Chapter 1: Introduction
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
What is an Operating System?
A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer
and the computer hardware
Operating system goals:
Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier
Make the computer system convenient to use
Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
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Computer System Structure
Computer system can be divided into four components:
Hardware – provides basic computing resources
CPU, memory, I/O devices
Operating system
Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the
users
Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
Users
People, machines, other computers
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Four Components of a Computer System
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What Operating Systems Do
Depends on the point of view
Users want convenience, ease of use
Don’t care about resource utilization
But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must keep all
users happy
Users of dedicated systems such as workstations have dedicated
resources but frequently use shared resources from servers
Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for usability and battery
life
Some computers have little or no user interface, such as embedded
computers in devices and automobiles
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Operating System Definition
OS is a resource allocator
Manages all resources
Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource
use
OS is a control program
Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use
of the computer
Special concern with operations and control of I/O devices
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Operating System Definition (Cont.)
No universally accepted definition
―The one program running at all times on the computer‖ is the
kernel.
Everything else is either a
system program
an application program.
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Computer System Organization
Computer-system operation
One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common
bus providing access to shared memory
Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for
memory cycles
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Computer-System Operation
I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently
Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type
Each device controller has a local buffer
CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by
causing an interrupt
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Common Functions of Interrupts
Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally,
through the interrupt vector, which contains the addresses of all the
service routines
Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted
instruction
Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt is being
processed to prevent a lost interrupt
A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error or a
user request
An operating system is interrupt driven
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Interrupt Handling
While executing a process, an interrupt triggers.
It is handled by the IHR.
The process starts its execution again.
However what will happen if while handling an interrupt, another interrupt
triggers?
It can be handled using two approaches
Sequential approach
Nested approach
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Sequential Interrupt Handling
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Nested Interrupt Handling
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Context Switching
A context switch is the computing process of storing and restoring
the state (context) of a CPU so that execution can be resumed from
the same point at a later time.
This enables multiple processes to share a single CPU.
The context switch is an essential feature of a multitasking operating
system.
Context switches are usually computationally intensive and much of
the design of operating systems is to optimize the use of context
switches
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I/O Structure
After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O
completion
After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for
I/O completion
Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
Wait loop
No simultaneous I/O processing
System call – request to the operating system to allow user to
wait for I/O completion
Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device
indicating its type, address, and state
Operating system indexes into I/O device table to determine
device status and to modify table entry to include interrupt
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Storage Structure
Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access
directly
Random access
Typically volatile
Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity
Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic
recording material
Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided
into sectors
The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the
device and the computer
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Storage Hierarchy
Storage systems organized in hierarchy
Speed
Cost
Volatility
Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main
memory can be viewed as a cache for secondary storage
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Storage-Device Hierarchy
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Computer-System Architecture
Most systems use a single general-purpose processor (PDAs through
mainframes)
Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing (Master-Slave)
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing (Peers)
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Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
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A Dual-Core Design
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Operating System Structure
Multiprogramming needed for efficiency
Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one
to execute (as a busy lawyer)
A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
One job selected and run via job scheduling
When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job
Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs
so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing
Response time should be < 1 second
Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
If several jobs ready to run at the same time CPU scheduling
If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory
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Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
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Operating-System Operations
Interrupt driven by hardware
Software error or request creates exception or trap
Division by zero, request for operating system service
Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying each
other or the operating system
Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system
components
User mode and kernel mode
Mode bit provided by hardware
Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code
or kernel code
Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in
kernel mode
System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to
user
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Transition from User to Kernel Mode
Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
Set interrupt after specific period
Operating system decrements counter
When counter zero generate an interrupt
Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate
program that exceeds allotted time
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Process Management
A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
Process needs resources to accomplish its task
CPU, memory, I/O, files
Initialization data
Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying
location of next instruction to execute
Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating
system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes /
threads
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Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connection with process management:
Creating and deleting both user and system processes
Suspending and resuming processes
Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
Providing mechanisms for process communication
Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
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Memory Management
All data in memory before and after processing
All instructions in memory in order to execute
Memory management determines what is in memory when
Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
Memory management activities
Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used
and by whom
Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into
and out of memory
Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
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Storage Management
The operating system provides uniform, logical view of physical storage
media.
Logical storage unit — file.
Physical storage media — disk, tapes, …
The operating system maps files onto physical
media and access these files via the storage
devices.
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File-System Management
A file is a collection of related information defined by
its creator.
Represent programs and data.
Data: numeric, alphabetic, or binary. free-form or non-free form.
Files usually organized into directories to make
them easier to use.
Multiple user can access to the same file.
Access control on most operating systems to determine who
can access what.
OS activities include (chapters 10 and 11):
Creating and deleting files and directories.
Primitives to manipulate files and directories.
Mapping files onto secondary storage.
Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media.
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Mass-Storage Management
Computer system must provide secondary storage
to back up main memory.
Disks are used as the principal storage medium for
programs and data.
Disks are frequently used as the source and
destination of program processing.
Proper management is of central importance.
Speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem.
OS activities:
Free-space management.
Storage allocation.
Disk scheduling.
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End of Chapter 1
Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
