identically (are
degenerate).

44
 Dispersion in Optical Fiber
 Polarization mode dispersion (PMD)
o In a realistic fiber, however, there are random imperfections that break the
circular symmetry, causing the two polarizations to propagate with different
speeds.
o In this case, the two polarization components of a signal will slowly
separate, e.g. causing pulses to spread and overlap.
o Unless it is compensated, which is difficult, this ultimately limits the rate at
which data can be transmitted over a fiber
 Compensation of chromatic dispersion:
o Pre-compensating the signal for the anticipated dispersion before it's sent
down the optical fiber.
o Use of dispersion compensating fiber at the end of a length to correct or
reverse the dispersion that was realized as the signal traversed the optical
fiber.

45
 Fiber Loses
 Fiber losses represent another limiting factor because they reduce the
signal power reaching the receiver.
 As optical receivers need a certain minimum amount of power for
recovering the signal accurately, the transmission distance is inherently
limited by fiber losses.
 Low-loss fibers are still required since spacing among amplifiers is set by
fiber losses
 Various loss mechanisms in optical fibers
o Attenuation coefficient
o Material absorption
o Scattering loss
o Waveguide imperfections
o Connector and splicing losses
o Mode coupling loss
o Nonlinear optical losses

46
 Fiber Loses

Loss spectrum of single Mode fiber and wavelength dependence of several fundamental
47 loss mechanisms
 Attenuation Coefficient
 Under quite general conditions, changes in the average optical
power P of a bit stream propagating inside an optical fiber are
governed by Beer’s law

where α is the attenuation coefficient of different sources of power

attenuation
 If Pin is the power launched at the input end of a fiber of length L,
the output power Pout

 A fiber loss parameter, a can be expressed in units of dB/km

48
 Attenuation Coefficient
 Fiber losses depend on the wavelength of transmitted light
o At wavelength near 1.55𝜇𝑚 a loss of 0.2dB/km
o Max fiber loss occurs near 1.39 𝜇𝑚(conventional fiber)
o At 1.3 𝜇𝑚 fiber loss is 0.5dB/km and fiber dispersion is minimum
o For shorter wavelengths, fiber loss is higher>5dB/km, thus unsuitable
for long-haul transmission
o For dry fiber(modern fiber), OH concentration is reduced to reduce the
peak 1.39 𝜇𝑚 to <1dB.

49
 Material Absorption
 Any material absorbs at certain wavelengths corresponding to
the electronic and vibrational resonances associated with
specific molecules.
 For silica (SiO2) molecules, electronic resonances occur in
the ultraviolet region (λ<0.4µm), whereas vibrational
resonances occur in the infrared region (λ>7µm).
 Material absorption is a loss mechanism related to both the
material composition and the fabrication process for the
fiber. The optical power is lost as heat in the fiber.
 The light absorption can be intrinsic (due to the material
components of the glass) or extrinsic (due to impurities
introduced into the glass during fabrication).
50
 Intrinsic absorption
 A loss due to fused silica(material used to make fibers due to
o UV absorption and Infrared absorption
 UV absorption: peaks are centered in the ultraviolet wavelength
region.
o The tail of this peak may extend into the shorter wavelengths of the
fiber transmission spectral window
o Absorption loss for silica in the λ range 0.8–1.6µm is below 0.1
dB/km.
o Loss is <0.03 dB/km in the 1.3-1.6-µm λ, commonly used for light
wave systems.
 Infrared absorption edge: due to molecular vibrations (such as Si-O)
o The tail of these absorption peaks may extend into the longer
wavelengths of the fiber transmission spectral window.
o Sharp rise at 𝜆 > 1.6𝜇𝑚
51
 Extrinsic(impurity) absorption
 Is caused by absorption due to water (OH- ions).
 These OH- ions are bonded into the glass structure and have
absorption peaks (due to molecular vibrations) at 1.39 µm. The
fundamental vibration of the OH- ions appear at 2.73 µm.
 Spectral peaks(at 1.39,1.24, and 0.95 µm) occur due to
presence of residual water vapor in silica.
 Modern fibers(dry fiber)reduce OH concentration to 10-8,
o Lower the spectral peak to below 1dB
o Used to transmit WDM signals over the entire wavelength range
of 1.3 to 1.65 µm

52
 Fiber transmission spectral windows
 1550 nm window is today’s standard long-haul communication
wavelengths
o 1st window: 850 nm, loss 4 dB/km
o 2nd window: 1300 nm, loss 0.5 dB/km
o 3rd window: 1550 nm, loss 0.2 dB/km

53
 Rayleigh Scattering
 Rayleigh scattering is a fundamental loss mechanism arising from local
microscopic fluctuations in density.
o Caused by variations in density and composition that are built into the
fiber during the manufacturing process
 Density fluctuations lead to random fluctuations of the refractive index
on a scale smaller than the optical wavelength λ.
 The intrinsic loss of silica fibers from Rayleigh scattering:

where the constant C is in the range 0.7–0.9 (dB/km)- µm4,

depending on the constituents of the fiber core.
 Thus αR=0.12–0.16 dB/km at =1.55µm, indicating that fiber loss in
previous figure is dominated by Rayleigh scattering near this
wavelength.
 Such fluctuations always exist and cannot be completely avoided

54
 Waveguide Imperfections
 Imperfections at the core–cladding interface (e.g., random core-
radius variations) can lead to additional fiber losses.
o Mie scattering, occurs due to index in-homogeneities on a scale
longer than the optical wavelength. Contribute <0.03dB/km loss
 Bends in the fiber constitute another source of scattering loss.
o Rays that don’t experience total internal reflection escape out of fiber
o The bending loss is proportional to exp(−R/Rc), where R is the
radius of curvature
𝑅𝑐 = 𝑎/(𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 )
o For SMF, Rc =0.2–0.4µm, and the macrobending loss is negligible
(<0.01 dB/km) for bend radius R>5 mm.

55
 Waveguide Imperfections
 Microbending loss: related to the random axial distortions that
invariably occur during cabling when the fiber is pressed against a
surface that is not perfectly smooth
o Can result can large loss (~ 100 dB/km) if care failed

56
 Waveguide Imperfections
 Connector and splice loss
o Core size mismatch
o Lateral Core misalignment
o Longitudinal gap separation between two fibers
o Refractive Index mismatch

57
 Connectors and Splices
 Connector :
o A connector in a mechanical termination that mates two fibers to create
a temporary joint or connects the fiber to a piece of network gear
temporarily.
o A connector in optical fiber plays the same role as connectors used in
wire coaxial cables.
 Splices:
o Splices create permanent joints between fibers.
o Splices can be created by fusing ends of two fibers which is analogous to
welding in metals.
o A splice can also be created by putting a cement material between ends
of fibers.
o The cement material must have the same refractive index as the optical
fibers being joined.
o This is analogous to soldering two wires together.
 Connectors and splices cause loss of optical power going through them.
58
 Connectors and Splices
 Core size mismatch
o If the outgoing fiber core is smaller, then only part of the incoming
light is propagated.
o However if the incoming core is smaller than the outgoing one, no
problem is caused because all the light can be propagated.

 Lateral Core misalignment

o If the cores do not lie on the same center-line, then the light room
one fiber will not all propagate in the other fiber. Therefore, there
is light power loss.

59
 Connectors and Splices
 Longitudinal gap separation between two fibers
o When light leaves the end of a fiber, it diverges into a cone that is
determined by the acceptance angle of the fiber. If the mating fibers
are not batted right up against each other, light will be lost because
of the divergence

60
 Connectors and Splices
 Refractive Index mismatch
o If the gap between fibers has a different refractive index ng, then the light
going through the fiber must go through two partially reflecting surfaces.
o The fraction of light reflected at each interface is given by

o The light which is transmitted through the interface = 1 – r

o The ratio of the transmitted power to the received power is (1 – r)-1
o The loss in transmitted power due to the reflection is referred to as
Fresnel loss which is expressed in dB.

o The Fresnel loss (dB) =

o Total Fresnel loss (dB)=

o Example: Given n1 =1.5 and ng =1 (air), calculate the Fresnel loss of the
fiber.
61
 Nonlinear Optical Effects
 The response of any dielectric to light becomes nonlinear for intense
electromagnetic fields, and optical fibers are no exception.
 Even though silica is intrinsically not a highly nonlinear material, the
waveguide geometry that confines light to a small cross section over
long fiber lengths makes nonlinear effects quite important in the design
of modern lightwave systems.
 The nonlinear phenomena that are most relevant for fiber-optic
communications are the following
o Stimulated light scattering: depend on the intensity of the power in the
optical fiber: insignificant if power is <100mw
oPhase modulation: occurs when the optical phase changes with time
o Four-wave mixing: occurs when 3 optical fields propagate can
generate a fourth field
 Nonlinear effects are intensity dependent, and thus they can become
very important at high optical powers.
62
 Stimulated Light Scattering
 Rayleigh scattering, discussed above is an example of elastic scattering for which
the frequency (or the photon energy) of scattered light remains unchanged.
 By contrast, the frequency of scattered light is shifted downward during
inelastic scattering.
o Includes Raman scattering and Brillouin scattering.
 Both of them can be understood as scattering of a photon to a lower energy
photon such that the energy difference appears in the form of a phonon.
 The main difference between the two is that optical phonons participate in
Raman scattering, whereas acoustic phonons participate in Brillouin scattering.
 Both scattering processes result in a loss of power at the incident frequency.
 However, their scattering cross sections are sufficiently small that loss is
negligible at low power levels.
 At high power levels, the nonlinear phenomena of stimulated Raman scattering
(SRS) and stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) become important.

63
 Nonlinear Optical Effects
 The intensity of the scattered light in both cases grows exponentially once
the incident power exceeds a threshold value.
 Even though SRS and SBS are quite similar in their origin, different
dispersion relations for acoustic and optical phonons lead to the following
differences between the two in single-mode fibers.
 SBS occurs only in the backward direction whereas SRS can occur in both
directions;
 The scattered light is shifted in frequency by about 10 GHz for SBS but by 13
THz for SRS (this shift is called the Stokes shift); and
 The Brillouin gain spectrum is extremely narrow (bandwidth<100 MHz)
compared with the Raman-gain spectrum that extends over 20–30 THz.
 The origin of these differences lies in a relatively small value of the ratio
vA /c(∼10 −5), where vA is the acoustic velocity in silica and C is the
velocity of light.

64
 Reading Assignments

Dispersion-Induced Limitations

65