NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES (ME411)

PART-2

Energy storage

Dr. D. Jaya Krishna

Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY WARANGAL
 Energy Storage Systems

•Thermal Energy Storage

Sensible heat storage
Latent heat storage

•Mechanical Energy storage

Pumped hydroelectric storage (PHS)
Compressed air energy storage (CAES)
Flywheels

•Electromagnetic Energy Storage

•Electrical Storage
 Lead Acid
 Li-ion battery
 Thermal Energy Storage

Sensible heat storage

Different concepts of Sensible heat storage

 Requirements of Sensible heat

q = m Cp(T2-T1)

where
m is mass
Cp is specific heat at constant pressure, and
T1 and T2 are the two temperatures before and after heating
The thermal stratification of lakes refers to a change in the temperature at different depths
in the lake, and is due to the change in water's density with temperature. Cold water is
denser than warm water and the epilimnion generally consists of water that is not as dense
as the water in the hypolimnion

Epilimnion: the upper layer of water in a stratified lake

Hypolimnion: the lower layer of water in a stratified lake, typically cooler than the water
above and relatively stagnant.

Thermocline: an abrupt temperature

gradient in a body of water such as a lake,
marked by a layer above and below which
the water is at different temperatures.
 Latent heat storage

Latent heat is
q = m CpdT (s) + m L + m Cp dT (L)

where
L is the enthalpy of fusion and
dT is the temperature difference

• Use of PCMs is a promising technology because it provides a way of storing heat

from renewable sources such as the sun and waste heat from industrial processes

• A PCM can handle much more heat at the same temperature than a constant state
material
Classification of thermal energy storage system
 Key parameters in the selection of a suitable HSM

Thermophysical properties

• Melting point temperature

• Latent heat of fusion
• Specific heat
• Thermal conductivity

Along with these, the other factors, such as

• Toxicity level
• Corrosion
• Stability and
• Cost
Advantages of phase-change energy storage
•Store thermal energy at the temperature of process application
•Store thermal energy as latent heat which allows higher thermal energy storage
capacity per unit weight or material without any change in temperature
•Store thermal energy from thermal energy source or electrical energy source when
available and use when needed
•This technology would lead to sizing HVAC equipment for average load rather than
peak load

Economical & Environmental benefits

•Store natural thermal energy for facility heating and cooling needs. Reduced energy
demand reduces facilities carbon footprint
•Store thermal energy during off demand hours and use during peak demand to save
on energy cost and help stabilize grid load
•Shift of heating and cooling load also reduces peak time stress of heating and cooling
equipment that can lead to reduced operating & maintenance cost.
 Three Types of Mechanical Energy Storage

• Pumped hydroelectric
storage (PHS)

• Compressed air energy

storage (CAES)

• Flywheels
 Pumped Hydroelectric Storage (PHS)
• Used for load balancing of energy
• Water is pumped up in elevation during time of low demand
• Water flows back down during times of high demand
• Turbines recapture the energy.

• Technology is in use world wide

• Hundreds of plants around the world
• Man made reservoirs as well as natural reservoirs
Pumped storage is the largest-capacity form of grid energy storage available, and, as of
March 2012

Typically, the round-trip energy efficiency of PSH varies in practice between 70% and 80%,
with some claiming up to 87%.

The main disadvantage of PHS is the specialist nature of the site required, needing both
geographical height and water availability.

Suitable sites are therefore likely to be in hilly or mountainous regions, and potentially in
areas of outstanding natural beauty, and therefore there are also social and ecological
issues to overcome.
The five largest operational pumped-storage plants
Station Country Capacity (MW)

Bath County Pumped Storage Station United States 3,003

Guangdong Pumped Storage Power Station China 2,400

Huizhou Pumped Storage Power Station China 2,400

Okutataragi Pumped Storage Power Station Japan 1,932

Ludington Pumped Storage Power Plant United States 1,872

80MW Wendefurth pumped storage hydro facility in Germany
 Pumped-storage hydroelectric power stations
Capacity
Station Country
(MW)
Bad Creek Hydroelectric Station United States 1,065
Bailianhe Pumped Storage Power Station China 1,200
Baoquan Pumped Storage Power Station China 1,200
Bath County Pumped Storage Station United States 3,003
Blenheim-Gilboa Hydroelectric Power Station United States 1,160
Castaic Power Plant United States 1,566
Coo-Trois-Ponts Hydroelectric Power Station Belgium 1,164
Dinorwig Power Station United Kingdom 1,728
Drakensberg Pumped Storage Scheme South Africa 1,000
Edolo Pumped Storage Plant Italy 1,000
Entracque Power Plant Italy 1,317
Goldisthal Pumped Storage Station Germany 1,060
Grand'Maison Dam France 1,800
Guangdong Pumped Storage Power Station China 2,400
Heimifeng Pumped Storage Power Station China 1,200
Helms Pumped Storage Plant United States 1,200
Huizhou Pumped Storage Power Station China 2,448
Imaichi Pumped Storage Plant Japan 1,050
Kazunogawa Dam Japan 1,200
Ludington Pumped Storage Power Plant United States 1,872
Malta-Reisseck Power Plant Group Austria 1,026
Markersbach Pumped Storage Power Plant Germany 1,045.5
Matanoagawa Dam Japan 1,200
Minhu Pumped Storage Hydro Power Station Taiwan 1,008
Mingtan Pumped Storage Hydro Power Plant Taiwan 1,602
Muddy Run Pumped Storage Facility United States 1,071
Northfield Mountain United States 1,080
Okutataragi Pumped Storage Power Station Japan 1,932
Okuyoshino Pumped Storage Power Station Japan 1,206
Presenzano Hydroelectric Plant Italy 1,000
Pushihe Pumped Storage Power Station China 1,200
Raccoon Mountain Pumped-Storage Plant United States 1,652
Rocky Mountain Hydroelectric Plant United States 1,095
Roncovalgrande Hydroelectric Plant Italy 1,016
Sardar Sarovar Dam India 1,450
Siah Bishe Pumped Storage Power Plant Iran 1,040
Shin Takasegawa Pumped Storage Station Japan 1,280
Shintoyone Dam Japan 1,125
Tai'an Pumped Storage Power Station China 1,000
Tamahara Pumped Storage Power Station Japan 1,200
Tianhuangping Pumped Storage Power Station China 1,836
Tongbai Pumped Storage Power Station China 1,200
Tumut-3 Australia 1,500
Vianden Pumped Storage Plant Luxembourg 1,096
Xiangshuijian Pumped Storage Power Station China 1,000
Xianyou Pumped Storage Power Station China 1,200
Xilongchi Pumped Storage Power Station China 1,200
Yangyang Pumped Storage Power Station South Korea 1,000
Yixing Pumped Storage Power Station China 1,000
Zagorsk Pumped Storage Station Russia 1,200
Zhanghewan Pumped Storage Power Station China 1,000
 Under construction

Capacity Expected
Station Country
(MW) Completion
Dniester Pumped Storage Power Station Ukraine 2,268 2017
Fengning Pumped Storage Power Station China 3,600 2019
Huanggou Pumped Storage Power Station China 1,200 2019
Jixi Pumped Storage Power Station China 1,800 2018
Kannagawa Hydropower Plant Japan 2,820 2020
Linth-Limmern Pumped Storage Station Switzerland 1,000 2015
Liyang Pumped Storage Power Station China 1,500 2016
Tehri Pumped Storage Power Station India 1,000 2016
Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage Power
Plant
Indonesia 1,040 2018
Zagorsk-2 Pumped Storage Station Russia 840 2017
 India Energy Storage Projects
Sl. Rated
Project Name Location Technology Type Project Status
No. Power(kW)
Sardar Sarovar Pumped Navagam , Open Loop Pumped
1 1,450,000 Operational
Storage Power Station Gujarat Hydro Storage
Bhira Pumped Storage Bhira , Open Loop Pumped
2 150,000 Operational
Hydro Plant Maharashitra Hydro Storage
Ghatghar Pumped Storage Ghatghar , Open Loop Pumped
3 250,000 Operational
Hydroelectric Power Plant Maharashitra Hydro Storage
Kadamparai Hydroelectric
Coimbature , Open Loop Pumped
4 Pumped Storage Power 400,000 Operational
Tamil Nadu Hydro Storage
Plant
Purulia Pumped Storage Purulia , West Open Loop Pumped
5 900,000 Operational
Hydroelectric Power Plant Bengal Hydro Storage
Tehri Pumped Storage Tehri , Open Loop Pumped
6 1,000,000 Operational
Hydroelectric Power Plant Uttarakhand Hydro Storage
India One Solar Thermal Talheti ,
7 Thermal Storage 1,000 Operational
Plant Rajasthan
Clique Solar Solar Thermal Greater Noida , Chilled Water Thermal
8 175 Operational
HVAC System Uttar Pradesh Storage
Sun-carrier Omega Net Zero Bhopal , Madhya Vanadium redox flow
9 45 Operational
Building in Bhopal Pradesh battery
Khareda
Khareda Lakshmipura
10 Lakshmipura , Lead Acid Battery 40 Operational
Microgrid
Rajasthan
Askandra , Under
11 KVK Energy Solar Project Molten Salt Storage -
Rajasthan Construction
 Under
12 Gujarat Solar One Kutch , Gujarat Molten Salt Storage -
Construction
Sodium and
Askandra , Potassium Nitrate Under
13 Diwikar -
Rajasthan Molten Salt Thermal Construction
Storage
Nagarjuna Sagar Pumped
Satrasala, Open Loop Pumped Under
14 Hydro Station Tail Pond 700,000
Andhra Pradesh Hydro Storage Construction
Project
Srisailam Pumped Hydro Srisailam, Open Loop Pumped
15 1,670,000 Operational
Storage Andhra Pradesh Hydro Storage
Kadana Hydroelectric Power Open Loop Pumped
16 Kadana, Gujarat 240,000 Operational
Station Hydro Storage
Poithan (Jayakwadi Dam) Jayakwadi, Open Loop Pumped
17 12,000 Operational
Hydro Station Maharashtra Hydro Storage
GigaCapacitor Hyperadad Hyderabad, Under
18 GigaCapacitor 15,000
Test Project (IL) Andhra Pradesh Construction

[Link]
[Link]
• 70-85% of electrical energy is recovered
• Energy loss due to evaporation and Pump/generator inefficiency
• Currently the most cost effective way to store large amounts of electricity
• Low energy density calls for large bodies of water
• Never used in portable technology
• 1000 kg at 100 ft = .272 kWh

POWER = Δ P x FLOW RATE

POWER (W) = gH Q 
ALL NEED TO RUN AT CONSTANT SPEED
KAPLAN – LARGE Q LOW H, VARY BLADE ANGLE
FRANCIS – VARY Q BY ADJUSTING GUIDE VANES
PELTON – VARY IMPULSE BY NOZZLE SPEAR
S.
Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine
No
In impulse turbine all hydraulic energy In reaction turbine only some amount of
is converted into kinetic energy by a the available energy is converted into
1
nozzle and it is is the jet so produced kinetic energy before the fluid enters the
which strikes the runner blades. runner.
The velocity of jet which changes, the Both pressure and velocity changes as
2 pressure throughout remaining fluid passes through a runner. Pressure at
atmosphere. inlet is much higher than at outlet.
Water-tight casing is not necessary.
Casing has no hydraulic function to
The runner must be enclosed within a
3 perform. It only serves to prevent
watertight casing.
splashing and guide water to the tail
race.
Water is admitted only in the form of
jets. There may be one or more jets Water is admitted over the entire
4
striking equal number of buckets circumference of the runner.
simultaneously.
 Water completely fills at the passages between the
The turbine doesn’t run full and air has
5 blades and while flowing between inlet and outlet
a free access to the bucket.
sections does work on the blades.
Reaction turbine are generally connected to the tail
The turbine is always installed above
race through a draft tube which is a gradually
6 the tail race and there is no draft tube
expanding passage. It may be installed below or above
used.
the tail race.
The flow regulation in reaction turbine is carried out by
Flow regulation is done by means of a means of a guide-vane assembly. Other component
7
needle valve fitted into the nozzle. parts are scroll casing, stay ring runner and the draft
tub.
Examples of reaction turbine are Francis turbine,
Example of impulse turbine is Pelton
8 Kaplan and Propeller Turbine, Deriaz Turbine, Tubuler
wheel.
Turbine, etc.
Impulse turbine have more hydraulic
9 Reaction turbine have relatively less efficiency.
efficiency.
Impulse turbine operates at high water
10 Reaction turbine operate at low and medium heads.
heads.
Water flow is tangential direction to Water flows in radial and axial direction to turbine
11
the turbine wheel. wheel.
12 Needs low discharge of water. Needs medium and high discharge of water.
Degree of reaction is more than zero and less than or
13 Degree of reaction is zero.
equal to one.
Impulse turbine involves less
14 Reaction turbine involves more maintenance work.
maintenance work.
In turbomachinery, Degree of reaction or reaction ratio (R) is defined as the ratio of static
pressure drop in the rotor to the static pressure drop in the stage
or
the ratio of static enthalpy drop in the rotor to the static enthalpy drop in the stage.

Future Of PHS

• This energy storage can be

used to level the grid for
renewable energy
• Wind power and solar power
are not constantly on
• Using salt mines to increase
energy density
 Compressed air energy storage (CAES)

• Large tank is buried underground

• During times of low demand electricity compresses air
• During times of peak demand compressed air is heated and released

[Link]
 Types Of CAES

• Adiabatic storage • Diabatic storage

– Heat from compression is – Heat is lost through cooling
captured and stored in a
solid or liquid – Natural gas is burned to
reheat compressed air
– Hot Oil 3000C
– Molten Salt 6000C – Very inefficient 38-68%
– Heat is reincorporated – Uses 1/2 gas of an all gas
during release plant
– Close to 100% efficiency
– No utility scale plants
 More about CAES

• Can use sandstone layer to hold compressed air

• USA has good ground for this type of storage
• Can be used to level load from wind and solar
• 200-300 MW Plants
 Compressed air in Cars

• Zero pollution Motors

• Stores air at around 300atm
• Under 35 mph it is zero
emissions
• Over 35 mph uses combustion
engine to compress air
• Runs on many different types of
fuel
• 1 air tank + 8 gal gas= 848
miles
Fueling/Refueling

• Flex engine runs off of gas,

diesel, alcohol, possibly
even vegetable oil
• Refueling air tank at refuel
station about 3 minutes
• Home refuel unit takes 4
hours, electrical cost $2
• 3 cents per mile
 FlowAir

• After 35 mph only 1/2 the CO2 emissions of Prius

• Takes advantage of light engine and light frame to be efficient
• Uses fiberglass frame filled with foam
• May lose efficiency in cold weather
 Future of Air Vehicles

• Flowair- release in 2010

• First needs to pass US safety
ratings
• 6 seats
• 106 mpg
• 800-1000 mile range
• Top speed 96 mph
• $17500
 Flywheels
• Energy is stored mechanically (in a rotating disc)

Flywheels Energy Systems

Motor
Generator
• Flywheels store energy as angular momentum
• Best suited to storage periods of 1 second to 10 minutes
• High temperature superconducting bearings reduce
bearing friction to 2% of speed drop per day
• Ball bearings are so inexpensive that the performance
gains of magnetic bearings are irrelevant
• The flywheel case is designed with a shield to contain a
failed rotor and its pieces if it shatters and blows up
• Batteries are much cheaper than flywheel systems
• Test buses used flywheels that were spun up by
electricity at bus stops; no wires along streets
 Flywheels
• Maximum energy density of a rotating steel disk
 Flywheels
• Disc shape and material: the maximum energy density per mass and the maximum
tensile stress are related by:
em  K max / 
• Typically, tensile stress has 2 components: radial stress and hoop stress.
 Flywheels
• Since
em  K max /  (1)

and
1 2 (2)
Ek  I 
2
and
" I  r 2m " (3)

then, from (2) and (3)

1 1 (4)
em  r 2 2  v 2
2 2
So, replacing (1) in (4) it yields
2K max
vmax 

 Flywheels
• Captures energy in a rotating
Mass
• Flywheel is charged using
electric motor
• Electric generator extracts
energy

[Link]
 Operation Of Flywheel
• Energy held in Spinning
Rotor (Steel or Carbon
composite)
• Steel rotors can spin at
several thousand rpm
• Carbon composite spin up
to 60k rpm
• Kinetic Energy 1/2mv2
[Link]
 Bearings
• Mechanical bearings not
practical
– Friction is directly
proportional to speed
• Magnetic bearings used to
minimize friction
• Rotor is suspended- state
of levitation
• Operates in a Vacuum
 Electromagnetic Energy Storage
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) systems store energy in the magnetic field
created by the flow of direct current in a superconducting coil which has been cryogenically
cooled to a temperature below its superconducting critical temperature.

A typical SMES system includes three parts:

• Superconducting coil
• Power conditioning system and
• Cryogenically cooled refrigerator

Once the superconducting coil is charged, the current will not decay and the magnetic energy
can be stored indefinitely.
 Commercially available Superconducting materials:

Niobium titanium (Nb-Ti) alloy <-263oC

Niobium and tin (Nb3-Sn) alloy <-255oC

 The stored energy can be released back to the network by discharging the coil
 The power conditioning system uses an inverter/rectifier to transform alternating current
(AC) power to direct current or convert DC back to AC power
 The inverter/rectifier accounts for about 2–3% energy loss in each direction
 SMES loses the least amount of electricity in the energy storage process compared to
other methods of storing energy
 SMES systems are highly efficient; the round-trip efficiency is greater than 95%
 SMES is currently used for short duration energy storage
 SMES is most commonly devoted to improving power quality
Advantages
 The most important advantage of SMES is that the time delay during charge and discharge is
quite short.
 Power is available almost instantaneously and very high power output can be provided for a
brief period of time.
 Other energy storage methods, such as pumped hydro or compressed air have a substantial
time delay associated with the energy conversion of stored mechanical energy back into
electricity.
 The main parts in a SMES are motionless, which results in high reliability

Disadvantages
 The main mechanical design problem in magnetic energy storage arises due to the need of
a very large structural mass to contain the magnetic field energy.
 This causes a large radial outward force from the solenoid
 Mass is proportional to the material density and the stored energy and is inversly
proportional to stress. ( If made of stainless steel would amount 160 kg/kWh)
 The magnetic energy stored by a coil carrying a current is given by one half of the inductance
of the coil times the square of the current.

Where
E = energy measured in joules
L = inductance measured in henries
I = current measured in amperes
 Electrical Storage
Types of batteries

Basically batteries can be classifieds as two types as primary

batteries and secondary batteries.

Primary batteries: In primary batteries, the electrochemical

reaction is not reversible.

During discharging the chemical compounds are permanently

changed and electrical energy is released until the original
compounds are completely exhausted.

Thus the cells can be used only once.

Primary Batteries :
a) Carbon Zinc (‘Heavy Duty’) -- The lowest cost primary cell (household) is the
zinc-acidic manganese dioxide battery. They provide only very low power, but have
a good shelf life and are well suited for clocks and remote controls.
b)Alkaline -- The most commonly used primary cell (household) is the zinc-alkaline
manganese dioxide battery. They provide more power-per-use than Carbon-zinc and
secondary batteries and have an excellent shelf life.
c)Lithium Cells -- Lithium batteries offer performance advantages well beyond the
capabilities of conventional aqueous electrolyte battery systems. Their shelf-life can be
well above 10-years and they will work at very low temperatures. Lithium batteries are
mainly used in small formats (coins cells up to about AA size) because bigger sizes of
lithium batteries are a safety concern in consumer applications. Bigger (i.e. ‘D’) sizes
are only used in military applications.
d)Silver Oxide Cells – These batteries have a very high energy density, but are very
expensive due to the high cost of silver. Therefore, silver oxide cells are mainly used in
button cell format for watches and calculators.
e)Zinc Air Cells – These batteries have become the standard for hearing aid batteries.
They have a very long run time, because they store only the anode material inside the
cell and use the oxygen from the ambient air as cathode.
Battery sizes
Secondary batteries

In secondary batteries, the electrochemical reaction is reversible and the original chemical
compounds can be reconstituted by the application of an electrical potential between the
electrodes injecting energy into the cell.

Such cells can be discharged and recharged many times

Lead-Acid Battery
Batteries use a chemical reaction to do work on charge and produce a voltage between their
output terminals
• During discharge the lead dioxide in positive plate and spongy lead in negative plate
react with sulphuric acid in the electrolyte to from lead sulphate both in positive and
negative plates and water in the electrolyte. The chemical reactions for the same are
shown below.
During the discharge operation, the “−” plate is called the anode (since the plate material is
being oxidized), while the “+” plate is called the cathode (since the plate material is being
reduced).
During the charge operation, the “−” plate must now be called the cathode (since the plate
material is now being reduced), while the “+” plate must now be called the anode (since the
plate material is now being reduced).
 Lithium-ion battery

There are two types of lithium-based batteries available.

 Lithium batteries
 Lithium-ion batteries

In lithium batteries, a pure lithium metallic element is used as

anode. These types of batteries are not rechargeable.

 In lithium-ion batteries, lithium compounds are used as anode.

These batteries are known as re-chargeable batteries. Therefore,

Lithium ion batteries are considered as best than pure Lithium based
batteries.
Lithium-ion battery (Li-ion Battery)
Li-ion batteries are secondary batteries.
 The battery consists of a anode of Lithium, dissolved as ions, into
a carbon
 The cathode material is made up from Lithium liberating
compounds, typically the three electro-active oxide
materials,
 Lithium Cobalt-oxide (LiCoO2 )
 Lithium Manganese-oxide (LiMn2 O4 )
 Lithium Nickel-oxide (LiNiO2)

Principle

 During the charge and discharge processes, lithium ions are

inserted or extracted from interstitial space between atomic
layers within the active material of the battery.
 Simply, the Li-ion is transfers between anode and cathode through lithium Electrolyte.
 Since neither the anode nor the cathode materials essentially change, the operation
is safer than that of a Lithium metal battery.

Construction
 Li-ion cell has a four-layer structure.

 A positive electrode made with Lithium Cobalt Oxide has a current collector
made of thin aluminum foil - cathode

 A negative electrode made with specialty carbon has a current collector of

thin copper foil – anode

 A separator is a fine porous polymer film.

 An electrolyte made with lithium salt in an organic solvent

 The electrolytes are selected in such a way that there should be an effective
transport of Li-ion to the cathode during discharge.

 The type of conductivity of electrolyte is ionic in nature rather than electronic

The chemical reaction that takes place inside the battery is as follows, during charge
and discharge operation:

When a lithium-ion based cell is discharging, the positive Lithium ion moves from the
negative electrode (usually graphite = C6 below) and enters the positive electrode
(lithium containing compound). When the cell is charging, the reverse occurs.
o During charging, lithium in positive electrode material is ionized and moves from
layer to layer and inserted into the negative electrode.
o During discharge Li ions are dissociated from the anode and migrate across the
electrolyte and are inserted into the crystal structure of the host
compound of cathode.
o At the same time the compensating electrons travel in the external circuit and
are accepted by the host to balance the reaction.
o The process is completely reversible. Thus the lithium ions pass back and forth
between the electrodes during charging and discharging
 Lithium-ion battery

Li-ion battery is generally much lighter than other types of rechargeable batteries of the same
size.

The electrodes of a lithium-ion battery are made of lightweight lithium and carbon.

Lithium is also a highly reactive element, meaning that a lot of energy can be stored in its atomic
bonds.

This translates into a very high energy density for lithium-ion batteries.

Energy density

• A typical lithium-ion battery can store 150 watt-hours of electricity in 1 kilogram of battery.

• A NiMH (nickel-metal hydride) battery pack can store perhaps 100 watt-hours per kilogram,
although 60 to 70 watt-hours might be more typical.

• A lead-acid battery can store only 25 watt-hours per kilogram (Using lead-acid technology, it
takes 6 kilograms to store the same amount of energy that a 1 kilogram lithium-ion battery
can handle)
• A lithium-ion battery pack loses only about 5 percent of its charge per month, compared to a
20 percent loss per month for NiMH batteries.
• They have no memory effect, which means that you do not have to completely discharge
them before recharging, as with some other battery chemistries.
• Lithium-ion batteries can handle hundreds of charge/discharge cycles.

Disadvantages :
• They start degrading as soon as they leave the factory. They will only last two or three years
from the date of manufacture whether you use them or not.
• They are extremely sensitive to high temperatures. Heat causes lithium-ion battery packs to
degrade much faster than they normally would.
• If you completely discharge a lithium-ion battery, it is ruined.
• A lithium-ion battery pack must have an on-board computer to manage the battery. This
makes them even more expensive than they already are.
• There is a small chance that, if a lithium-ion battery pack fails, it will burst into flame.
Lead Acid — most economical for larger power applications where weight is of little concern.
The lead acid battery is the preferred choice for hospital equipment, wheelchairs, emergency
lighting and UPS systems.

Lithium Ion (Li-ion) — fastest growing battery system. Li-ion is used where high-energy density
and lightweight is of prime importance. The technology is fragile and a protection circuit is
required to assure safety. Applications include notebook computers and cellular phones.