BILINGUALISM

BILINGUALISM

Braj B. Kachru

The area of bilingualism is essentially interdisciplinary; therefore,

it has been studied from linguistic, educational, psychological, and
sociological perspectives. In defining the term various classificatory,
normative, and methodological criteria have been used (see, e.g.,
Beziers and Van Overbeke 1968:112-131; Haugen 1953; Weinreich 1953), and
no one definition of the term is generally accepted. Bloomfield
(1933:56) defines bilingualism as "native-like control of two languages"
— a very high goal indeed. For Haugen (1953:6) a bilingual produces
"complete and meaningful utterances in other languages." Weinreich
(1953:1) considers bilingualism "the practice of alternately using two
languages."

However, empirical research has shown that bilingualism is more

like a continuum (Diebold 1964) and may be viewed as a cline (Kachru 1965).
On the one extreme there are ambilinguals (equilinguals), and on the
other extreme there are speakers of a broken variety of a language.
A significantly large number of bilinguals seem to rank around the
central point. A bilingual1s knowledge of a language may be active or
passive or mode-restricted, having competence in reading and not in
speaking or vice versa. Bilingualism has also been used as a cover term
for trilingualism (as in parts of Tanzania and South Asia), or for other
manifestations of multilingualism. In a strict sense bilingualism is
only a subset of multilingualism. In order to make a distinction
between a bilingual situation and a multilingual situation, the term
pluralingualism has been suggested (see, e.g., DiPietro 1971a). I will,
however, use the term to include linguistic situations which entail not
only two language contexts, but also cases where more than two languages
may be involved (i.e., pluralingualism).

One cannot approach bilingualism as if there were a vacuum in

research tradition. The classics in bilingualism continue to be
insightful and are important for gaining a sound background. Some of the
major earlier studies are Haugen 1953 /'revised edition 19697 , 1973
preprinted in Fishman 19787, and Weinreich 1953. In recent years a
number of important papers related to various theoretical and applied
aspects of bilingualism have been published, or earlier papers have been
reproduced in various anthologies, such as the following: Alatis 1978",
Fishman 1978; Kachru 1976; Kachru and Sridhar 1978; Lourie and Conklin
 BILINGUALISM

1978; Paradis 1978; Spolsky and Cooper 1977 and 1978; Trueba and
Barnett-Mizrahi 1979; Whiteley 1974; and Zappert and Cruz 1977.

The classics will be better understood if one also consults:

(a) the studies which entail a reevaluation of the earlier approaches
and concepts (e.g., that of diglossia, first proposed in Ferguson 1959),
and, (b) the case studies of specific bilingual speech communities or
nations (e.g., Fishman 1976 and 1978; Kloss 1977; Sharp 1973; Sharma
and Kumar 1977; Spolsky and Cooper 1977; and Whiteley 1974). A number
of such studies are either reanalyses or interpretations of the results
of recent field research. One of the main contributions of the current
literature is toward our better understanding of the formal and functional
aspects of bilingualism. In formal terms the interest has been in the
description of the language performance of a bilingual at various
linguistic levels. The aim is to study the manifestation of interference
(or transfer) of first language (mother tongue, or L..) elements into
the second language (L_). This involves a study of the types of
substitution of those structural elements in L^ which are non-shared in
the phonology, grammar, lexis, and semantics of L.. (e.g., Akiyama 1979;
Durga 1978). One consequence of such focus has been the development of a
sub-field within linguistics termed contrastive linguistics which enjoyed
great vogue from the 1950's to the late 1960's, and has regained the
attention of scholars in recent years (see, Sridhar 1980). The study of
formal manifestation of interference is not important only for pedagogical
reasons but is of theoretical interest as well.

In linguistics there has been a long tradition of the study of the

phenomenon of language transfer, and a number of procedural devices and
theoretical approaches have been developed for it. Most of these studies
are within the framework of contrastive linguistics (see, for references
up to 1953, Weinreich 1953; for recent work see DiPietro 1971b and
Paradis 1978).

Language transfer has implications for at least three other areas.

First, the development of second language or "interference varieties"
(Quirk, et al. 1972:26) of a language; e.g., non-native varieties of
English, French, Portuguese, and Hindi. Second, initiating language change
at various linguistic levels (see, e.g., Mackey and Ornstein 1979; and
Kachru 1979a). Third, the development of new codes of communication which
are generally termed code-mixed varieties of a language (for detailed
bibliographical references see Pfaff 1979 and Kachru 1978). We shall
briefly discuss these three aspects below.

(1) NON-NATIVE VARIETIES: Interference (or transfer) in the non-

native varieties of a language have been studied within the broad concept
of nativization (or indigenization) of a language. By nativization is
meant the linguistic and contextual acculturation of a variety of a
language in a new sociocultural and linguistic context. Thus, nativization
is an attempt to relate a language to the linguistic ecology in which it
functions as a second language, for example, French in the Francophone
areas, English in various parts of the globe, Hindi in Mauritius and Fiji,
and Persian in South Asia. Due to such nativization various contextually
and linguistically modifying terms have been used to refer to such
varieties; for example, Nigerian English, Caribbean English, Indian English,
and Ghanian English (see, for bibliographical references and case studies,
 BRAJ B. KACHRU

Bailey and Gorlach forthcoming; Smith 1980; and Kachru 1980).

(2) LANGUAGE CHANGE: One important consequence of language contact is
language change. Language changes manifest themselves both in the first
language due to contact with the second language and, as is well
documented, in the second language. The first aspect has not as yet been
fully studied. One example of such a situation is the Englishization of
South Asian languages, or African languages. There is a large number of
studies which discuss such transfer in lexis and phonology. But such
influence is also evident on a more conservative linguistic level—that
of syntax. In the case of Hindi, for example, the use of impersonal
construction, SVO word order as opposed to SOV word order, indirect
speech, or passivization with dwara ('by') have been attributed' to the
contact with English. (3) CODE-MIXING: The term code-mixing refers to
a consistent transfer of linguistic elements (units) of one language into
another, and thus the result is a language-mix. Such mixing normally
develops into restricted (or not-so-restricted) additional codes of
communication. These codes are formally distinct and functionally and
pragmatically important. In many situations such codes are even assigned
a specific name to recognize their distinctness (e.g., Hinglish, Singlish,
Spanglish, Englanol, Bazar Hindi). All such codes are not always
attitudinally acceptable, therefore a user of such a code may be put to
a disadvantage (e.g., "Tex Mex," see Gumperz 1970). These codes are used
for various attitudinal, social, and pragmatic reasons. A distinction has
to be made between odd-mixing and code-mixing, and there are clear formal
constraints on such language mixing. A number of such syntactic and other
constraints in a mixture of, for example, Spanish and English, and Hindi
and English, have been discussed in Pfaff 1979 and Kachru 1978. The
development of such codes has to be separated from pidgins, Creoles, and
borrowing. In the literature the terms code-switching and code-shifting
have also been used for this phenomenon, though some researchers clearly
make a distinction between the situation of mixing and switching (see
also, Beebe 1977; Dearholt and Valdes-Fallis 1978; Lindholm and Padilla
1978; and Scotton 1977).

The functional aspects of bilingualism relate to language use, for

example, why a particular language or dialect is chosen for a specific
use in particular context. Or, why a certain register (or a register-
range) is present in a given language while it is absent in another
language. The answers to these questions are related to both language
form and language function, and entail the study of language in context.
It is this aspect of language which has been the focal point in the
current research. Bilingualism is also being studied from the point of
view of pragmatics (Rintell n.d.) or creativity (Irizarry 1979). It
becomes easier to discuss the functional aspect of a language if Gumperz's
notion of verbal repertoire of a speech community is adopted (Gumperz
1966 and 1972), and the function of language is directly related to
language identity, language attitude, and language maintenance. These
three areas have again been seriously discussed in the current literature,
with empirical research. It has been shown that language use and
maintenance are dependent on the language attitude of a speech community
(see, e.g., Pandit 1978; Teitelbaum 1979).

In addition to the formal and functional characteristics of

bilingualism, theoretical and empirical research in several other inter-
 BILINGUALISM

disciplinary aspects of bilingualism has significantly contributed to our

understanding of this phenomenon. Some of these areas are:
(a) Bilingualism and Cognition. Such research demonstrates the effect of
bilingualism on cognitive development, and the difference in such
development between monolinguals and bilinguals (for a "reanalysis" of
earlier studies see MacNab 1979; see also, Cummins 1977; and Paradis
1979b); (b) Bilingualism and Neurolinguistics. Neurolinguistics is the
study of the cerebral representation and organization of language. The
study of aphasia among bilinguals aims at finding how functionally
independent two languages are in a bilingual. There is evidence that
"one of the two linguistics systems may be restrictively inaccessible,
either permanently (as in case of selective restitution) or temporarily
(as in case of successive or antagonistic restitution)" (Paradis 1979a:
180). Though the number of studies on this aspect is still limited,
such studies have certainly contributed to better understanding of the
bilingual brain (see, e.g., Albert and Obler 1978; Hornby 1977; Paradis
1977; Whitaker 1978; Ojemann and Whitaker 1978; and Whitaker and
Whitaker 1977); (c) Bilingualism and Intelligence. In the Western world
there is continued interest in the effect of bilingualism on intelligence.
The research findings do not seem to support any specific viewpoint.
However, recent research does show that the benefits derived from an
introduction to early bilingualism in fact far exceed whatever short term
educational deficits bilingualism may have. In non-Western multilingual
societies, bilingualism (bidialectism) has been treated as a way of
living, therefore accepted without much controversy; (d) Bilingual
Education. In a number of countries, for example, in the United States,
special efforts are being made to introduce bilingualism in the educational
system. These efforts are a consequence of the awareness among some
educators that in a culturally pluralistic society monolingual education
is not necessarily the ideal, that for ethnic identity a language identity
is essential, and that cultural preservation is not possible without
language maintenance. The two often mentioned approaches are the
transitional and the maintenance approaches. Both approaches have their
critics and supporters (for international case studies see Spolsky and
Cooper 1978; see also, Epstein 1977-78). In the United States the
proliferation of such programs has been motivated by the recognition of
a person's right to education in spite of his or her language background.
A number of court decisions have mandated this right, which is supported
by Title VI guidelines. This impetus for bilingual education has resulted
in research on areas which were earlier neglected, for example, the
relationship between self concept and school achievement, and parent-child
and teacher-student interaction patterns; (e) Bilingualism and the Law.
The controversy concerning the provision and rights for bilingual
education has resulted in prolonged legal argumentation. A summary of
current perspectives on bilingual education has been presented in five
volumes of Bilingual Education: Current Perspectives (Center for Applied
Linguistics, Washington D.C., 1977). Each volume is devoted to one
aspect; i.e., social sciences (1), linguistics (2), law (3), education
(4), and the last volume (5) providing a synthesis.

One might ask, "What are the current major theoretical postulates?"
One significant achievement of current research has been the debate
about a number of myths concerning the damaging effects of bilingualism,
for example on scholastic achievement, on intelligence (Cummins 1977),
and on cognitive development (MacNab 1979). The theoretical and
 BRAJ B. KACHRU

methodological advances made in developing "socially-realistic linguistics"

(Labov 1972:xiii) provide additional incentives for the study of
bilinguals' behavior in classroom interaction, in the family, and in other
social networks. Ferguson's call (1979) for the study of "the linguistic
repertoire" as one system is a further step toward writing "unified
grammars" in which one can describe a language as "one linguistic
structure with complex internal variation" (Ferguson 1979:101). Attempts
toward such partial descriptions have been made by, among others,
Denison (1968), Lavandera (1978), and Trudgill (1976-1977). This is a
shift from the traditional concept of focusing essentially on the common
core (or overall) analysis.

The debate on the theoretical issues has been stimulating', as have

the insights gained in applied research on some other aspects of
bilingualism, such as bilingual lexicography (Al-Kasimi 1977 and Nguyen
1979), biculturalism (Paulston 1978), bilingualism and psychotherapy
(Marcos and Urcuyo 1979), and the role of linguistics in bilingual
education (Shuy 1979), to give just a few examples. However, we still
have very few studies (comparative or non-comparative) about the function
of bilingualism in traditional bilingual societies of Asia and Africa.

The field of bilingualism—both in theoretical and applied research—

has become one of the most active interdisciplinary research fields. The
number of books of readings and collections listed in this survey provide
clear evidence for it.

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Akiyama, M. Michael. 1979. Yes-no answering systems in young children.

Cognitive Psychology. 11.4. 485-504.

There are two distinct systems in world languages used in answering

negative questions (e.g., "Aren't you going?"). An English speaker
responds "yes" or "no" depending on the speaker's intention about
the matter. A Japanese speaker answers in response to the literal
statement of the question and thus disagrees with the form of the
question (e.g., "Yes, I am not going."). This study shows that the
English system is easier to acquire for monolinguals. The Japanese-
English bilingual children used the English system to answer Japanese
negative questions. The results are discussed within the framework
of sentence verification models.

Akiyama, Michihiko. n.d. Negative questions in Japanese-speaking, English

speaking and Japanese-English bilingual children. Papers and Reports
on Child Language Development. 12. Stanford University.

This is a comparative study of the performance of yes-no questions of

bilingual and monolingual children. The analysis is based on
eighteen English monolinguals, and the same number of Japanese
monolinguals, and Japanese-English bilingual children, belonging to
age groups three, four, and six. They were asked questions of the
 BILINGUALISM

following type: positive questions, corresponding negative questions,

positive tag questions, and corresponding negative tag questions. The
general level of language development was tested on comprehension of
spatial terms and of passive sentences. The study concludes that the
English answering system is more natural to young monolingual children.
The bilingual children answer Japanese negative questions using the
English way but have difficulty in answering negative tag questions.
The two separate linguistic systems do not seem to work in an additive
way in bilingual children.

Albert, Martin L. and Loraine K. Obler. 1978. The bilingual brain:

neuropsychological and neurolinguistic aspects of bilingualism. New
York: Academic Press.

This is a cross-disciplinary study of the relationship between brain

and bilingualism from linguistic, psychological, and neuro-
psychological perspectives. "It includes studies of psycholinguistic
phenomena such as interference, transfer and translation; socio-
linguistic phenomena such as age and manner of acquisition of the
second language; and neurologic considerations such as cerebral
organization for the two language systems, potential switch mechanisms,
and differential cerebral lateralization for language. In the
concluding chapter, the authors...synthesize the neuropsychological
and neurolinguistic evidence, and...offer the controversial
conclusion: language is organized in the brain of a bilingual in a
manner different from that which might have been predicted by
studies of cerebral organization for language in monolinguals." The
book consists of six chapters", i.e., Introduction; Linguistic
studies of bilingualism; Psychological studies of bilingualism;
Neuropsychological studies of bilingualism; Theoretical considerations.
The concluding chapter ("Summary and Conclusion") provides a
synthesis of neuropsychological and neurolinguistic evidence.

Cummins, James. 1977. Psychological evidence. In Bilingual Education:

Current Perspectives. Vol. 4. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied
Linguistics. 78-89.

This study outlines a model for the evaluation of bilingual education

programs. It attempts to reconcile the inconsistencies in the
results of studies showing negative association between bilingualism,
verbal intelligence, and academic skills, and findings which claim
that bilingualism positively influences cognitive functioning.

Cummins, James. 1978. Bilingualism and the development of metalinguistic

awareness. Journal of cross-cultural psychology. 9.2.131-149.

This paper suggests that bilingualism can add to the child's meta-
linguistic awareness and provide an analytical orientation to
linguistic input. The results were based on an experiment
administered to two groups of children, the aim being to "assess
their level of metalinguistic awareness and ability to evaluate
contradictory and tautological statements."

DeAvila, Edward A. and Sharon E. Duncan. 1979. Bilingualism and the

metaset. NABE: The journal for the national association for bilingual
 BRAJ B. KACHRU

education. 3.2.1-20.

The study discusses several research approaches to the problem of

accounting for the low academic performance of language minority
children. It attempts to reverse the deficit-based and culturally-
deprived image of the bilingual children by presenting the concepts
of metacognition and metalinguistic awareness as they relate to
treatment of bilingual children. It integrates the theoretical
position of Piagetian developmental psychology with Harlow's learning
set proposal. This integrated theory is termed "metaset" and
provides a new approach for explaining the efforts of childhood
bilingualism.

Duncan, Sharon E. and Edward A. DeAvila. 1979. Relative linguistic

proficiency and field dependence/independence: some findings on the
linguistic heterogeneity and cognitive style of bilingual children.
Larkspur, CA: DeAvila, Duncan and Associates.

This cross-sectional study aims "(1) to assess and describe the

English/Spanish relative linguistic proficiency (RLP) of four
Hispanic background populations in grades one and three, and (2)
on the basis of this description, to assess the comparative
performance of children at increasingly higher levels of RLP on
three measures of cognitive functioning. Following a rationale
emphasizing an interpretation of cognitive-development and learning
theory approaches, the primary prediction was that there would be
significant differences in performance by children at increasingly
higher levels of RLP on all three measures. It was also predicted
that the bilingual children's performance on all measures would be
superior to that of the monolingual children. The subjects were
204 school children in grades 1 and 3, selected from urban and rural
Mexican-American, urban Puerto Rican-American, and Cuban-American
communities in four states....There was positive and significant
relationships between degree of relative linguistic proficiency and
cognitive-perceptual performance of the children....This finding
supports a reversal of the usual view of limited-English speaking
children as being intellectually inferior to their monolingual peers.
Furthermore, no-difference findings can be interpreted as support
for the proposal that 'a threshold level1 of bilingualism is
required before the relationship between bilingualism and
metacognition becomes apparent."

Durga, Ramanand. n.d. Bilingualism and interlingual interference. Journal

of cross-cultural psychology. 9.4.401-415.

This paper shows "that there are significant differences in semantic

distance between English-Spanish bilinguals and English monolinguals,
that semantic distance differed between balanced bilinguals and
Spanish-dominant bilinguals, and that the balanced bilinguals have a
greater repertoire of verbal information than their monolingual
peers."

Fishman, Joshua A. 1976. Bilingual education: an international

sociological perspective. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
 BILINGUALISM

The volume is one of the few surveys which provide a world

perspective of bilingual education. The first two parts provide
"point of view" (Ch. I-IV) and "International findings" (Ch. V-IX).
The third part includes four appendices, including an insightful
survey by E. Glyn Lewis on "Bilingualism and Bilingual Education:
The Ancient World to the Renaissance." The author makes it clear
that "this is a partisan volume. Hot only is it unabashedly in favor
of bilingual education, but it is strongly in favor of a certain
context for bilingual education: a context that values it as
enrichment for one and all, rather than merely as compensation for
down-and-out minorities or as a group-maintenance opportunity for
reawakening ones. I have written this book because I want to bring
this view, and the data and reasoning on which it is based, to
teachers, teacher-trainees, educational administrators, a wide
variety of educational specialists, and educationally concerned
laymen, for all of whom bilingual education is a matter of rapidly
growing interest" (viii).

Fishman, Joshua A. 1978. Advances in the study of societal bilingualism.

The Hague: Mouton.

The volume consists of seventeen papers divided into four parts,

namely, (1) Language contact (3 papers); (2) Language maintenance
and language shift (6 papers); (3) The spread of languages of wider
communication (4 papers); (A) The re-establishment of functional
allocation (4 papers). There is also an addenda consisting of two
papers: Joshua A. Fishman, "A graduate program in the sociology of
language" (795-798), and Rolf Kjolseth, "The development of the
sociology of language and its social implications" (799-875). A
majority of chapters are revised and updated versions of papers
already published in journals or books. The volume covers both
theoretically important studies, and also specific case studies
(African, Asian, European). It can be used as a reference work for
sources on specific areas, as a book of readings for a course, and
as an excellent overview of the field, especially Haugen's classical
paper (1-111).

Haynes, Lilith M. 1975. Language choice and language change: all in a

Guyanese family. Child language. Special issue of Word, ed. by
Walburga von Raffler-Engel. 27.1-3.363-376.

This article explores some of the reflexes of socialization in the

language behavior of a family of four in Guyana, South America. The
data base is a set of questions posed without this study in mind, by
the four members of the family during interviews with their
respective peers. Affective considerations and stigma are shown to
be influential in language choice and language change within and
across the generations represented here.

Hornby, Peter A. (ed.) n.d. Bilingualism: psychological, social, and

educational implications. New York: Academic Press.

The nine papers included in this volume were presented at the

Canadian-American Conference on bilingualism held on the Plattsburgh
Campus of the State University of New York (March 12-13, 1976). The
10 BRAJ B. KACHRU

conference brought together "scholars from a variety of disciplines

to discuss the problems and benefits associated with speaking more
than one language" (x). The volume is interdisciplinary and includes
studies on some of the historical developments, and theoretical and
applied research findings from disciplines such as psychology,
sociology, linguistics, and education. Three papers by Lambert,
Ben-Zeer, and McCormack deal with the individual aspects of
bilingualism, namely, effects on intelligence, cognitive-linguistic
orientation, and bilingual storage and recall of verbal information.
Taylor, Segalowitz and Gatbonton, and Haugen consider the social
aspects of bilingualism. The papers of Fishman, et al., and Tucker
present an overview of global and national aspects of bilingualism.
Fishman, et al., study the role of English "the world over" and
Tucker studies the "second language teaching in developing countries
and in North America." In the final chapter Genesee provides a
"Summary and Discussion."

Irizarry, Richard. 1979. The relationship between creativity and

bilingualism. Ph.D. diss. University of Texas at Austin.

The purpose of this study was to "...discuss the possible variables

in the relationships that exist between creativity and bilingualism.
The study offered cognitive and affective attributes which were
characterized as belonging to either bilinguals or to creative
persons. If, on the empirical basis, bilingualism and creativity
share certain factors, traits, or characteristics unique to
humanity; then the possibility exists that these attributes are
correspondingly shared by individuals that are characterized as
either bilingual or as creative. The study supported the idea that
an early bilingual-bicultural experience may have cognitive
implications for problem solving and creative expression....The
study drew upon the inter-relatedness of creativity, problem solving,
and bilingualism in order to ascertain the implications for education
with respect to curriculum and instruction and more specifically, for
bilingual-bicultural education.

Kachru, Braj B. (ed.) n.d. Dimensions of bilingualism: theory and case

studies. Special issue of Studies in Language Learning. Urbana,
IL: Unit for Foreign Language Study and Research, University
of Illinois.

This volume includes 14 papers, and a review article ("Multilingualism

in the Soviet Union"). A majority of papers were presented at a
conference on bilingualism (May 8-9, 1975) at the University of
Illinois. Five types of studies are included: historical dimensions
of bilingualism (Sanskrit in pre-Muslim South Asia, the Mediterranean
contact vernacular, Graeco-Latin bilingualism); case studies (Central
Africa, China); English as an international link language, an
overview and the case of English in India; the linguistic aspects of
bilingualism; and finally a study by Charles Osgood on "Probing
subjective culture." This paper provides an overview of Osgood's
research for almost 15 years "on human affective systems, now
involving 30 language culture communities around the world."

Kloss, Heinz. 1977. The American bilingual tradition. Rowley, MA:

 BILINGUALISM 11

Newbury House.

This book is strongly recommended to anyone interested in the

American tradition of bilingualism, and the language related minority
laws and nationality rights for immigrants. This volume embodies
the pioneering research of Kloss which was originally published in
German and is now available in an updated and revised version in
English. The nine chapters provide an excellent historical
introduction, documentation and discussion on: The nation, national
minorities, and minority rights (Ch. 1 ) ; Federal promotion-oriented
minority laws (Ch. 2 ) ; Tolerance-oriented rights (Ch. 3 ) ;
Promotion-oriented nationality rights for immigrants (Ch. 4 ) ;
Promotion-oriented nationality law for large old-settlers groups in
mainland states (Ch. 5 ) ; Promotion-oriented nationality rights for
smaller groups of original settlers in mainland states (Ch. 6 ) ;
Nationality rights in outlying areas (Ch. 7 ) ; Nationality law in
overseas possessions which did not become states (Ch. 8 ) ; The
summing up (Ch. 9 ) . There are also two appendices; i.e., Mother
tongue by states, 1970, and Bilingual education: languages other
than Spanish (and English) used in BEA-Funded Projects, 1974-1975.
The book includes an extensive bibliography of sources (313-331).

Lebrun, Yvan. 1975. The neurology of bilingualism. Child Language: 1975.

Special issue of Word. Ed. by Walburga von Raffler-Engel. 27.1-3.
1971. 179-194.

This article analyzes several cases of bilingualism and adduces

evidence supporting the hypothesis that different languages, or
languages which are acquired differently, may to some extent be
subserved by different cerebral circuits. It shows that the ability
of some polyglots to use their languages without reciprocal
interference cannot yet be localized with certainty. It also
suggests that the mother tongue is not necessarily more deeply
rooted in the central nervous system than any foreign language
which the individual may know well.

MacNab, G. L. 1979. Cognition and bilingualism: a reanalysis of studies.

Linguistics 17.231-255.

This is a review of the methodology of the recent studies claiming

that bilingualism causes cognitive development. This paper
"concludes that these primarily associational studies do not
support this conclusion. A more parsimonious explanation of
differences between bilinguals and unilinguals is to be found in
differences in self-selection of children in non-compulsory
second language learning environments and in difficulties of access
to learning and social stress which affect minority language
children who are forced to learn the majority language in ways that
are very much like the difficulties of lower class children where
language is not an issue."

Magiste, Edith. 1979. The competing language systems of the multi-

linguals: A developmental study of decoding and encoding processes.
Journal of verbal behavior. 18.1.79-89.
12 BRAJ B. KACHRU

The subjects of this study are 163 Swedish-German bilingual

students whose period of residence in Sweden varied. The aim was
to study the developmental changes in elementary decoding and
encoding processes in such bilinguals. The author uses cross-
section method and demonstrates "that decoding in two languages,
expressed in terms of reaction time, develops faster than encoding."

Marcos, Luis R. and Leonel Urcuyo. 1979. Dynamic psychotherapy with the
bilingual patient. American Journal of Psychotherapy. 33.3.331-338.

In the case of subordinate bilinguals, the language barrier may

inferfere with the integration of the affect and the experience being
verbalized, facilitate obsessive mechanisms of defense, and distort
the therapist-patient communication. At times, however, emotionally
charged material may be more accessible through the detached non-
dominant language. In the treatment of proficient bilinguals, the
presence of 2 separate languages can complicate the psychotherapeutic
process. Important material may be unavailable in one language, and
the patient may feel like 2 different persons according to the language
he or she speaks. If both languages are used, the patient may use
language switching as a form of resistance. Psychotherapists who
are unfamiliar with the implications of bilingualism for the process
of dynamic psychotherapy may easily misevaluate these patients, their
attitudes and responses. Misperception of the bilingual patient's
communicative behavior may be minimized if the therapist is careful
to estimate the degree of the language barrier and language
independence in bilinguals in order to control their impact on
therapy.

Ojemann, George A. and Harry A. Whitaker. 1978. The bilingual brain.

Archives of Neurology. 35.7.409-412.

The paper discusses two bilingual patients in whom the localization

of two languages in the lateral cortex of the dominant cerebral
hemisphere was determined by the technique of mapping sites where
electrical stimulation altered naming in the two patients.

Oksaar, Els. 1971. Code-switching as an interactional strategy for

developing bilingual competence. Special issue of Word, ed. by
Walburga von Raffler-Engel. 27.1-3.377-385. Reprinted in
Child language: 1975.

Starting from the observation that the main strategy followed by

children learning more than one language in progression toward the
mastery of their communicative competence is code-switching, this
article discusses the dynamics, function, and consequences of such
switching on the basis of longitudinal studies in a bilingual
Estonian (L.) and Swedish (L~) environment in Sweden.

Ornstein, Jacob, Guadalupe Valdes-Fallis, and Betty Lou Dubois. 1971.

Bilingual child-language acquisition along the United States-
Mexico border: The El Paso-Cuidad Juarez-Las Cruces triangle.
Special issue of Word, ed. by Walburga von Raffler-Engel. 27.386-404.
Reprinted in Child language: 1975.
 BILINGUALISM 13

The multilingual-multicultural Southwest provides a ready laboratory

for the study of bilingual child-language ontogeny. The language
situation along the United States-Mexican border, exemplified by the
El Paso, Texas, Las Cruces, New Mexico, and Ciudad Juarez (Chihuahua),
Mexico triangle is an apt case in point. Language acquisition is
viewed in the light of the multiple model-sources to which children
of varying socioeconomic status are exposed. There is reason to
believe that, even in a presumably homogenous context of standard
speaking parents, children are exposed not to a "unitary" model-
source, but to a number of them (including nonstandard ones).

Pfaff, Carol W. 1979. Constraints on language mixing: Intrasentential

code-switching and borrowing in Spanish/English. Language. 55.2.
291-318.

Mixture of Spanish and English, whether in isolated loan words or in

code-switching of clauses and sentences, while socially motivated,
is subject to clear linguistic constraints. Quantitative analysis
of mixing in conversations of Mexican-Americans suggest specific
functional constraints to express tense/aspect/mood and subject/
object relationships, as well as structural constraints which permit
only surface structures which are grammatical in both languages.
Resolution of structural conflict plays a key role, so that lexical
cores trigger longer phrasal switches if they govern rules which
create non-shared surface structures. The relative frequency of
mixes without structural conflict is constrained by discourse
function.

Paradis, Michel, (ed.) 1978. Aspects of bilingualism. Columbia, SC:

Hornbeam Press.

The volume includes twenty-eight papers, out of which only eight

are reprints. The rest were presented at the LACUS Forum 1977 in
Montreal. The papers have been grouped into five thematically-
organized sub-sections; i.e., 1. Developmental aspects: The
acquistion of two languages (3 papers); 2. Linguistics aspects:
Two co-existing grammars (2 papers); 3. Pedagogical aspects:
Learning a second language (5 papers); 4. Psycholinguistic and
neurolinguistic aspects: Two languages in one brain (5 papers);
5. Sociolinguistic aspects: Two languages in one society (12
papers). It includes (in section 5) an excellent collection of
studies for manifestations of 'code-switching' and 'code-mixing'
though mainly restricted to the Western world. It is a valuable
reference volume with appropriate bibliographies. One serious
drawback is that the volume includes practically no study on any
aspect of bilingualism in Asia or Africa.

Paradis, Michel. 1979. Contributions of neurolinguistics to the theory

of bilingualism. In R. K. Herbert (ed.), Metatheory: Applications
of linguistic theory in the human sciences. Conference Proceed-
ings. East Lansing, Department of Linguistics. Michigan State
University. 180-211.

This important paper summarizes the insights gained from speech

pathology, mainly from cases of aphasia in bilingual patients, for
14 BRAJ B. KACHRU

our understanding of bilingualism. The main points are (a) that

two languages can be functionally independent, (b) that in some
cases the underlying competence (which is still definitely there)
becomes inaccessible and performance is totally inhibited, (c) that
there is a clear dissociation in performance between comprehension
and production, (d) that neurolinguistics has allowed to identify
levels of linguistic structure, each admitting the selective
impairment, and hence having a certain degree of functional autonomy,
(e) that units of meaning (which are language dependent) are
distinct from mental representations or concepts (which are language-
independent) , and (f) that two languages are not necessarily
organized in identical fashion in all bilingual individuals.

Pattanayak, D. P. (ed.) 1978. Papers in Indian sociolinguistics. Mysore:

Central Institute of Indian Languages.

These papers are a final report of a national seminar-cum-workshop

in sociolinguistics held in Mysore in 1972. Chapters on "Linguistic
acculturation" (Ch. 3 ) , and "The communicative basis of language
problems in education"(Ch. 4) provide useful empirical data for the
study and analysis of several manifestations of bilingualism in
India. Ch. 3 focuses on the linguistic acculturation of Malayalam,
Tamil, and Bengali speakers in Mysore city, and one occupationally-
defined group (sweepers and cobblers) who are bilinguals in Kannada
and Telegu.

Paulston, Christina Bratt. 1978. Biculturalism: Some reflections and

speculations. TESOL Quarterly. 12.4.369-380.

Biculturalism is explained as an eclectic process , the result

being a mixture of two cultures with one basic "cultural competence"
and two sets of "socio-cultural performance."

Schumann, John H. 1979. The genesis of second language. In Kenneth C.

Hill, (ed.) The genesis of language. Ann Arbor, MI: Koroma
Publishers. 48-61.

An examination of four theories of second language acquisition (SLA);

i.e., E. M. Hatch's discourse perspective, S. Krashen's monitor
perspective, L. Selinker's neurofunctional perspective, and J. H.
Schumann and A. M. Stauble's acculturation model. Primary focus on
the early stages of SLA; marginally discusses subsequent SL
development.

Spolsky, Bernard and Robert Cooper. (eds.) 1977. Frontiers of bilingual

education. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

This volume provides an excellent perspective of various aspects of

bilingualism and bilingual education. The ten invited papers
thematically focus on the following aspects: educational (5
papers), sociological (1 paper), linguistic (1 paper), language
planning (1 paper), evaluational (1 paper), philosophical (1 paper).
The papers provide useful "state of the art" reports on the
sub-fields with appropriate references for further study.
 BILINGUALISM 15

Titone, Renzo. 1978. Some psychological aspects of multilingual

education. International review of education. 24.3.283-293.

This paper summarizes the "recent investigations on cognitive

development through the first and second language in a bilingual
program. The 'Glossodynamic Model' of language learning is
presented as a basis for explaining how the child's cognitive and
affective development are enhanced by bilingual stimulation."

Volterra, Virginia and Traute Taeschner. 1978. The acquisition and

development of language by bilingual children. Journal of child
language. 5.2.311-326.

Presents longitudinal data from two girls which show that in

analyzing the learning process through which a child becomes
bilingual from early infancy to age 4 years, three stages can be
distinguished: (a) the child has one lexical system which
includes words from both languages, (b) the child distinguishes
two different lexicons but applies the same syntactic rules to both
languages, (c) the child has two linguistic codes, differentiated
both in lexicon and in syntax, but each language is exclusively
associated with the person using that language. Only at the end
of this state, when the tendency to categorize people in terms of
their language decreases, can one say that a child is bilingual.

Zappert, Laraine T. and B. Roberto Cruz. 1977. Bilingual education:

An appraisal of empirical research. Berkeley, CA: Bay Area Bilingual
Education League/Lau Center, Berkeley Unified School District.

A critical review of literature on the effects of bilingual

education and bilingualism on the cognitive, affective, and
academic aspects. The study is based on over 180 national and
international project studies. The study shows that no conclusive
statements can be made about the effects of bilingual education on
a student's performance. However, the research findings support
the use of a child's first or dominant language as a medium of
instruction. The volume provides "graphic reference for determining
the methodological weaknesses of particular research studies...
along with a comprehensive research bibliography."

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16 BRAJ B. KACHRU

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18 BRAJ B. KACHRU

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