MECHANICS UNIT

KINEMATIC RELATIONSHIPS AND RELATIVISTIC MOTION

ds dv d2s
Calculus notation v= ; a= = 2
dt dt dt
derive v = u +at; v = u + 2as; s = ut + ½ at2
2 2

Rest Mass (mo) The mass of an object which is at rest relative to an

observer. (The mass of an object increases with its
velocity).
Relativistic Mass (m) The mass of an object which is travelling at a
velocity comparable to the velocity of light.
mo
m = [equation will be given]
v2
1- 2
c
Relativistic Energy E = mc 2

ANGULAR MOTION

Angular Displacement (θ) measured in radians. (2π radians = 360°)

dθ
Angular Velocity (ω) ω = (rad s-1)
dt
dω d2θ
Angular Acceleration (α) α = = 2 (rad s-2)
dt dt
Equations of Motion
CIRCULAR MOTION LINEAR MOTION
[no derivations [derivations required]
required]
ω = ωo + α t v=u+at
1 1
θ = ωot + 2 α t2 s = ut + 2 at2
ω2 = ωo2 + 2αθ v2 = u2 + 2as
v = r ω [derivation required]
a = r α [no derivation required]
Central Force The force required to maintain a particle in circular
motion.
v2
Central acceleration a = and a = rω2
r
[derivation required]
mv2
Central Force equations F = and F = mω2 r
r

Physics: Course Summary (AH) 1

ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS

Moment of a Force The magnitude of the moment of a force (or the

turning effect) is force x perpendicular distance

Torque (T) T = Fxr where r is the perpendicular distance

from the force to the axis of rotation

Moment of Inertia (I) The moment of inertia depends on the mass and the
distribution of the mass about a fixed axis.
I = m r2 mass m at distance r from axis of rotation
[I = Σm r2 (Σ is the ‘sum of’) equation not required]

Torque (T) T = Iα

Angular Momentum(L) L = Iω (for a rigid body)

2
L = mr ω = mrv (for a particle)

1
Rotational Kinetic Energy Erot = 2 I ω2 (for a rigid body)

GRAVITATION

G m1 m2
Law of Gravitation F =
r2

Gm
Gravitational Potential V= - (zero of V is at infinity)
r

Conservative Field The gravitational field is an example of a conservative

field where the total work done moving a mass around
any closed path is zero.

Equipotentials Lines joining points of equal gravitational potential.

Escape Velocity The velocity a projectile must have in order to escape

from a planet's gravitational field.
2G M
vesc = [derivation required]
r

Black Hole A body with a sufficiently high density to make the

escape velocity greater than c, the speed of light.

Physics: Course Summary (AH) 2

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

SHM The unbalanced force, or acceleration, is proportional to

the displacement of the object and acts in the opposite
direction.
d2 y 2π
SHM Equation = - ω2y and ω =
dt2 T

SHM Solutions y = a sin ωt if y = 0 at t = 0

y = a cos ωt if y = a at t = 0

dy
Velocity ( ) v = ± ω a2 - y2 a = amplitude of motion.
dt
vmax = ± ω a and occurs at the centre of the motion,
vmin = 0 at extremes.

d 2y
Acceleration ( 2 ) acc = - ω2 y
dt
accmax = - ω2 a and occurs at y = a.
accmin = 0 at centre.

1
Energy Ek = 2 m ω2 (a2 - y2) [derivation required]
1
Ep = 2 m ω2 y2 [derivation required]
1
Etot = Ek + Ep = 2 m ω2 a2

Damping Damping causes the amplitude of the oscillation to

decay.

WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY

Particles as Waves Particles such as electrons can exhibit wave properties,

such as diffraction.

de Broglie Wavelength λ = h (h is the Planck constant and p is momentum)

p

The Bohr Model of the The electrons occupy only certain allowed orbits.
Atom Angular momentum is quantised. Radiation is
emitted when electrons move from higher energy
levels to lower energy levels.
Quantisation of Angular nh
mvr =
Momentum 2π
Quantum Mechanics and Quantum mechanics provides methods to determine
Probability probabilities.

Physics: Course Summary (AH) 3

ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA UNIT

ELECTRIC FIELDS

Q1 Q2 1
Coulomb’s Inverse Square F = or [ ] . Q1 Q 2
4πεo r 2 4πε
Law o r2
(εo is the permittivity of free space)

Electric Field Strength (E) Force on one coulomb of positive charge at that point.
F
E =
Q
Electric Field Strength for V
E = [derivation required]
a uniform electric field d
Electric Field Strength for Q 1 .Q
a point charge
E =
4πεor2
or [4πε ]
o r2
[no derivation required]

Charging by Induction Conducting objects can be charged by separating the

positive and negative charges on the objects and then
removing one set of charges by earthing.
Conducting Shapes When a conducting shape is in an electric field the
induced charge stays on its surface and the electric
field inside the conducting shape is zero.
Electrostatic Potential Work done by an external force to bring one coulomb
of positive charge from infinity to that point.
Q 1 .Q
V = or [ ]
4πεo r 4πεo r
[no derivation required]

Charged Particles in 1
mv2 = QV (kinetic energy to electrical energy)
uniform electric fields 2
- non relativistic
Charged Particles in Relativistic effects must be considered when the
uniform electric fields velocity of the charged particle is more than 10% of
- relativistic case the velocity of light.
[no relativistic calculations required]
Particle head-on collisions Change in Ek = change in Ep
1 qQ . 1
2
mv2 =
4πεo r
where r is closest distance of approach
Millikan's Experiment Quantisation of charge.
E q = mg (neglecting upthrust)

Physics: Course Summary (AH) 4

ELECTROMAGNETISM

Tesla The tesla is the magnetic induction of a magnetic field

in which a conductor of length one metre, carrying a
current of one ampere perpendicular to the field is
acted on by a force of one newton

Magnetic Induction (B) F = IlB sin θ (θ is the angle between B and l)

The direction of F is perpendicular to the plane
containing B and I.

The Magnetic Induction µo I

around an 'infinite', B = (µo is the permeability of free space)
2π r
straight conductor (r is the perpendicular distance from conductor)

Force between parallel F = µ I1 I2 [derivation required]

conductors l
o
2πr

MOTION IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

Force on charge q, speed F = q v B sinθ (θ is the angle between v and B)

v, in field B: The direction of F is perpendicular to the plane
containing v and B.

Helical path This is the spiral path followed by a charge when its
velocity makes an angle θ with the direction of B.
v sin θ is the component perpendicular to the direction
B, while v cos θ is the component parallel to the
direction of B.

J.J. Thomson Measured the charge to mass ratio of the electron by

using electric and magnetic deflection of an electron
beam.
‘Crossed’ fields Electric and magnetic fields are applied at right angles
to each other. Charged particles of certain speeds will
E
pass through undeviated - velocity selector: v =
B

Physics: Course Summary (AH) 5

SELF-INDUCTANCE

Growth and Decay of The current takes time to grow and decay in a d.c.
current circuit containing an inductor

Self-Induction An e.m.f. is induced across a coil when the current in

the coil changes.

Self Inductance (L) dI

e=-L (L is the self inductance of the coil)
dt
Henry The inductance of an inductor is one henry if an e.m.f.
of one volt is induced when the current changes at a
rate of one ampere per second.
Direction of induced The direction of the induced e.m.f. is such that it
e.m.f. opposes the change of current. This is known as Lenz's
Law. The negative sign in the above equation indicates
this opposing direction.
Energy stored The work done in building up the current in an inductor
is stored in the magnetic field of the inductor.
The magnetic field can be a source of energy when the
magnetic field is allowed to collapse.
Energy equation 1
E = L I2 (energy E stored in inductor L)
2
Current and frequency in Current is inversely proportional to the frequency in an
an inductive circuit inductive circuit.
Reactance The opposition to flow of an alternating current is
called reactance.
C and L in a.c. circuits For an inductor the reactance increases as the
frequency of the a.c. increases.
Conversely the reactance of a capacitor decreases as
the frequency of the a.c. increases.
Uses Inductors can be used to block a.c. signals while
allowing d.c signals to pass. Capacitors can block d.c
signals, but allow high frequency a.c. signals to pass.
Inductors can be used to generate a high voltage when
the magnetic field is allowed to collapse suddenly.

FORCES OF NATURE

Strong Force The force of attraction between nucleons in a nucleus,

with a very short range < 1 x 10-14 m.

Weak Force This is the force associated with β-decay.

Quarks Neutrons and protons are made up of quarks.

Physics: Course Summary (AH) 6

WAVE PHENOMENA SUMMARY

WAVES

Wave motion Energy is transferred with no net mass transport.

Travelling Wave The displacement, y, of any point on a travelling wave
in the positive x direction is given by:
x
y = a sin 2π (ft - ) [explain not derive]
λ
Intensity of a wave Intensity is directly proportional to (amplitude)2.
Superposition The displacement at a point, due to two or more waves,
is the algebraic sum of the individual displacements.
Phase Difference For two points separated by distance x, the phase
x
difference is φ = 2π (φ is the phase angle)
λ
Stationary Wave This wave is produced by the interference of two
identical waves travelling in opposite directions
Nodes These are points of zero displacement on a stationary
λ
wave separated by a distance of 2 .

Antinodes These are points of maximum displacement on a

stationary wave, also separated by λ2 .

Doppler Effect This is the change in frequency which is observed

when a source of sound waves moves relative to a
stationary observer.
Apparent frequency when v source moving towards
source of sound moves fobs = fs stationary observer
(v - vs)
v source moving away from
fobs = fs stationary observer
(v + vs)

Apparent frequency when v + vo observer moving towards

observer moves fobs = fs stationary source
v
v - vo observer moving away
fobs = fs from stationary source
v
[derivation of the above expressions for fobs required]

Physics: Course Summary (AH) 7

INTERFERENCE – DIVISION OF AMPLITUDE

Coherent Sources of light Coherent sources must have a constant phase

difference.
Optical path length Optical path length = n x geometrical path length
Optical path difference For optical path lengths S1P and S2P:
(S2P - S1P) = mλ for constructive interference
1
(S2P - S1P) = (m + )λ for destructive interference
2
Phase difference and phase difference = 2π x optical path length
optical path length λ
Phase change on When light reflects off an optically more dense
reflection medium a phase change of π occurs.
Thin Film Destructive interference: 2nt cos r = mλ
For viewing at near normal incidence 2nt = mλ
[derivation required]
Wedge Fringes At normal incidence, fringe separation ∆x is
∆x = λ = λL [derivation required]
2 tan 2D
(D is the wedge separation, and L is the wedge length)
Non-Reflective Coatings λ
Thickness of coating, d = [derivation required]
4n

INTERFERENCE – DIVISION OF WAVEFRONT

Point or line source Explain why division of wavefront requires a point or

line source. Describe why division of amplitude can
use an extended source.
Young's Slits Fringe separation ∆x = λD [derivation required]
d

POLARISATION

Plane Polarised Light Linearly polarised light waves consist of vibrations of

the electric field strength vector in one plane only.

Polarisers and Analysers A polariser and analyser held so that their planes of
polarisation are at right angles can prevent the
transmission of light.
Brewster's angle At the polarising angle ip , known as Brewster's angle,
the refracted and reflected rays are separated by 90°.

Brewster’s law n = tan ip [derivation required]

Physics: Course Summary (AH) 8