Limnology

ZOOL-605 Limnology 3(2-1)

Aims and Objectives:

Developing critical thinking skills about various physico-chemical parameters of inland

freshwater systems through in-class group discussions, presentations, and laboratory

exercises. Learning how to monitor the limnological units for effective management

and sustainable conservation of biotic components in freshwater ecosystems

Contents:

Theory:

Diversity of aquatic ecosystems. Comparison of fresh, brackish and marine ecosystems.

Unusual and extreme habitats, hydrology, physiography and physical properties like

temperature, light, turbidity, currents, density, their interactions and relations with aquatic life.

Chemical properties like dissolved oxygen, carbondioxide, pH, alkalinity, hardness, inorganic

and organic substances, their distribution, dynamics and influence on aquatic ecosystem.

Status and forms of nutrients like nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus and carbon in natural waters;

nutrients use and remineralization with special reference to processes controlling the levels of

nitrogen, phosphorus and sulpher in aquatic ecosystem. Stichiometry of autographs and

heterotrophs; concepts of trophic state, aquatic productivity & eutrophication. Managing

eutrophication in freshwater habitats. Biodiversity of fresh waters. c. Limnological importance

of biota. Adaptations and characteristics of aquatic life. Quantitative and qualitative changes in

spatial and temporal distribution of aquatic biota.

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Practical:

 Water sampling and water preservation techniques for physico-chemical and biological

analyses

 Estimation of physical characteristics of water viz. temperature, density, light

penetration and turbidity

 Estimation of chemical characteristics of water viz. dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide,

pH, total alkalinity, total hardness, bicarbonates, chlorides, calcium, magnesium,

salinity

 Collection, preservation and study of fauna and flora of various water bodies

Books Recommended:

1. Pauly D (2012) Gasping fish and panting squids: oxygen, temperature and the growth of

water-breathing animals. In: Kinne O (ed) Excellence in ecology. Book 23. International

Ecology Institute, Oldendorf/Luhe

2. Energizing Water: Flowform Technology and the Power of Nature, 2010. Jochen

Schwuchow, John Wilkes, Iain Trousdell Moss, B. R. , Rudolf Steiner Press, Guernsey

3. Ecology of Fresh Waters. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, USA Dodds, W. K. 2006.

Fresh Water Ecology: Concept and Environmental Applications. Academic Press, New

York, USA.

4. Limnology and Oceanography, 2013. (print ISSN 0024-3590, online ISSN 1939-5590).

5. Mishra, S. R. 1999. Limnological Research in New Delhi, India. Daya Publishing House,

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 New Delhi, India.

6. Munshi, J. D. and J. S. D. Munshi. 1995. Fundamentals of Freshwater Biology. Narendra

Publishing House, New Delhi, India.

7. Ward, H. B. and G.C. Whipple. 1989. Freshwater Biology. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New

York, USA.

8. Welch, P. S. 1988. Limnology. 4th Ed. McGraw Hill, New York, USA.

9. Wetzel, R. G. 2001. Limnology: Lake and River Ecosystem. 3 rd Ed. Academic Press, New

York, USA.

Limnology also called freshwater science, is the study of inland waters. It is often regarded as

a division of ecology or environmental science. It covers the biological, chemical, physical,

geological, and other attributes of all inland waters (running and standing waters, both fresh and

saline, natural or man-made.

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Limnology is closely related to aquatic ecology and hydrobiology, which study aquatic

organisms.

Aquatic ecosystem

An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem in a body of water. Communities of organisms that are

dependent on each other and on their environment live in aquatic ecosystems. There are two

main types of aquatic ecosystems are marine ecosystems and freshwater ecosystems

1. Marine ecosystems cover approximately 71% of the Earth's surface and contain

approximately 97% of the planet's water. They generate 32% of the world's net primary

production. They are distinguished from freshwater ecosystems by the presence of

dissolved compounds, especially salts, in the water. Approximately 85% of the dissolved

materials in seawater are sodium and chlorine. Seawater has an average salinity of 35

parts per thousand (ppt) of water. Actual salinity varies among different marine

ecosystems

Classification of marine habitats.

Marine ecosystems can be divided into many zones depending upon water depth and

shoreline features.

i. The oceanic zone is the vast open part of the ocean where animals such as whales,

sharks, and tuna live.

ii. The benthic zone consists of substrates below water where many invertebrates

live.

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 iii. The intertidal zone is the area between high and low tides; in this figure it is

termed the littoral zone.

iv. Other near-shore (neritic) zones can include estuaries, salt marshes, coral reefs,

lagoons and mangrove swamps.

v. In the deep water, hydrothermal vents may occur where chemosynthetic sulfur

bacteria form the base of the food web.

Classes of organisms found in marine ecosystems include brown algae, dinoflagellates,

corals, cephalopods, echinoderms, and sharks. Fishes caught in marine ecosystems are

the biggest source of commercial foods obtained from wild populations

2. Freshwater ecosystem.[

Freshwater ecosystems cover 0.80% of the Earth's surface and inhabit 0.009% of its total water.

They generate nearly 3% of its net primary production. Freshwater ecosystems contain 41% of

the world's known fish species.

Classification of freshwater habitats.

There are three basic types of freshwater ecosystems:

i. Lentic: slow moving water, including ponds, and lakes.

ii. Lotic: faster moving water, for example streams and rivers.

iii. Wetlands: areas where the soil is saturated for at least part of the time.

1. Lentic Ecosystem

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Lake

Lakes are inland depressions containing standing water. They may vary in size from small ponds

of less than a hectare to large seas covering thousands of square kilometers. They may range in

depth from a few centimeters to over 1666 meters. Ponds, however, are considered as small

bodies of standing water so shallow that rooted plants can grow over most of the bottom. Most

ponds and lakes have outlet streams and both are more or less temporary features on the

landscape because their filling is inevitable.

The aquatic habitats of lake and pond remain vertically stratified in relation to light intensity,

wave length absorption, hydrostatic pressure, temperature, etc. In a lake, for example there are

three well recognized horizontal strata namely ;

(i)Shallow water near the shore forms the littoral zone. It contains upper warm and oxygen

rich circulating water layer which is called epilimnion. The littoral zone includes rooted

vegetation.

(ii)Sub-littoralzone

extends from rooted vegetation to the non-circulating cold water with poor oxygen zone,

i.e.hypolimnion.

(iii) Limnetic zone is the open water zone away from the shore. It is the zone upto the depth of

effective light penetration where rate of photosynthesis is equal to the rate of respiration.

(iv) Profundal zone is the deep-water area beneath limnetic zone and beyond the depth of

effective light penetration.

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(v) Abyssal zone is found only in deep lakes, since it begins at about 2,000 meters from the

surface.

Limnology classifies lakes according to the trophic state index.

1. An oligotrophic lake is characterised by relatively low levels of primary production and

low levels of nutrients.

2. A eutrophic lake has high levels of primary productivity due to very high nutrient levels.

Eutrophication of a lake can lead to algal blooms.

3. Dystrophic lakes have high levels of humic matter and typically has yellow-brown, tea-

coloured waters.

Ponds

Ponds are small bodies of freshwater with shallow and still water, marsh, and aquatic plants.

They can be further divided into four zones:

1. vegetation zone,

2. open water,

3. bottom mud

4. and surface film.

The size and depth of ponds often varies greatly with the time of year; many ponds are

produced by spring flooding from rivers. Spring Flood Outlooks are seasonal products

due to snow melt for river basins. Their Food webs are based both on free-floating algae

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 and upon aquatic plants. There is usually a diverse array ( variety ) of aquatic life, with a

few examples including algae, snails, fish, beetles, water bugs, frogs, turtles, otters.

Otter herons

Top predators may include large fish, herons, or alligators. Since fish are a major

predator upon amphibian larvae, ponds that dry up each year, thereby killing resident

fish, which provide important refugia for amphibian breeding.

1. Ponds that dry up completely each year are often known as vernal pools.

2. Some ponds are produced by animal activity, including alligator holes are called as

beaver ponds, and these add important diversity to landscapes.

ii. Lotic Ecosystem

River ecosystem

The major zones in river ecosystems are determined by the river bed's gradient or by the velocity

of the current. Faster moving turbulent water typically contains greater concentrations of

dissolved oxygen, which supports greater biodiversity than the still water pools. These

distinctions form the basis for the division of rivers into1. upland and 2. lowland rivers .

1. The low land river is common in its productivity because it contains a lot of suspended

particles due to its slow water current and velocity.

2. The upland rivers can also be fast moving streams . Their water current and velocity can

not support common animal life and productivity

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The food base of streams within riparian forests is mostly derived from the trees, but wider

streams and those that lack a canopy derive the majority of their food base from algae.

Anadromous fish are also an important source of nutrients. Environmental threats to rivers

include loss of water, dams, chemical pollution and introduced species. A dam produces negative

effects that continue down the watershed. The most important negative effects are the reduction

of spring flooding, which damages wetlands, and the retention of sediment, which leads to loss

of deltaic wetlands.

iii .Wetlands

Wetlands are dominated by vascular plants that have adapted to saturated soil. There are four

main types of wetlands: swamp, marsh, fen and bog (both fens and bogs are types of mire).

Wetlands are the most productive natural ecosystems in the world because of the proximity of

water and soil. Hence they support large numbers of plant and animal species. Due to their

productivity, wetlands are often converted into dry land with dykes and drains and used for

agricultural purposes. The construction of dykes, and dams, has negative consequences for

individual wetlands and entire watersheds. Their closeness to lakes and rivers means that they

are often developed for human settlement. Once settlements are constructed and protected by

dykes, the settlements then become vulnerable to land subsidence and ever increasing risk of

flooding.

Functions of Aquatic Ecosystems

Aquatic ecosystems perform many important environmental functions. For example, they recycle

nutrients, purify water, recharge ground water and provide habitats for wildlife. Aquatic

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ecosystems are also used for human recreation, and are very important to the tourism industry,

especially in coastal regions. The health of an aquatic ecosystem is degraded when the

ecosystem's ability to absorb a stress has been exceeded. A stress on an aquatic ecosystem can be

a result of physical, chemical or biological alterations of the environment. Physical alterations

include changes in water temperature, water flow and light availability. Chemical alterations

include changes in the loading rates of biostimulatory nutrients, oxygen consuming materials,

and toxins. Biological alterations include over-harvesting of commercial species and the

introduction of exotic species. Human populations can impose excessive stresses on aquatic

ecosystems.

Extreme Environment

An extreme environment exhibits conditions which are challenging for most life forms. These

may be extremely high or low ranges of temperature, radiation, pressure, acidity, alkalinity, air,

water, salt, carbon dioxide, sulphur,.

An extreme environment is one place where humans generally do not live or could die there.

There are organisms referred to as extremophiles, that inhabit these spaces and are so well-

adapted that they readily grow and multiply.

Types of Extreme Environment

1. Alkaline: broadly conceived as natural habitats above pH 9 whether persistently,

2. Acidic: broadly conceived as natural habitats below pH 5 whether persistently, or with

regular frequency or for protracted periods of time.

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 3. Extremely Cold: broadly conceived habitats below 5°C. Includes mountain sites, polar

sites, and deep ocean habitats.

4. Extremely Hot: broadly conceived habitats includes sites with geological thermal

influences ( 102’C) such as Yellowstone in America

5. Hypersaline: (high salt) environments with salt concentrations greater than that of

seawater, that is, >3.5%. Includes salt lakes also called dead sea eg. Jurdon eastern Israel.

6. Under Pressure: broadly conceived as habitats under extreme hydrostatic pressure—i.e.

aquatic habitats deeper than 2000 meters and enclosed habitats under pressure. Includes

habitats in oceans and deep lakes. Peero in America 11000m deep ocean.

7. Radiation: broadly conceived as habitats exposed to abnormally high radiation or of

radiation outside the normal range of light. Includes habitats exposed to high UV and IR

radiation. Ethopian regions.

8. Without Water: broadly conceived as habitats without free water includes hot and cold

desert environments, and some endolithic ( inside the rocks) habitats.

9. Without Oxygen: broadly conceived as habitats without free oxygen includes habitats in

deeper sediments.

10. Enthropogenic Extreme Environment (Altered by Humans) heavy metals, organic

compounds; anthropogenically ( caused by human beings or degraded by human beings )

impacted habitats icnludes mine talings, oil impacted habitats

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The term hydrology is from Greek: ὕδωρ, hydōr, "water"; and λόγος, logos, "study".

Hydrology is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth.

Branches

 Chemical hydrology is the study of the chemical characteristics of water.

 Ecohydrology is the study of interactions between organisms and the hydrologic cycle.

 Hydrogeology is the study of the presence and movement of groundwater.

 Hydroinformatics is the adaptation of information technology to hydrology and water

resources applications.

 Hydrometeorology is the study of the transfer of water and energy between land and

water body surfaces and the lower atmosphere.

 Isotope hydrology is the study of the isotopic signatures of water.

 Surface hydrology is the study of hydrologic processes that operate at or near Earth's

surface.

 Drainage basin management hydrology covers water-storage, in the form of reservoirs,

and flood-protection.

Applications

 Determining the water balance of a region.

 Determining the agricultural water balance.

 Designing riparian restoration projects.

 Mitigating and predicting flood.

 Real-time flood forecasting and flood warning.

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  Designing irrigation schemes and managing agricultural productivity.

 Providing drinking water.

 Designing dams for water supply or hydroelectric power generation.

 Designing bridges.

 Designing sewers and urban drainage system.

 Predicting geomorphologic changes, such as erosion or sedimentation.

Physiography

Physiography is the formation , structure and function of earth surface and it consists of

following fields.

 Geomorphology is the field concerned with understanding of the Earth surface and the

processes by which it is shaped, both at the present as well as in the past. Geomorphology as

a field has several sub-fields that deal with the specific landforms of various environments

e.g. desert geomorphology and fluvial geomorphology. Geomorphology seeks to understand

landform history and dynamics,

 Hydrology is predominantly concerned with the amounts and quality of water moving and

accumulating on the land surface and in the soils and rocks near the surface and is typified

by the hydrological cycle

 Glaciology is the study of glaciers and ice sheets, or more commonly is known as

cryosphere. Glaciology groups the ice sheets)into

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  1. continental glaciers and 2. the former (glaciers) as alpine glaciers. Glaciology also has

a vast array of sub-fields examining the factors and processes involved in ice sheets and

glaciers e.g. snow hydrology and glacial geology.

 Biogeography is the science which deals with geographic patterns of species distribution

and the processes that result in these patterns. The field can largely be divided into five

sub-fields: island biogeography, paleobiogeography, phylogeography, zoogeography and

phytogeography

Physico-chemical nature of fresh water

 The freshwater of both kinds—lentic and lotic, has low percentage of dissolved salts and

is subjected to the influence of a wide array of physical and chemical factors. The rise

and fall of these factors very frequently affect the fauna, altering their number and

diversity. Some of the important factors of freshwater environment are following:

Physical Parameters

1. Temperature

 The unique thermal properties of water are best demonstrated by freshwater environment.

Diurnal and seasonal variations of temperatures are very much evident in these

environments than in marine environments. A diurnal variation range of 4.8–5.0°C has

been recorded in a tropical pond, with an average depth of 3.0 meters. In shallow water

habitats, difference between day and night temperatures remain more conspicuous. For

example, in a polluted water with an average depth of 1.5 meters, the lowest night time

temperature was 26.6°C, the highest day time temperature was 32°C with a variation of

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 5.4°C. Flowing lotic waters of streams and rivers lack such wide fluctuations in

temperature.

 Further, the lentic water of lakes and ponds undergo

Thermal stratification which is meant by division of water bodies into different strata and

layers on the basis of temperature.

1. Epilimnion:- Uppermost layer where Temperature range is above 4C

2. Thermocline:- Column layer where Temperature range is at 4C.

3. Hypolimnion:- Lowermost strata where temp. range is below 4C.

Thermal stratification has been reported most frequently in the lakes of tropical countries.

In fact, according to their temperature relations, lakes have been classified into three

types :

 (1) Tropical lakes in which surface temperatures are always maintained above 4°C

 (2) Temperate lakes in which surface temperature vary above and below 4°Cand

 (3) Polar lakes in which surface temperatures never go above 4°C.

Effects on Aquatic Life

 The seasonally regulated thermal stratification of lentic habitats has a significant

influence on their inhabitant biotic communities. Decreasing temperatures often cause a

1. fall in metabolism,

2. resulting in a lower rate of food consumption. The extremes of lower

and higher temperature have lethal effects on the aquatic organisms. So

fluctuations in temperature of aquatic media

3. regulate the breeding periods,

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 4. initiate hibernation, gonadial activitation

5. and a number of other biological phenomena such as thermally oriented

migration, etc., of freshwater biota. On the basis of their ability to

tolerate thermal variations, most freshwater organisms are

ii. stenothermic with a narrow and short range temperature tolerance,

iii. Eurythermal or euthermal but some are euthermic with a wide range of

temperature tolerance.

2. Light

Light influences freshwater ecosystems greatly. The freshwaters often have a lot of

suspended material.

Effects on Aquatic Life

i. Light provides protection to the light sensitive species, these substances

( suspended material ) more often obstruct the light that normally reaches

the water.

ii. The degree of such obstruction of light influence the productivity of the

freshwater ecosystems.

iii. A shallow lake receive light to its very bottom resulting in an abundant

growth of vegetation both phytoplankton and rooted vascular plants. These

plants in living or dead states form nice food for consumers of grazing

food chain or organisms of detritus food chain, respectively.

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 iv. The running water contains little plant or animal plankton not due to the

lack of sunlight but because of the action of the currents in washing it

away.

v. Further, light controls the orientation and changes in position of attached

species eg. Planktons . and their nature of growth and it also causes the

diurnal migration of planktonic species of freshwater.

3. Water Turbidity

The turbidity of a water is a dirtiness of water.

*. The turbidity of a water sample is a measure of the extent to which the intensity of light

passing through water is reduced by the suspended matter.

*. The turbidity of water is based upon a comparison of the amount of light passing through a

given water sample with that passing through a standard sample.

Sources or Causes of Turbidity

The sources of turbidity in natural water are attributable to

1. suspended and colloidal material, the effect of which is to disturb clearness and

diminish the penetration of light.

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 2. Turbidity may be caused by several factors such as microorganisms and organic

detritus, silica and other sands and substances including zinc, iron and manganese

compounds, clay or silt.

3. In addition, the result of natural processes of erosion or as waste from various

industries such as mining, dredging ( pollution), logging and others.

Turbidity Effects on Fish and Aquatic Life

The significance of excessive turbidity in water on fish and other aquatic life begins by

modifying the temperature structure of lakes.

Bottom temperatures are generally lower in turbid lakes or ponds than in clear ones. In many

lakes, lower temperature means lower productivity. Turbidity also interferes with the penetration

of light. This reduces photosynthesis and thereby decreases the primary productivity upon which

the fish food organisms depend. As a consequence, fish production is reduced.

Average turbidity, units are 25-100 for fish yield and volumes of net plankton.

4. Pressure, Density and Buoyancy

 The pressure imposed on a lake-dwelling organism is the weight of the column of water

above it plus the weight of the atmosphere. (Wt. of water column+ Wt. of atmosphere=

pressure)

 In all freshwater environments maximum pressure is much less than in the ocean, and

organisms appear to adjust to them readily and easily.

 The absence of animal life from deep water is ordinarily a consequence of low oxygen

supply, or low temperature, rather than higher pressure.

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 Factors affecting Pressure

 The density of water varies inversely with temperature and directly with the

concentration of dissolved substances.

 Water is most dense at approximately 4°C and becomes progressively less dense as it

cooled below +4°C. Ice also expands markedly the colder it gets.

 It is because the coldest water is at the surface in winter that ice forms there, rather than

at the bottom of a lake.

 In summer, the coldest waters of deep lakes are at the bottom. Dissolved salts increase

the density of water; the density of most inland water-bodies is much less than that of the

ocean.

 However, when great evaporation occurs in a lake having no outlet, the lake may come

to contain a higher percentage of salts (i.e., hypersalinity) than the ocean. The few species

are capable of living in these very salty lakes (e.g., the brine shrimp brine flies.

Law of Archimedes

 According to the law of Archimedes, the buoyancy of an object is equal to the weight

of the water where it displaces.

Factors affecting Buoyancy

 Buoyancy

1. Varies directly with the density of water,

2. . Varies directly with the Viscosity, the measure of the internal friction of water,

3. varies inversely with temperature.

Buoyancy Adaptations

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 Most aquatic organisms have special adaptations to decrease the specific gravity of the

body and take advantage of any turbulence ( disturbance) in the water. For this purpose

freshwater aquatic organisms have some swimming adaptations as formation of clinging

organs as adaptive organs.

i. absorption of large amounts of water to form jelly-like tissues such as

mucous.

ii. storage of gas or air bubbles within the body;

iii. formation of light-weight fat deposits within the body

iv. oil droplets within the cell;

v. increase of surface area in proportion to body mass, which increase

frictional resistance (David, 1955).

vi. When an organism so equipped then it dies, the special mechanism

quickly cease to function, and it sinks to the bottom.

Chemical Parameters of Water

5. pH

pH is a measure of the number of hydrogen ions and thus a measure of acidity.

The largest variety of freshwater aquatic organisms prefer a pH range between 7.5 to 8.5.

Pure water contains H+ and _OH ions in equal number.

Factors Effecting pH

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 1. With the increase in Temperature pH decreases eg at 40C pH is 6.7,

25C is 7 and at 0C is 7.4

2. Natural water has an alkaline pH due to sufficient amount of carbonates

and bicarbonates.

3. pH increases at day time due to photosynthesis and higher temperature.

4. pH decreases at night due to lower temperature and respiration.

In volcanic lakes, it may be highly acidic or highly alkaline because

volcanic eruption causes release of H2SO4 and Soda as NaOH. In these

lakes pH range is 1.2-12

6. Dissolved Oxygen

Chemically pure water is biologically uninhabitable and all freshwaters contains an array of

chemical substances. The oxygen, which is a most essential chemical component of life

processes remain dissolved in freshwaters.

Sources of DO

The aquatic environments which remain in close proximity with atmosphere contain an

abundance of oxygen that reaches the water either by

1. direct diffusion or by movements of water such as wave action or water

circulation. Lotic (moving) water of streams and rivers often have a high

percentage of oxygen due to great circulation than lentic waters

2. Photosynthetic activity by plants. O diffuse very slowly in water. Aquatic plants

supply water with oxygen that is formed as a product of photosynthesis. Rooted

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 vegetation of shallow water zones and floating phytoplankton of open waters also

produce oxygen.

Factors affecting DO

1. The amount of photosynthetically produced oxygen remain high at at greater light intensities.

The oxygen level in a tropical pond exhibits diurnal variation, it remains at peak between 2.00

pm and 5.00 pm hours of day due to phtosynthesis

2. .On the other hand, DO decreases with the increase in temp. Do is 5mg/l at

5C and at 0C is 12mg/l

3. Do decreases with the increase in salinity which alternately increases turbidity

and decomposition. This decomposition increases biological oxygen demand by

microorganisms.

Factors affecting Quantity of DO

1. Surface area

2. Circulation by wind/current

3. Amount produced by plant

4. Amount consumed by animals

DO Depletion effects on Aquatic life

Oxygen contents of a freshwater body are depleted in numerous ways.

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 4. Primarily oxygen is utilized in the respiration of organisms and as BOD for

decomposition of dead organisms in the aquatic environment. While

photosynthesis remains restricted to the surface layer of water containing

phytoplankton and exposed regions of rooted vascular plants, So occurance of

respiration and decomposition occur at all levels at the same time leading to DO

depletion.

5. In stagnant lentic pools with a lot of decaying vegetation oxygen content often

reaches a stage of complete depletion in the form of BOD. The reduction in

dissolved oxygen is magnified by the release of many gases eg Co2, H2CO3 and

N as end products of decomposition.

5. Do below 4mg/l results gill clotting in fish and above 9mg/l gas bubble disease

or buldging eye and vertebral curvature disease in fish

6. Carbon dioxide

Aquatic vegetation and phytoplankton require carbon dioxide for photosynthetic activity. The

carbon dioxide of freshwater environments is produced as the end product of respiration and of

decomposition. Carbon dioxide also diffuses directly from the atmosphere and is readily

dissolved in water to result in carbonic acid (H2CO3) which affects the pH of water. It is also

present in the freshwater as carbonates and bicarbonate of calcium, magnesium and other

minerals. The growing plants and lime deposition bacteria and other animals may cause

a depletion in carbon dioxide resources. Photosynthesis is the major cause for its drain. The high

saturation levels of O 2and CO2 have been found to have toxic effects on aquatic biota.

7. Other Gases

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Streams and lakes contaminated by sewage and stagnant pools with decaying vegetation show an

abundance of the gas, hydrogen sulphide which is a decomposition product. This gas is highly

toxic to living organisms and results into complete destruction of bottom fauna. Methane and

carbon monoxide are other toxic gases which are the products of decomposition. Nitrogen,

hydrogen, sulphur dioxide and ammonia are some of the other gases which are found

dissolved in freshwaters. Oxygen the most essential chemical component is dissolved in fresh

waters.

8. Dissolved Salts and Salinity

Freshwater being efficient solvent contains many solutes in solution, but even then its salt

contents remain under 1/5% than marine water which contains about thirty-five parts per

thousand (%) dissolved salts. Different dissolved salts reach the water by erosion, inflow and

decay of aquatic forms. Dissolved substances have peculiar significance for floating aquatic

vegetation and phytoplankton, since these organisms do not depend on the substratum for the

supply of nutrients. Compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus and silicon are most important

substances found dissolved in freshwater. Nitrate, nitrites and ammonium salts are essential for

the food of aquatic vegetation such as algae and water weeds. Nitrate always remain available

due to nitrogen cycle occurring between nitrogen fixing bacteria and nitrogen consuming plants.

Ammonium salts in excess have a lethal effect on the fauna. Dissolved silicates of freshwater are

readily utilized by diatoms and sponges in constructing their body structures such as shell in case

of diatoms and spicules in case of sponges. All freshwater environments also contain small

amounts of phosphorus which more often acts as a limiting factor. Utilization of phosphorus by

plankton during the periods of abundance may result in a total elimination of other plants that

require the element (phosphorus). Many other elements such as calcium, magnesium,

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manganese, iron, sodium, potassium, sulphur, and zinc are found dissolved in water and

influence the fauna variously. Iron being a growth promoting element for plants exists as the

compound of oxygen (ferrous oxide) or sulphur (ferrous sulphide) in different freshwater bodies.

Its influence is often modified by the pH of water. Calcium is an essential element for plants.

The abundance and scarcity of carbonate of calcium determine the faunal composition.

Deposition of calcium carbonate in water called marlis produced by the activity of plants.

External coverings of arthropods and the shell of molluscs and tubes of some worms need

calcium carbonate. Snails are found to develop a heavy shell if the waters in which they lived

contained excess of calcium. Bryozoans, sponges, and cladocerans prefer an increased calcium

Due to low salinity of freshwater, animals face the problem of osmoregulation. Because the salt

concentration of body fluids of animals remain higher than the freshwater, hence, the water

continuously tend to enter the body which should be readily removed. Most aquatic animals

(e.g., Protozoa and fishes) have the means to excrete extra amount of water of body by

osmoregulation. For this purpose Protozoa employ contractile vacuoles and other multicellular

invertebrates and chordates use excretory organs, such as nephridia, kidney, etc.

10. Hardness

Hardness is also important to aquaculture. Calcium and magnesium are the most common

sources of water hardness.

Effects on Aquatic Life

1. Calcium and magnesium are essential in the biological processes of aquatic animals, for

example, bone and scale formation in fish.

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 2. The critical component of total hardness is the calcium concentration, or “calcium

hardness.” Environmental calcium is crucial for osmoregulation, that is, maintaining

precise levels of internal salts for normal heart, muscle and nerve function.

3. Calcium is also important in the molting process of shrimp and other crustaceans, and

can affect the hardening of the newly formed shell.

4. Aquatic animals can tolerate a broad range of calcium hardness concentrations. A

desirable range would lie between 75 and 200 mg/L CaCO3.

11. Total Alkalinity

The determination of whether water is acid, neutral or base is defined by pH. However, alkalinity

measures the total amount of base present and indicates a pond’s ability to resist large pH

changes, or the “buffering capacity.” The most important components of alkalinity are

carbonates and bicarbonates. The total alkalinity concentration should be no lower than 20 mg/L

CaCO3in production ponds. Pond pH can swing widely during the day, measuring from 6 to 10,

when alkalinity concentrations are below this level. Most aquatic organisms can live in a broad

range of alkalinity concentrations. The desired total alkalinity level for most aquaculture species

lies between 50-150 mg/L CaCO3, but no less than 20 mg/L.

Biogeochemical cycles are pathways for the transport and transformation of matter

within four categorical areas as (biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and the atmosphere) that

make up planet Earth .

Biogeochemical cycles govern the functioning of planet Earth.

The Earth is a system open to electromagnetic radiation from the sun, while is closed system

with regard to matter.

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The transfer of matter involves biological, geological and chemical processes;

So the name biogeochemical cycles derives from above processes. Biogeochemical cycles may

also be referred to as cycles of nature because they link together all organisms with one another

and abiotic features on earth.

Biogeochemical cycles facilitate the transfer of matter from one form to another and from one

location to another on planet earth.

Biogeochemical cycles are sometimes called nutrient cycles, because they provide nutritional

support to living organisms.

Pathways of biogeochemical cycles

1. One is the sphere which has life and it is called the biosphere (it is the region occupied by

living organisms such as plants, animals, fungi).

2. lithosphere (region occupied by soil, land and the earth crust).

3. atmosphere (air and space).

4. hydrosphere (areas covered by water such as rivers, lakes and oceans).

Categories of biogeochemical cycles

1. Sedimentary cycles:

These cycles involve the transportation of matter through the ground to water; that is

to say from the lithosphere to the hydrosphere. Common examples of cycles under

the sedimentary category are:

i. Phosphorus cycle: Phosphorus is commonly found in water and soil. Phosphorus

cannot be found in air in the gaseous state. Phosphorus is usually a liquid at standard

temperatures and pressures. For example for fresh water ecosystems the standard

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 temp. is 16-24C. Phosphorus is mainly cycled through water and soil. The

phosphorus cycle is the slowest one of the sedimentary cycles because Phosphorus

moves slowly from deposits on land and in sediments, to living organisms, and much

more slowly back into the soil and water sediment.

ii. Sulphur cycle: Sulphur in its natural form is a solid. But minute amount of it occurs

in gas state, also as water vapors . It is transported by physical processes like

wind ,rock weathering , erosion by water and geological events like volcanic

eruptions.

It is also found in compound forms such as sulphur dioxide, sulphuric acid, salts of

sulphate . Sulphur can be moved from the ocean to the

atmosphere, to land and then to the ocean through rainfall and rivers.

2. Gaseous cycles: these involve the transportation of matter through the

atmosphere. Common example of gaseous cycles are:

i. Carbon cycle: Carbon is one of the most important elements that sustain life

on earth. It plays an important role in the formation of Carbon dioxide and

methane gases (compounds of carbon) which has a substantial effect on earth's

heat balance. It absorbs infrared radiation and hence may contribute to global

warming and climate change.

ii. Nitrogen cycle: Nitrogen gas is the most abundant element in the atmosphere

and all the nitrogen found in terrestrial ecosystems originate from the

atmosphere. The nitrogen cycle is by far the most important nutrient cycle for

plant life. Nitrogen, despite its abundance in the atmosphere it’s often the

most limiting nutrient for plant growth. This problem occurs because most

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 plants can only take up nitrogen in two solid forms: ammonium ion

(NH4+)and the ion nitrate (NO3. Therefore, biogeochemical cycles enable the

provision of elements to organisms in utilizable forms.

iii. Oxygen cycle: The oxygen cycle describes the movement of oxygen within

and between its three main reservoirs: the atmosphere, the biosphere, and the

lithosphere. The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis and

because of this, oxygen and carbon cycles are usually linked and the two

cycles are collectively called oxygen-carbon cycle.

iv. Hydrological cycle: This is sometimes called the water cycle. Water is the

most important chemical of life for all living organisms on earth. Water in the

atmosphere is usually in form of vapor but condenses to liquid water and can

solidify when temperatures are 0C to form ice. Ninety three percent of water

on earth is in solid state mainly comprising the ice caps and glaciers of Polar

Regions. The water cycle is powered from solar energy, more than 85% of the

global evaporation occurs from the oceans, reducing their temperature by

cooling by evaporation.

Elements transported in the biogeochemical cycles have

been categorized as:

1. Micro elements – these are elements required by living organisms in

smaller amounts. Examples of such elements include boron used mainly by

green plants, copper used by some enzymes and molybdenum used by

nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

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 2. Macro elements – these are elements required by living organisms in

larger amounts. Examples of such elements include carbon, hydrogen,

oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous, sulfur.

Lifespan and rate of biogeochemical cycles

Each Biogeochemical cycle has its life span, ranging from several days to millions of years

1. In Hydrological cycle, water droplet of average size may stay in the atmosphere for

about ten days before precipitation.

2. In carbon cycle, carbon atoms may reside in the earth crust for the age of the Earth.

3. In nitrogen cycle, nitrogen atoms may reside from 14 days -6weeks - several years.

4. In Oxygen cycle,life span ranges from 20 to 80 or 90 minutes, depending mainly on the

temperature. After time they are eventually broken down into water, carbon dioxide,

sulfur, nitrogen.

5. The amount of time that a chemical is held in one place is called its resident time. The

term Influx is commonly used in describing biogeochemical cycles to refer to the

difference between the amount of elements entering a reservoir or state and the amount

leaving the reservoir or state. This exchange of state is called exchanging pool.

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 Source.

Stichiometry of autographs and heterotrophs and concepts of trophic state

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Not all lakes are at the same stage of eutrophication; therefore, criteria have been established to

evaluate the nutrient status of lakes.

This criteria to determine nutrient status of lake or water body is called as stichiometery which is

based on Trophic state indices (TSIs)

Trophic state indices (TSIs) are calculated for lakes on the basis of total phosphorus,

chlorophyll concentrations, and Secchi disc transparencies.

TSI values range from 0 to upward, describing the condition of the lake in terms of its trophic

status or in other words its fertility.

Water quality trophic status categories include

1. Oligotrophic (i.e., excellent water quality). clear, low productive lakes, with total

phosphorus concentrations less than or equal to 10 mg/L, chlorophyll concentrations of

less than or equal to 2 mg/L, and Secchi disc transparencies greater than or equal to 4.6

meters (15 feet).

2. Mesotrophic (i.e., good water quality. intermediately productive lakes, with total

phosphorus concentrations between 10 and 25 mg/L, chlorophyll concentrations between

2 and 8 mg/L, and Secchi disc transparencies between 2 and 4.6 meters (6 to 15 feet).

3. Eutrophic (i.e., very poor water quality) high productive lakes relative to a neutral level,

with 25 to 57 mg/L total phosphorus, chlorophyll concentrations between 8 and 26 mg/L,

and Secchi disc measurements between 0.85 and 2 meters (2.7 to 6 feet).

4. Hypereutrophic i.e., very poor water quality). extremely productive lakes which are

highly eutrophic and unstable (i.e., their water quality can fluctuate on daily and seasonal

basis, experience periodic anoxia and fish kills due to possibly produced toxic

substances, etc.) with total phosphorus concentrations greater than 57 mg/L, chlorophyll

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 concentrations of greater than 26 mg/L, and Secchi disc transparencies less than 0.85

meters (2.7 feet).

Limiting Nutrients for Trophic state

The quantity or biomass of algae in a lake is usually limited by the water’s concentration of an

essential element or nutrient “the limiting nutrient” (for rooted aquatic plants, the nutrients are

derived from the sediments). It is based on the idea that plants require many nutrients to grow,

but the nutrient with the lowest availability, relative to the amount needed by the plant, will limit

plant growth. It follows then, that identifying the limiting nutrient will point the way to

controlling algal growth.

Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are generally the two growth-limiting nutrients for algae in

most natural waters. Analysis of the nutrient content of lake water and algae provides ratios of

N:P. By comparing the ratio in water to the ratio in the algae, one can estimate whether a

particular nutrient may be limiting. Algal growth is generally phosphorus-limited in waters with

N:P ratios greater

than 12

Concepts of Trophic State

The trophic level of an organism is the position which is occupied by an organism in a food

chain. The word trophic derives from the Greek word (trophē) referring to food or feeding. A

trophic level constitutes a food chain

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A food chain represents a succession of organisms that eat another organism and are, in turn,

eaten themselves.

1. Food chains start at trophic level 1 with primary producers such as plants,

2. move to herbivores at level 2,

3. predators at level 3 and

4. typically finish with carnivores at level 4

5. apex predators at 5.

Ecological communities with higher biodiversity form more complex trophic paths

leading to food web.

1. Producers

Are (autotrophs) are typically plants or algae. Plants and algae do not usually eat other

organisms, but pull nutrients from the soil or the ocean and manufacture their own food

using photosynthesis. For this reason, they are called primary producers. In this way, it is

energy from the sun that usually powers the base of the food chain. The same mechanism

involves in all types of plants eg Emergent plants, submerged plants, aquatic algae An

exception occurs in deep-sea hydrothermal ecosystems, where there is no sunlight. Here

primary producers manufacture food through a process called chemosynthesis.

2. Consumers

Are (heterotrophs) are species that cannot manufacture their own food and need to

consume other organisms. Animals that eat primary producers (like plants) are called

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 herbivores. Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores, and animals that eat both

plant and other animals are called omnivores.

3. Decomposers

Are (detritivores) break down dead plant and animal material and wastes and release

it again as energy and nutrients into the ecosystem for recycling. Decomposers, such

as bacteria and fungi (mushrooms), feed on waste and dead matter, converting it into

inorganic chemicals that can be recycled as mineral nutrients for plants to use again.

Trophic levels

can be represented by numbers, starting at level 1 with plants. Further trophic levels are

numbered subsequently according to how far the organism is along the food chain.

 Level 1: Plants and algae make their own food and are called primary producers.

 Level 2: Herbivores eat plants and are called primary consumers.

 Level 3: Carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers.

 Level 4: Carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers.

 Level 5: Apex predators that have no predators are at the top of the food chain.

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 Second trophic level

Rabbits eat plants at the first trophic level, so they are primary consumers.

Third trophic level

Foxes eat rabbits at the second trophic level, so they are secondary consumers.

Fourth trophic level

Golden eagles eat foxes at the third trophic level, so they are tertiary consumers.

Decomposers

The fungi on this tree feed on dead matter, converting it back to nutrients that primary

producers can use.

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Biomass transfer efficiency

Biomass transfer efficiency is An energy pyramid that illustrates how much energy is needed

as it flows upward to support the next trophic level. This diagram shows that only about 10% of

the energy transferred between each trophic level is converted to biomass.

The efficiency with which energy or biomass is transferred from one trophic level to the next is

called the ecological efficiency.

Consumers at each level convert on average only about 10% of the chemical energy in their food

to their own organic tissue (the ten-percent law). For this reason, food chains rarely extend for

more than 5 levels. At the lowest trophic level (the bottom of the food chain), plants convert

about 1% of the sunlight they receive into chemical energy. It follows from this that the total

energy originally present in the incident sunlight that is finally embodied in a tertiary consumer

is about 0.001%

"Eutrophication" is the enrichment of surface waters with nutrients.

The symptoms and impacts of eutrophication are:

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 1. It causes Increase in production and biomass of phytoplankton, attached algae, and

macrophytes.

2. It causes Shift in habitat characteristics due to change in assemblage and heavy load of

aquatic plants.

3. It results in the Replacement of desirable fish (e.g. salmonids in western countries) by

less desirable species.

4. It causes in the Production of toxins by certain algae.

5. It increases the problems of public water supplies, including taste and odour problems,

especially during periods of algal blooms.

6. It causes the Deoxygenation of water, especially after collapse of algal blooms, usually

resulting in fish kills.

7. It causes Infilling and clogging of irrigation canals with aquatic weeds resulting in the

decrease of their depth.

8. It Loses recreational use of water due to slime, weed infestation, and noxious odour from

decaying algae.

9. Economic loss due to change in fish species, fish kills, etc.

Management for Eutrofication

10. Taxes on fertilizer:-

11. Requirement for fertilizer plans. Because without awareness of their requirement in

agriculture fields ,farmers introduce continuously and as a result later on these fertilizers

are leached in water bodies by rain, wind and irrigation system resulting in the increase of

eutrofication.

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 12. Preventing the leaching of nutrients after the growing season by increasing the area

under autumn/winter green cover, and by sowing crops with elevated nitrogen .

13. Promoting and subsidizing better application methods, developing new, environmentally

sound fertilizers, and promoting soil testing.

14. Severely limiting the use of fertilizers in e.g. water extraction areas and nature protection

areas.

Biodiversity of fresh waters :-

1. Mud:-It contains amino acids together with microorganisms and organic product of

decay.

2. Detritus:- It is also known as plant debris. It may be defined as particulate organic matter

originating mainly from dead plants, nonliving fragments and excreta of living

organisms. It is usually found with silt, sand , bacteria, algae and unicellular organisms.

3. Plankton:- These are tiny organisms that live on the mercy of water for movement due to

their immobile nature.

These are as

i. Phytoplankton:- Plant origin such as algae, diatoms, desmids

ii. and ii. Zooplankton :-Animal origin such as protozoans, rotifers, copepods,

cladoceras and crustaceans larvae.

Ecological classification of Planktons

i. Heleoplankton:- Pond plankton.

ii. Limnoplakton:- Lake plankton

iii. Rheoplankton:- Running water plankton

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 iv. Hypalmyroplankton:- Estuarine plankton

v. Halioplankton:- Marine plankton

4. Periphyton:- is the community that develops on the surface of submerged substrates.

i. The community developing on rock or stone is called Epilithic.

ii. The community developing on plants is called Epiphytic.

iii. The community developing on hard shells is called Epizootic.

The periphyton mainly consists of assemblage of minute organisms as

protozoans, rotifers, diatoms and blue green algae.

5. Benthos:- Organisms resting on bottom or living in bottom sediments. Insects, worms,

small crustaceans and moolusks.

6. Neustons:- Organisms resting on water surface. Floating algae, macrophytes like

duckweeds and some animals. Animal that spend their life on upper surface are called as

Epineuston. ( hydrometra) . Animal that spend their life under water are termed as

Hyponeuston ( Lravae and pupa of snails and snails.)

7. Nekton:- The animals that navigate on will. These are large animals found at all depths

such as crab, shrimps, prawn, fish , snakes, crocodiles.

8. Plants:- These are filamentous algae and higher aquatic plants as floating,

submerged and emergent plants

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Freshwater Animal & Plant Adaptations

Animal Adaptations

Many plants and animals have adapted to the freshwater biome and could not survive in water

having a higher salt concentration. As this ecosystem covers a vast portion of the world, the

animal life found can vary considerably.

Fish are able to obtain oxygen through their gills. Fish such as trout have adapted to living in

rivers and streams where the water is cooler, clearer and has a higher oxygen level. At the mouth

of these water sources, the sediments create a more murky environment with lower oxygen levels

and fish such as catfish and carp have adapted to exist in these areas.

There are three zones in lakes and ponds:

The littoral zone (the topmost and warmest is home to snails, clams, insects, crustaceans, fishes

and amphibians and the eggs and larvae of dragonflies and midges). These resources provide

food for turtles, snakes and ducks.

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The limnetic zone is close to the surface and consequently receives a good deal of light. This

zone contains a variety of freshwater fish.

The profundal zone is very dense and cold, with little light penetrating this region. Only

heterotrophs (animals that eat dead organisms) are found in this region

Mammals

Mammals (badgers, otters, mink) live near water and are capable of swimming to catch their

main food source, fish.

Amphibians

Amphibians and reptiles (toads, frogs, alligators, crocodiles, salamanders and newts start life

underwater as eggs and tadpoles, and then move to ground as adults.

Insects

Insects such as skaters, water beetles, mosquitoes and dragonflies can skim over the surface of

ponds, playing a critical role in the food supply for other animals. Some spiders can actually take

a bubble of air with them underwater.

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Birds

Swans

Many species of ducks, geese and swans also call the freshwater biome their home, feeding on a

number of different items including fish, while wading birds such as herons and egrets wander

through the mud shallows searching for insects.

Manatees have adapted to survive in warm water and migrate from hilly areas to south Punjab.

Some have found the warm water near power plants, and consequently do not have to migrate.

Beavers shape their environment more than most other animal species on Earth, utilizing their

ever-growing teeth to cut down trees and plants to create dams to create their dens (room ) .

Their actions are not always appreciated by nearby humans, but they are vital to the ecology,

causing a build-up of water which in turn creates a new wetland. Beavers also help to purify

water because the sediments and any toxins are trapped behind the dam.

Plant Adaptations

Various species of aquatic plants and algae have also adapted to exist in the wider parts of rivers

and streams where the water is clear enough to allow sunlight to penetrate.

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Zooplankton are microscopic organisms that live suspended in the water environment, moving

via convection or wind-induced currents. Plankton live for only a short period of time; when they

die they fall into the deep-water and provide food for larger animals.

Wetlands contain standing water and plant species that have adapted to this very moist and

humid environment include pond lilies, cattails, sedges, tamarack and black spruce, cypress and

gum.

Spatial and Temporal Changes in Aquatic Ecosystem

Spatio-temporal Structure is the way in which species are distributed relative to each

other.

• Some species provide a framework that creates habitats for other species. These species,

in turn create habitats for others, etc.

• Example: Trees in a rainforest are stratified into several different levels, including a

canopy, several understories, a ground level, and roots. Each level is the habitat of a

distinct collection of species. Some places, such as the pools of water that collect at the

base of tree branches, may harbor entire communities of their own.

• Temporal structure is the timing of the appearance and activity of species. Some

communities, i.e., arctic tundra and the decay of a crops, have pronounced temporal

species, other communities have less.

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 • Example: Many desert plants and animals are dormant most of the year. They emerge,

or germinate, in response to seasonal rains. Other plants stick around year round, having

evolved adaptations to resist drought.

• Example of Amphibians:-

Frogs and toads undergo hibernation during winter for specific period of time but during

hibernation , their activities are not harbored and breeding is stopped during this period

of time. Moreover, they can not remain in hibernation throughout the year.

Examples of Fish:- Fish breeding season is from April to July and most of the fish

species become dormant and aestivate from Dec- Feb as a result of physic-chemical

parameters.

Examples of Plants:- Flowering occurs only during spring season and fall occurs only

during autumn as a result of abiotic factors. So each step occurs during the specified

course of time which is spatial and temporal change. So no one event occurs before the

other.

Limnological Importance of Aquatic Biota

In most aquatic food chains, the community interactions are often controlled by abiotic factors or

predation at higher levels of food chain. The control of primary production by abiotic factors

such as nutrients is called “bottom-up control”. The control of primary production by the upper

levels of food chain is referred to as “top-down control

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Bottom-up control

The bottom-up hypothesis requires that the biomass of all trophic levels is positively correlated

and depend on fertility (limiting resources) of the habitat

More available nutrients more algae more zooplankton more planktivorous fish

More piscivorous fish ( Fish eating or carnivorous fish).

Top-down Control

The top-down hypothesis predicts, however, that the adjacent trophic levels will be negatively

correlated.

More piscivorous fish fewer planktivorous fish more zooplankton fewer

phytoplankton more available nutrients .

So the above two hypotheses determine the following characteristics of water body such as

1. Changes in the species composition of the aquatic communities,

2. Changes in the dominant groups of organisms in a habitat,

3. Impoverishment ( poor or diminish ) of species,

4. High mortality of sensitive life stages (larvae and eggs),

5. Mortality in the whole population,

6. Changes in the behaviour of the organisms,

7. Changes in the physiological metabolism, and

8. Histological changes and morphological deformities.

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 Factors Affecting Aquatic Biota

The general effects of anthropogenic activities on ecosystems,

1. The presence and effects of common pollution issues (eutrophication, toxic organic

chemicals, toxic metals, industrial inputs),

2. Common features of deleterious changes in the aquatic communities,

3. Pollutant transformation in water and in the organisms,

4. Long-term effect of substances in the water bodies (biomagnification and

bioaccumulation),

5. Condition resulting from waste disposal and of the character and dispersion of

wastewaters,

6. The dispersion of atmospheric pollution (acidification arising from wet and dry

deposition of acid-forming compounds),

7. The effects of hydrological control regimes (impoundments),

8. The effectiveness of environmental protection measures, and

9. The toxicity of substances under controlled, defined laboratory conditions, (i.e. acute or

chronic toxicity, genotoxicity or mutagenicity ( gene abberations or mutation

THERMAL STRATIFICATION OF LAKES

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GLACIER MELTING

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