Chapter 16: Digestive System
Chapter 16: Digestive System digestive tract but have ducts that lead
Digestion is the breakdown of large into the tract.
organic molecules into smaller salivary glands
molecules that can be absorbed. liver
The digestive system performs the task gallbladder
of digestion. pancreas
Food is taken into the digestive system, ______________________________________
where it is enzymatically broken down
into smaller and smaller particles for LAYERS OF DIGESTIVE TRACT WALL
absorption. The layers of the tract wall are also
FUNCTIONS termed tunics.
Ingestion of solids and liquids Mucosa
Digestion of organic molecules innermost layer
Absorption of nutrients secretes mucus
Elimination of waste Submucosa
above mucosa
contains blood vessels, nerves, small
glands
Muscularis
above submucosa
longitudinal, circular, and oblique
muscles
Serosa/adventitia
outermost layer
peritoneum is present called serosa
no peritoneum then called adventitia
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DIGESTIVE TRACT HISTOLOGY
The digestive system consists of the
digestive tract, plus specific associated
organs.
The digestive tract is also referred to as
the GI (gastrointestinal tract)
The tract is one long tube from the
mouth to the anus.
COMPONENTS
oral cavity (mouth)
pharynx
esophagus
stomach
small intestines PERITONEUM
large intestines LAYERS
rectum Mesenteries
anus connective tissue of organs in
ASSOCIATED ORGANS abdominal cavity
The digestive system includes some Lesser omentum
associated organs not directly in the mesentery connecting lesser curvature
of stomach to liver and diaphragm
Chapter 16: Digestive System
Greater omentum
mesentery connecting greater curvature
of stomach to transverse colon and
posterior body wall.
PERITONEUM AND MESENTRIES
TEETH
32 teeth in normal adult
Incisors, canine, premolars, molars,
wisdom 20 primary teeth (baby teeth)
Each tooth has crown, cusp, neck, root
Center of tooth is pulp cavity
Enamel is hard covering protects
against abrasions
Cavities are breakdown of enamel by
acids from bacteria
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ORAL CAVITY
First part of digestive system
Contains stratified squamous epithelia
SALIVARY GLANDS
produce saliva which contains enzymes
to breakdown carbohydrates into
glucose
cleanse mouth
dissolve and moisten food
MOLAR TOOTH IN PLACE IN THE
AMYLASE ALVEOLAR BONE
salivary enzyme that breaks down
carbohydrates
LYSOZYME
salivary enzymes that are active against
bacteria
TONGUE
house taste buds and mucus
Chapter 16: Digestive System
PALATE SWALLOWING
roof of oral cavity VOLUNTARY PHASE
Hard palate bolus (mass of food) formed in mouth
anterior part and pushed into oropharynx
Soft palate PHARYNGEAL PHASE
posterior part swallowing reflex initiated when bolus
stimulates receptors in oropharynx
SALIVARY GLANDS ESOPHAGEAL PHASE
includes submandibular, sublingual, moves food from pharynx to stomach
parotid PERISTALSIS
produce saliva contains enzymes to wave-like contractions moves food
breakdown food through digestive tract
mumps is inflammation of parotid gland
PHARYNX
Throat
Connects the mouth to the esophagus
PERISTALSIS
3 PARTS Waves of smooth muscle contraction
NASOPHARYNX push digesting food and waste through
OROPHARYNX the digestive tract.
ARYNGOPHARYNX
PROCESS
ESOPHAGUS 1. The upper esophageal sphincter
Tube that connects the pharynx to the relaxes, allowing the bolus of food to
stomach enter the esophagus. A wave of
Transports food to the stomach relaxation of the esophageal muscles
Joins stomach at cardiac opening precedes the bolus of food down the
esophagus.
HEARTBURN 2. A wave of strong contraction of the
occurs when gastric juices regurgitate circular muscles follows and propels the
into esophagus bolus through the esophagus. Gravity
caused by caffeine, smoking, or eating assists the movement of material,
or drinking in excess especially liquids, through the
esophagus. However, the peristaltic
contractions that move material through
Chapter 16: Digestive System
the esophagus are sufficiently forceful to REGULATION OF STOMACH SECRETIONS
allow a person to swallow even while Parasympathetic stimulation, gastrin,
doing a headstand or floating in the histamine increase stomach secretions
zero-gravity environment of space. The
peristaltic contractions cause relaxation CEPHALIC PHASE
of the lower esophageal sphincter in the 1st phase
esophagus as the peristaltic waves stomach secretions are initiated by
approach the stomach and food is sight, smell, taste, or food thought
permitted to enter the stomach.
______________________________________
STOMACH GASTRIC PHASE
Located in abdomen 2nd phase
Storage tank for food partially digested proteins and distention
Can hold up to 2 liters of food of stomach promote secretion
Produces mucus, hydrochloric acid,
protein digesting enzymes
Contains a thick mucus layer that
lubricates and protects epithelial cells on
stomach wall form acidic pH (3)
3 MUSCULAR LAYERS
outer longitudinal, middle circular, and
inner oblique to produce churning action
RUGAE
large folds that allow stomach to stretch
CHYME
paste-like substance that forms when
food begins to be broken down
PYLORIC OPENING
opening between stomach and small
intestine
PYLORIC SPHINCTER
thick, ring of smooth muscle around INTESTINAL PHASE
pyloric opening 3rd phase
HUNGER PANGS acidic chyme stimulates neuronal
stomach is stimulated to contract by low reflexes and secretions of hormones
blood glucose levels usually 12-24 hours that inhibit gastric secretions by negative
after a meal feedback loops
Chapter 16: Digestive System
1. Relatively weak contractions result in
mixing waves, which thoroughly mix
ingested food with stomach secretions
to form chyme.
2. In the mixing wave, the more fluid part of
the chyme is pushed toward the pyloric
sphincter, whereas the more solid center
moves back toward the body of the
stomach.
3. Stronger contractions result in peristaltic
waves, which force the chyme toward
and through the pyloric sphincter. The
pyloric sphincter usually remains closed
because of mild tonic contraction.
4. Again, the more fluid part of the chyme
is pushed toward the pyloric region,
whereas the more solid center of the
MOVEMENTS OF THE STOMACH chyme squeezes past the peristaltic
Hormonal and neural mechanisms constriction back toward the body of the
stimulate stomach secretions stomach.
Stomach empties every 4 hours after 5. Each peristaltic contraction is sufficiently
regular meal, and 6 to 8 hours after high strong to cause partial relaxation of the
fatty meal pyloric sphincter and to pump a few
MIXING WAVES milliliters of chyme through the pyloric
weak contraction opening and into the duodenum.
thoroughly mix food to form chyme Increased motility leads to increased
PERISTALTIC WAVES emptying.
stronger contraction ______________________________________
force chyme toward and through pyloric
sphincter SMALL INTESTINE
Measures 6 meters in length
Major absorptive organ
Chyme takes 3 to 5 hours to pass
through
Contains enzymes to further breakdown
food
Contains secretions for protection
against the acidity of chyme
PARTS
DUODENUM
first part
25 cm long
contains absorptive cells, goblet cells,
granular cells, endocrine cells
contains microvilli and many folds
contains bile and pancreatic ducts
JEJUNUM
second part
meters long and absorbs nutrients
ILEUM
third part
3.5 meters long
Chapter 16: Digestive System
ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY OF THE
DUODENUM
MUCOSA OF THE SMALL INTESTINE
ABSORPTIVE CELLS
which have microvilli, produce digestive
enzymes, and absorb digested food
GOBLET CELLS
which produce a protective mucus
GRANULAR CELLS
which may help protect the intestinal
epithelium from bacteria MOVEMENT IN THE SMALL INTESTINE
ENDOCRINE CELLS Mixing and propulsion of chyme are the
which produce regulatory hormones. primary mechanical events that occur in
the small intestine.
The epithelial cells are located within tubular The ileocecal sphincter at the juncture of
glands of the mucosa, called intestinal glands or the ileum and the large intestine remains
crypts of Lieberkühn, at the base of the villi. mildly contracted most of the time.
Granular and endocrine cells are in the bottom Peristaltic contractions reaching the
of the glands. ileocecal sphincter from the small
The submucosa of the duodenum contains intestine cause the sphincter to relax
mucous glands, called duodenal glands, which and allow chyme to move from the small
open into the base of the intestinal glands. intestine into the cecum.
The ileocecal valve prevents movement
SECRETIONS OF THE SMALL INTESTINE from the large intestine back into the
The epithelial cells in the walls of the ileum.
small intestine have enzymes bound to
their free surfaces. PERISTALTIC CONTRACTIONS
Peptidases enzymatically breakdown proceed along the length of the intestine
proteins into amino acids for absorption. for variable distances and cause the
Disaccharidases enzymatically chyme to move along the small
breakdown disaccharides into intestine.
monosaccharides for absorption. SEGMENTAL CONTRACTIONS
are propagated for only short distances
and mix intestinal contents.
Chapter 16: Digestive System
Lobules
divisions of liver with portal triads at
corners
Portal Triad
contain hepatic artery, hepatic portal
vein, hepatic duct
Hepatic Cords
between center margins of each lobule
separated by hepatic sinusoids
Hepatic Sinusoids
contain phagocytic cells that remove
foreign particles from blood
Central Vein
center of each lobule
___________________________________ where mixed blood flows towards
forms hepatic veins
STOMACH
LIVER DUCTS
ANATOMY Hepatic Duct
Weighs about 3 lbs. transport bile out of liver
Located in the right upper quadrant of Common Hepatic Duct
the abdomen under the diaphragm formed from left and right hepatic duct
Consists of right, left, caudate, and Cystic Duct
quadrate lobes. joins common hepatic duct
Porta from gallbladder
gate where blood vessels, ducts, nerves Common Bile Duct
enter, and exit Receives arterial blood formed from common hepatic duct and
from the hepatic artery cystic duct
Flow of Bile and Pancreatic Secretions
Through the Duct System of the Liver,
Gallbladder, and Pancreas
1. The hepatic ducts converge and empty
into the right and left hepatic ducts to
Chapter 16: Digestive System
transport bile out of the liver. The right Control of Bile Secretion and Release
and left hepatic ducts unite to form a 1. Parasympathetic stimulation through the
single common hepatic duct. vagus nerve stimulates bile secretion by
2. The gallbladder Play is a small sac on the liver. Vagus nerve stimulation
the inferior surface of the liver that causes the gallbladder to contract,
stores concentrated bile (see figure thereby releasing bile into the
16.17a, b). The cystic Play (SIS-tik; duodenum.
kystis, bladder) duct carrying bile from 2. Secretin from the duodenum also
the gallbladder joins the common stimulates bile secretion and release.
hepatic duct to form the common bile 3. Cholecystokinin, also produced by the
duct. duodenum is carried through the blood
3. The common bile duct joins the to the gallbladder. There cholecystokinin
pancreatic duct. stimulates the gallbladder to contract
4. Together they open into the duodenum and the sphincters to relax, which
at the duodenal papilla (pah-PILL-ah). A releases the stored bile into the
sphincter regulates the emptying of bile duodenum.
and pancreatic secretions into the 4. Bile salts increase bile secretion through
duodenum. a positive-feedback system. Over 90%
5. Pancreatic secretions may also enter of bile salts are reabsorbed in the ileum
the duodenum through an accessory and carried in the blood by the hepatic
pancreatic duct, which also empties into portal circulation. Upon their return to
the duodenum (See “Functions of the the liver, the bile salts stimulate further
Pancreas”). bile secretion and are once again
secreted into the bile. This recycling
FUNCTIONS process reduces the loss of bile salts in
Digestive and excretory functions the feces. Bile secretion into the
Stores and processes nutrients duodenum continues until the
Detoxifies harmful chemicals duodenum empties.
Synthesizes new molecules ______________________________________
Secretes 700 milliliters of bile each day
Bile PANCREAS
dilutes and neutralizes stomach acid Located posterior to stomach in inferior
and breaks down fats part of left upper quadrant
Head near midline of body
Tail extends to left and touches spleen
Endocrine tissues have pancreatic islets
that produce insulin and glucagon
Exocrine tissues produce digestive
enzymes that travel through ducts
PANCREATIC SECRETIONS
The major PROTEIN-DIGESTING ENZYMES
are:
Trypsin
Chymotrypsin
Carboxypeptidase
Pancreatic amylase continues the
polysaccharide digestion that began in
the oral cavity.
Chapter 16: Digestive System
The pancreatic enzyme lipase is a lipid- release. In turn, cholecystokinin
digesting enzyme. stimulates the pancreas to release an
The pancreatic nuclease enzymes enzyme-rich solution. These pancreatic
degrade DNA and RNA to their enzymes digest the fatty acids and
component nucleotides. amino acids.
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DUODENUM AND PANCREAS
LARGE INTESTINE
Function is to absorb water from
indigestible food
Contains cecum, colon, rectum, anal
canal
Cecum
joins small intestine at ileocecal junction
has appendix attached
Appendix
9 cm structure that is often removed
Colon
1.5 meters long
contains ascending, transverse,
descending, sigmoid regions
Rectum
straight tube that begins at sigmoid and
CONTROL OF PANCREATIC SECRETIONS ends at anal canal
Anal Canal
last 2 to 3 cm of dig. tract
Food takes 18-24 hours to pass through
Feces is product of water, indigestible
food, and microbes
Microbes synthesize vitamin K
1. Parasympathetic stimulation from the
vagus nerve causes the pancreas to
release a secretion rich in digestive
enzymes. Conversely, sympathetic
action potentials inhibit pancreatic
secretion.
2. Acidic chyme in the duodenum
stimulates secretin release. In turn,
secretin stimulates the pancreas to
release a watery secretion, rich in
HCO3− into the duodenum.
3. Fatty acids and amino acids in the
duodenum stimulate cholecystokinin
Chapter 16: Digestive System
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DIGESTION PROCESS
Digestion
breakdown of food occurs in stomach
and mouth
Propulsion
moves food through digestive tract
includes swallowing and peristalsis
Absorption
primarily in duodenum and jejunum of
small intestine 1. Glucose is absorbed by cotransport with
Defecation Na+ into intestinal epithelial cells.
elimination of waste in the form of feces 2. Cotransport is driven by a sodium
gradient established by a Na+–K+
pump.
3. Glucose moves out of the intestinal
epithelial cells by facilitated diffusion.
4. Glucose enters the capillaries of the
intestinal villi and is carried through the
hepatic portal vein to the liver.
LIPID DIGESTION
Within the intestinal epithelial cell, the
fatty acids and monoglycerides are
converted to triglycerides.
Proteins coat the triglycerides to form
chylomicrons, which move out of the
DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES, LIPIDS,
intestinal epithelial cells by exocytosis.
& PROTEINS
The chylomicrons enter the lacteals of
the intestinal villi and are carried through
CARBOHYDRATE
the lymphatic system to the blood.
Polysaccharides split into disaccharides
Within the intestinal epithelial cell, the
by salivary and pancreatic amylases
fatty acids and monoglycerides are
Disaccharides are broken down into
converted to triglycerides.
monosaccharides by disaccharidases on
Proteins coat the triglycerides to form
the surface of intestinal epithelium
chylomicrons, which move out of the
Glucose is absorbed by cotransport with
intestinal epithelial cells by exocytosis.
Na+ into the intestinal epithelium
The chylomicrons enter the lacteals of
Glucose is carried by the hepatic portal
the intestinal villi and are carried through
vein to the liver and enters most cells by
the lymphatic system to the blood.
facilitated diffusion
Chapter 16: Digestive System
Lipoproteins include chylomicrons, low-
density lipoproteins (LDL), and high-
density lipoproteins (HDL).
1. Once lipids are digested in the intestine,
bile salts aggregate around the small
droplets of digested lipids to form
micelles (mi-SELZ, my-SEL; small
morsels). The hydrophobic (water-
fearing) ends of the bile salts are
directed toward the lipid particles, and
the hydrophilic (water-loving) ends are
directed outward, toward the water
environment.
2. When a micelle comes in contact with
the epithelial cells of the small intestine,
the lipids, fatty acids, and monoglyceride
molecules pass, by simple diffusion,
from the micelles through the cell
membranes of the epithelial cells.
3. Once inside the intestinal epithelial cells,
the fatty acids and monoglycerides are
recombined to form triglycerides. These,
and other lipids, are packaged inside a
protein coat. The packaged lipid-protein
complexes, or lipoproteins Play, are
called chylomicrons (kye-lo-MY-kronz).
4. Chylomicrons leave the epithelial cells PROTEIN DIGESTION
via exocytosis and enter the lacteals, Pepsin is a protein-digesting enzyme
lymphatic capillaries within the intestinal secreted by the stomach.
villi. Lymph containing large amounts of The pancreas secretes trypsin,
absorbed lipid is called chyle Play (KILE; chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase
milky lymph). The lymphatic system into the small intestine in an inactive
carries the chyle to the bloodstream. state.
In the small intestines these enzymes
LIPOPROTEINS are activated.
Lipids are packaged into lipoproteins to In the small intestine, other enzymes
termed peptidases, bound to the
allow transport in the lymph and blood.
microvilli of the intestinal epithelium
Lipoproteins are molecules that are part further break down small peptides into
water soluble and part lipid soluble. tripeptides.
Since lymph and blood contain water Absorption of tripeptides, dipeptides, or
and lipids are not water soluble, individual amino acids occurs through
lipoproteins are necessary for transport. the intestinal epithelial cells by various
cotransport mechanisms.
Chapter 16: Digestive System
1. Absorption of tripeptides, dipeptides, or
individual amino acids occurs through
the intestinal epithelial cells by various
cotransport mechanisms.
2. Many, but not all, amino acids are
absorbed by cotransport with a Na+
gradient, similar to the mechanism used
for glucose transport. Within the
intestinal epithelial cells, tripeptides and
dipeptides are broken down into amino
acids.
3. Next, the amino acids move out of the
intestinal epithelial cells.
4. The amino acids then enter blood
capillaries in the villi and are carried by
the hepatic portal vein to the liver. The
amino acids may be modified in the
liver, or they may be released into the
blood and distributed throughout the
body.
WATERS AND MINERALS
Water can move across the intestinal
wall in either direction
The movement depends on osmotic
pressures
99% of water entering intestine is
absorbed
Minerals are actively transported across
wall of small intestine
