SMA 102: BASIC MATHEMATICS

Course Description
Quadratic equations and inequalities. Remainder and Factor Theorem and their applications.
Permutations and combinations, Binomial theorem and its applications. Set theory: Basic
operations on sets, Laws of set theory, Venn diagrams and application. Logic: Propositions,
compound propositions and truth tables. Methods of proof: Direct, indirect, Induction,
contradiction, cases, counter examples. Complex numbers: Arithmetic operations, Geometric
representations and polar form. De Moiver’s Theorem and its applications.

LESSON ONE
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
1.1 Introduction
In this lesson we discuss quadratic equations and inequalities. In Mathematics we sometimes need
to use quadratic equations and inequalities to solve word problems. The most important thing when
solving these types of problems is to make sure that they are set up correctly so we can use the
quadratic equation and inequalities to easily solve them.
1.2 Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:
i) Solve quadratic equations using factorization, completing square and quadratic formula.
ii) Solve quadratic inequalities

1.2.1 Quadratic Equations

A quadratic equation is an equation of the form ax 2  bx  c  0 , where a, b and c are real
numbers and a  0 .
1.2 .1.1 Methods of solution
i) Graphical method
ii) Factorization
iii) Completing square meth
iv) Quadratic Formula
Example 1.1
Solve 2 x 2  5 x  3  0 by factorization method.
Solution
Look for two numbers a and b such that a  b  5 and a  b  6 , take a  6 and b  1 .
Therefore we can write
2 x 2  5x  3  2 x 2  6 x  x  3  0
 2 x x  3  x  3  0
 2 x  1x  3 =0
Either 2 x  1  0 or x  3  0
 x  1 or x  3 .
2
NB
2x  1 and x  3 are called factors of 2 x 2  5 x  3  0 while x  1 2 and x  3 are called
the roots of the equations.
Reverse

1
x  3  0 or 2 x  1  0
 x  32 x  1  0
 x 2  x  3x  3  0
2 2
 2 x 2  x  6 x  3  0 or 2 x 2  5 x  3  0 .
Example 1.3
Solve the equation 5 x 2  6 x  2  0 by completing square method.
Solution
Divide throughout by 5 to get
x2  6 x  2  0
5 5
Or
x2  6 x  2 .
5 5
 
Complete the square by adding 1 2   6 5 on both sides,
2

5
 
x2  6 x   3 = 2   3
5
2

5
  5
2
 2  9  19 .
5 25 25
Factorize the left hand side to get,
x3
5
 2
 19 .
25
Taking the square root on both sides,
19 19
x3  = .
5 25 5
3  19
x 
5
3  19 3  19
x  or  x  .
5 5
Example 1.4
Solve ax 2  bx  c  0 by completing square method.
Solution
Divide throughout by a to obtain .
x2  b x  c  0
a a
Or
x2  b x   c .
a a
2
 b 
Complete the square by adding   on both sides,
 2a 
x2  b x  b
a
 
2a
2
= a
 
c  b
2a
2
 c b
a
2

4a 2

b 2  4ac
4a 2
.
Factorize the left hand side to get,
xb
2a

2

b 2  4ac
4a 2
.

2
Taking the square root on both sides,

xb
2a

b 2  4ac  b 2  4ac
4a 2
=
2a
b b 2  4ac
x  
2a 2a
 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
This is called the quadratic formula.
Now, b 2  4ac is called the discriminant of the equation.
If b 2  4ac  0 , then ax 2  bx  c  0 has two real distinct roots.
If b 2  4ac  0 , then ax 2  bx  c  0 has two equal real roots.
If b 2  4ac  0 , then ax 2  bx  c  0 has no real roots.

1.2.1.2 Roots of Quadratic Equation

Consider the equation ax 2  bx  c  0 . Then
x2  b x  c  0 i)
a a
Let  and  be roots of equation i), then
x   or x   .
Therefore,
x     0 or x     0
 x   x     0
x x       x     0
 x 2  x  x    0 or
Or .
x 2     x    0 ii)
Comparing i) and ii), we get
b
          
b
a a
and
c
  .
a

Example 1.5
Write down the sums and products of the roots of the following equations;
i) 3 x 2  2 x  7  0
ii) 2 xx  1  x  7
iii) 2 x 2  5 x  1
Solution
 b   2  2 c 7
i)       and   
a 3 3 a 3

3
 ii) and iii) Exercise
Example 1.6
Express the following in terms of    and  .
i)  2   2
   
2
ii)
iii)  3   3
Solution
i)       2  2   2
2

  2   2       2
2

      2  2   2
2
ii)
  2   2  2
      2  2 from part i)
      4 .
iii)        3   3  
3 3 2 2 3

  3   3  3 2   3 2
  3   3  3    
 3   3       3    
3

.
Example 1.7
The roots of the equation 3 x  4 x  5  0 are  and  . Find the equation whose roots are
2

1 1
i) and
 
ii)  and 
2 2

Solution
From the given equation,
 b 4
Sum:     
a 3
c 5
Product:   
a 3
4
1 1   4
i) Sum:    3
   5 5
3
and

1 13 1
Product:   
   5
The required equation is: x  sum of roots  x  product of roots=0
2

4
 4  3 
i.e. x  x    =0
2

5  5 
i. or
5x2  4x  3  0 .

ii) Sum:          2

2 2 2

 4   5 
2
46
    2  = 
 3   3  9
 5 
2
25
Product:          
2 2 2

 3  9
46 25
Required equation: x 
2
x  0 or 9 x 2  46 x  25  0 .
9 9
E-tivity 1.2.1: Quadratic Equations

1.2.2 Quadratic Inequalities

A quadratic inequality is an inequality in which one side is a quadratic polynomial and the other
side is zero.
2x2  x  6  0
Consider the quadratic equation ax 2  bx  c  0 . Now, if b 2  4ac  0 , then this equation has two
distinct real roots. Let the roots be  and  with    . Then this equation can be written as
ax 2  bx  c  a  x    x    . 1
Next consider the number line below;

Then values of the factors in equation 1 in the three regions on the number line above are as
shown in the table below.

x  x  x    x   
x  Negative Negative Positive
 x Positive Negative Negative
x Positive Positive Positive

When a  0, ax 2  bx  c  0 when x   or when   x .

5
 ax 2  bx  c  0 when   x   .
When a  0, ax 2  bx  c  0 when   x   .
ax 2  bx  c  0 when x   or when   x .

Example 1.8
Find the set of all values of x for which 2 x 2  5 x  3  0 .
Solution
The roots of the equation 2 x 2  5 x  3  0 are 1 and -3 . Therefore
2

2 x  5 x  3  2  x  3 x  1
2
2 
and a  2  0,   3 and   1 . Thus we have
2

x 3 x 1
2 
2  x  3 x  1
2 
x  3 Negative Negative Positive

3  x  1 Positive Negative Negative

2
1 x Positive Positive Positive
2

 
Thus 2  x  3 x  1 2  0 when x  3 or when x  1 . That is 2 x 2  5 x  3  0 when x  3
2
or when x  1 .
2
Example 1.9
Find the set of all values of x for which 1  2 x  3 x 2  0 .
Solution
The roots of the equation 1  2 x  3 x 2  0 are  1 and 1. Therefore
3
 
1  2 x  3 x 2  3 x  1  x  1 and we have the table below;
3

x 1
3
x 1
 x  13   x  1 
3 x  1
3   x  1
x1 Negative Negative Positive Negative
3
 1  x 1 Positive Negative Negative Positive
3
1 x Positive Positive Positive Negative

 
Thus 3 x  13  x  1  0 when x   1 or x  1 . That is 1  2 x  3 x 2  0 when x   1 or
3 3
x 1.

6
1.2.2.1 Alternative Method
Steps
1. Turn the inequality into an equation
2. Find the solutions to the equation
3. Make a number line and check each interval.
Example 1.10
Solve the inequality x 2  2 x  8  0 .
Solution
Solve the equation
x2  2x  8  0
 x  4  x  2   0
 x  4 or x  2

-4 2

Consider any point less than 4 , say x  6 then

 x  4 x  2    6  4  6  2    2  8  16  0
 the set of all x such that x  4 is a solution.
Next, consider any point in the interval 4  x  2 , say x  0 then
 x  4 x  2   0  4 0  2    4  2   8  0
 the set of all x such that 4  x  2 is not a solution.
Finally, consider any point greater than 2, say x  4 then
 x  4 x  2   4  4  4  2   8 2   16  0
 the set of all x such that x  2 is a solution
Hence the solution to the inequality x 2  2 x  8  0 is the set of all x such that either x  4 or
x2.

1.3 Assessment
1. The roots of 2 x  3 x  4  0 are  and  . Find the values of
2

1 1
a) 2  2 b)  c)   1   1
 
2. Prove that if one root of ax  bx  c  0 is twice the other, then 2b 2  9ac .
2

3. The sum of the squares of the roots of ax 2  bx  c  0 is 1, prove that b 2  2ac  a 2 .

4. Find the set of all values of x for which
a) 6  x  12 x 2
b) x 2  2 x  15  0

7
 LESSON TWO
REMAINDER AND FACTOR THEOREM AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

2.1 Introduction
In this lesson we will study the Remainder theorem and Factor Theorem and their applications.
The applications include factorization of polynomials of degree greater than two and solution of
equations involving polynomials of degree 3 and higher.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:
i) State and apply the Remainder Theorem
ii) State and apply the Factor Theorem

2.2.1 The Remainder Theorem

2.2.1.1 Long Division of Polynomials
A polynomial in x of degree n is an expression of the form
an xn  an1 xn1   a2 x2  a1x  a0 , where a0 , a1 , a2 , , an are real numbers and an  0 .
Eg f  x   2 x3  4 x 2  x  1 is a polynomial of degree 3.

When a polynomial f  x  is divided by another polynomial g  x  , we obtain a quotient q  x  and

a remainder r  x  . This is similar to division of two integers in arithmetic operations.
The degree of the remainder r  x  is less than that of the divisor g  x  .
q  x
g  x f  x

r  x
f  x r  x
We write f  x   g  x  q  x   r  x  or  q  x  .
g  x g  x
Example 2.1
Divide a) f  x   3x3  2 x 2  x  1 by i) g  x   x 1
ii) g  x   x2  2
b) f  x   4 x3  x  2 by g  x   3x  2
Solution

8
 3x 2  5 x  6
a) i) x  1 3 x  2 x  x  1
3 2

3x3  3x 2
5x 2  x
5x 2  5x
6x  1
6x  6
5

 q  x   3x 2  5 x  6 and r  x   5
3x  2
ii) x 2  2 3 x 3  2 x 2  x  1
3x3  6 x
2x 2  7 x
2x2  4
7x  3
 q  x   3x  2 and r  x   7 x  3

4 x2  8 x  7
3 9 27
b) 3 x  2 4 x3  x  2
4 x3  8 x 2
3
- 8 x2  x
3
- 8 x 2 - 16 x
3 9
7 x2
9
7 x  14
9 27
40
27
Therefore q  x   4 x  8 x  7
2
and r  x   40 .
3 9 27 27
Theorem 2.1 (The Remainder Theorem)
If a polynomial f  x  is divided by x  a , the remainder is f  a  .
Proof
Suppose that when f  x  is divided by x  a the remainder is r  x  . Then by division algorithm,
f  x   x  a q  x  r  x .
Putting x  a , we get

9
 f a  0 q a  r a
 Remainder  r  a   f  a 
Example 2.2
Find the remainder when x5  4 x3  2 x  3 is divided by a) x  1
b) x  2
Solution
Let f  x   x5  4 x3  2 x  3 , then
a) The remainder when f  x  is divided by x  1 is
f 1  1  4  2  3  2
b) The remainder when f  x  is divided by x  2 is
f  2    2   4  2   2  2   3  1
5 3

Example 2.3
Prove that when a polynomial f  x  is divided by ax  b, where a  0 , the remainder is
 b
f   . Hence find the remainder when 4 x 3  6 x  5 is divided by  2 x  1 .
 a
Proof
Suppose that when f  x  is divided by ax  b, where a  0 the remainder is r  x  . Then
f  x    ax  b  q  x   r  x  .
b
Putting x   , we get
a
 b  b  b
f    0 q   r   .
 a  a  a
 b  b
 Remainder  r     f    .
 a  a
If f  x   4 x  6 x  5 is divided by 2x 1, the remainder is
3

  1 
     
3
f    f 12  4 12  6 12  5
 2 
=5 .
2
2.2.2 The Factor Theorem
Cororally 2.2 (The Factor Theorem)
If for a given function f  x  , f  a   0 then  x  a  is a factor of f  x  .
That is if  x  a  is a factor of f  x  , then there will be no remainder when f  x  is divided by
 x  a ;
R 0 f  a   0.
Example 2.4
Factorize x 4  3x3  4 x 2  8 completely.

10
Solution
We use try and error method together with the factor theorem.
Let f  x   x 4  3x3  4 x 2  8 , then
f 1  1  3  4  8  0  x  1 is not a factor of f  x 
f  2   16  24  16  8  0  x  2 is a factor of f  x 
Dividing,
x3  x 2  2 x  4
x  2 x 4  3x3  4 x 2  8
x 4  2 x3
- x3  4 x 2
 x3  2 x 2
2x2  8
2x2 - 4x
4x  8
4x  8
...

Next, we factorize f1  x   x3  x 2  2 x  4 . Now

f1 1  1  1  2  4  0  x  1 is not a factor of f1  x 
f1  2   8  4  4  4  0  x  2 is not a factor of f1  x 
f1  1  1  1  2  4  x  1 is a factor of f1  x 
x2  2 x  4
x  1 x3  x 2  2 x  4
x3  x 2
- 2 x2  2 x
2 x 2  2 x
4x  4
4x  4
...
By using try and error method, it can be shown that x 2  2 x  4 no linear factors. Hence
x 4  3x3  4 x 2  8   x  2  x  1  x 2  2 x  4 
Example 2.5
Solve the equation x 3  7 x  6  0 .

11
Solution
Let f  x   x3  7 x  6 then,
f 1  1  7  6  0  x -1 is not a factor of f  x 
f  2   8  14  6  0  x-2 is not a factor of f  x 
f  1  1  7  6  0  x +1 is a factor of f  x 
x2  x  6
x  1 x3  7 x  6
x3  x 2
 x2  7 x
 x2  x
 6x  6
6 x  6
...
x  x  6   x  3 x  2  .
2

Therefore
 x  1 x  3 x  2   0
 x  1, or x  3 or x  2.

2.3 Assessment
1. Find the remainder when 2 x3  x 2  3x  5 is divided by
a) 2x+1 b) 3x-2
2. A cubic polynomial ax 3  bx  6 is divisible by x+2. It leaves a remainder -3 when divided
by x-1. Determine the values of a and b and factorize the polynomial completely.

LESSON THREE
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS
3.1 Introduction

In this lesson we will study Permutations and Combinations. In mathematics, the notion of
permutation relates to the act of permuting, or rearranging, members of a set into a particular
sequence or order. Permutations occur, in more or less prominent ways, in almost every area of
mathematics. They often arise when different orderings on certain finite sets are considered,
possibly only because one wants to ignore such orderings and needs to know how many
configurations are thus identified. On the other hand combinations are selections that disregard
order.
3.2 Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:
i) Apply permutations in counting
ii) Apply combinations in counting

12
3.2.1 Permutations
3.2.1.1 The Fundamental Counting Principle
The Fundamental Counting Principle gives the guiding rule for finding the number of ways to
accomplish two tasks.

Theorem 3.1 [The Fundamental Counting Principle]

If there are m ways to do one thing, and n ways to do another, then there are m  n ways of doing
both.

Example 3.1
a) Let’s say you want to flip a coin and roll a die. There are 2 ways that you can flip a coin
and 6 ways that you can roll a die. Therefore there are 2  6  12 ways that you can flip a
coin and roll a die.
b) If you want to draw 2 cards from a standard of 52 cards without replacing them, then there
are 52 ways to draw the first and 51 ways to draw the second, so there are a total of
52  51  2652 ways to draw the two cards.
Definition 3.1 (Permutations)
A permutation is an arrangement of a number of objects in a particular order.
Example 3.2
In how many ways can letters A, B and C be arranged in three consecutive positions?
Solution
ABC 
ACB 
BAC 
 Six permutations
BCA 
CAB 

CBA 
Or equivalently,
1st 2nd 3rd
A B C
C B
B A C
C A
C A B
B A
That is
1. If we have ABC, we can choose either A or B or C for the first position. Therefore there
are 3 distinct ways of filling the first position.
2. Once the first position is filled two letters remain and any of them can be used in the 2nd
position. For each of the 3 ways of filling the 1st position, we have two ways of filling
the second position.
3. The third position can be filled in any of one way.
Therefore total number of arrangements is
3 2 1  6 ways.

13
Similarly, if there are four objects, then there are
4  3 2 1  24 ways of arranging them and so on
Each of the arrangements in the above example is called a permutation.
Definition 3.2
The number of ways of arranging n distinct objects is
n   n  1 n  2    3  2 1
which is denoted by n! and read as ‘n factorial.’
4!  4  3 2 1  24
3!  3 2 1  6
2!  2 1  2
1! = 1
By convention 0! = 1, the number of ways of arranging zero objects.
Example 3.3
Evaluate
9! 6!
a) b)
2! 7! (3!) 2
Solution
9! 9  8  7! 9  8
a)    36
2! 7! 2!7! 2
6! 6  5  4  3! 6  5  4
b)    20
(3!) 2
3!3! 3  2 1
Example 3.4
Write 40  39  38  37 in factorial notation.
Solution
36  35   3  2 1
40  39  38  37  40  39  38  37 
36  35   3  2 1
40!
=
36!
Now, consider a situation where 4 letters are to be filled in two positions. How many arrangements
or permutations are there for 2 objects chosen from 4 objects?
i) There are 4 ways of filling the first position
ii) Once the first position is filled, three letters remain; therefore there are 3 ways of filling
the second position.
Therefore the total number of arrangements of 2 objects chosen from 4 objects will be
4  3  12 .
4! 4!
But 4  3   .
2!  4  2 !
In the same way,
5  4  20 is the number of arrangements of 2 objects chosen from 5 objects.
5! 5!
But 5  4   .
3!  5  2 !
5  4  3  60 is the number of arrangements of three objects chosen from 5 distinct object.

14
 5! 5!
But 5  4  3   .
2!  5  3!
Definition 3.3
The number of arrangements or permutations of r objects chosen from n distinct objects denoted
by n Pr is given by
n!
n
Pr  , r  n and n is an integer .
 n  r !
Example 3.5
In a lottery a total of a thousand tickets were sold. Determine the winners of the 1st, 2nd, and the
3rd prizes if three tickets are drawn one after the other?
Solution
This is a permutation of 3 tickets chosen from 1000 tickets. Therefore we have,
1000! 1000!
1000
P3  
1000  3! 997!
1000  999  998  997!
=
997!
=9.97 10 ways.
8

Example 3.6
Five letter words are formed from letters of the word TIEGROUP. How many of these have no
repeated words?

Solution
These are distinct arrangements of 5 letters chosen from 8 letters. Thus we get
8! 8!
8
P5  
8  5! 3!
8  7  6  5  4  3!
=
3!
=6720.
Remark 3.1
In some cases the objects to be arranged may not be distinct as some may be repeated.
E.g BOB, BABA, CHOOSE etc.
If we have n objects of which r1 of the first kind are alike, r2 of the second kind are alike, …., rk
of the kth kind are alike, then the number of distinct permutations is
n!
.
r1 ! r2 ! rk !
Example 3.7
Determine the number of permutations of letters of the words
a) ARRANGE b) SPEEDOMETERS c) MISSISSIPPI
Solution
7! 7  6  5  4  3  2 1
i)   1260
2!2! 2 1 2 1

15
 12!
ii)  9, 979, 200
2!4!
11!
iii)  34, 650
4!4!2!
Example 3.8
How many even numbers, greater than 2000, can be formed with the digits 1, 2, 4, 8 if each digit
can be used only once in each number?
Solution
If the number is greater than 2000, the first digit can be chosen in 3 ways i.e. 2, 4 and 8. Then
whichever has been chosen to be the first digit, there are two ways in which the last digit may be
chosen, in order to make the number even. The second digit can be chosen in two ways and this
leaves one integer for the third place.
Therefore there are 3  2  1 2  12 ways.
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
3 2 1 2
Example 3.9
How many arrangements can be made of the letters chosen from PEAT if the first letter is a
vowel and each arrangement contains three different letters?
Solution
1st 2nd 3rd
2 3 2

Total arrangements  2  3  2  12 .
3.2.2 Combinations
In permutations, the order in which objects are chosen is important. In some cases, the order of
selection is irrelevant. When the selection of objects is made with no regard being paid to order, it
is referred to as a combination.
Thus ABC, ACB, CBA are different permutations but they are the same combinations of letters.
Example 3.10
How many committees of three persons can be made of five persons namely; Anderson,
Beatrice, Charles, Duncan and Eunice?
Solution
Let A Andrew ABC BCD CDE
B Beatrice ABD BCE
C Charles ABE BDE
D Duncan ACD
E Eunice ACE
ADE
Therefore there are 10 different committees or combinations of 3 persons chosen from five.
However there are 5P3  60 distinct permutations of 3 letters chosen from the letters of the word
ABCDE. Thus one combination of three letters can be rearranged to give 3!  6 permutations.
Definition 3.4
In general, the number of combinations of r objects chosen from n distinct objects is given by
n n! n
Pr

n
Cr or   
n
or C
 r  r !  n  r !
r
r!

16
In the previous example, the number of combinations of 3 persons chosen from 5 is
5 5!
C3 or   
5

 3  3!  5  3!
5!
=
3! 2!
5 4
= =10
2
Example 3.11
Five policemen are to be selected for duty from a force of 20. In how many ways can this be
done?
Solution
20!
20
C5 
5!  20  5 !
20!
=
5!15!
= 15, 504.
Example 3.12
A mixed hockey team containing 5 men and 6 women is to be chosen from 7 men and 9 women.
In how many ways can this be done?
Solution
5 men can be chosen from 7 men in 7 C5 ways and 6 women can be chosen from 9 women in 9 C6
ways. Therefore by the Fundamental Counting Principle, the total number of ways of selecting
the team is
7! 9!
7
C5 9 C6  
5! 7  5 ! 6! 9  6 !
7! 9!
= 
5!2! 6!3!
=21 84
=1764
Example3.13
A girl wants to invite 8 friends but there is only room for 4 of them. In how many ways can she
chose whom to invite if two of them are sisters and must not be separated?
Solution
Consider two cases
i) When both sisters are invited
ii) When both sisters are not invited
From i), if the two sisters are to be invited, we select 2 out of 6 in
6!
6
C2   15 ways.
2!4!
From ii), if the two sisters are not invited, we select 4 out of 6 in

17
 6!
6
C4   15 ways.
4!2!
Therefore the total number of ways is
15 +15 = 30.

3.3 Assessment
15! 15!
1. Simplify 
11! 4! 12!3!
2. How many odd numbers, greater than 500, 000 can be made from the digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
a) Without repetition b) with repetition allowed?
3. A committee of six is to be formed from 9 women and 3 men. In how many ways can the
members be chosen so as to include at most 2 men?

LECTURE FOUR
BINOMIAL THEOREM AND ITS APPLICATIONS
4.1 Introduction
In this lesson we will study the Binomial Theorem and its applications. The Binomial Theorem
describes the algebraic expansion of powers of a binomial without actually multiplying out.
4.2 Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:
i) State and apply the Binomial Theorem for a positive integer.
ii) . State and apply the Binomial Theorem for any index.

4.2.1 Binomial Theorem for a positive integer

4.2.1.1 Expansion using the Pascal’s Triangle
Definition 4.1
A binomial is a sum or a difference of two terms.
E.g x +y, 2x + 3y are binomials.
Consider the following expansions;
a  b  1
0

a  b  a  b
1

 a  b   a 2  2ab  b2
2
`
 a  b   a3  3a 2b  3ab2  b3
3

 a  b   a 4  4a3b  6a 2b2  4ab3  b4

4

Writing the coefficients in a triangular array gives;

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1

18
This triangular array is called the Pascal’s Triangle (up to degree 4). The entries of any row in the
Pascal’s triangle can be obtained from the row immediately above it by simply adding consecutive
entries of the latter row.
Example 4.1
Expand  2 x  3 y  in descending powers of x.
3

Solution
This is a binomial of degree 3. Thus from the Pascal’s triangle the coefficients are
1, 3, 3, 1
Therefore letting a  2 x and b  3 y we have,
 2x  3 y    2 x   3  2 x   3 y   3  2 x  3 y    3 y 
3 3 2 2 3

=8 x3  36 x 2 y  54 xy 2  27 y 3
Example 4.2
4
 1
Obtain the expansion of  2 x   , in descending powers of x.
 2
Solution
This is a binomial of degree 4. Thus from the Pascal’s triangle the coefficients are
1, 4, 6, 4, 1
Therefore letting a  2 x and b   1 we have,
2
4 2 3 4
 1 3 1 2 1  1  1
         
4
 2 x  2 x  4 2 x     6 2 x     4 2 x      
 2  2  2  2  2
 1 1  1  1
=16x 4  4  8 x3      6  4 x 2     4  2 x    
 2 4  8  16
1
=16x 4  16 x3  6 x 2  x  .
16
4.2.1.3 Binomial Theorem
Consider the binomial  a  b  of degree 3. Expanding we get
3

a 3  3a 2b  3ab 2  b3 .
Observe that the coefficients in this expansion can also be obtained as follows;
 3  3  3  3
1   , 3   , 3   , 1    .
 0 1  2  3
In general, we have
Theorem 4.1 (The Binomial Theorem)
If n is a positive integer,
n  n  n  n
 a  b     an    a n1b    a n2b2    bn , where
n

0 1  2  n

19
 n
 
n!
.
nc r
 r  r !  n  r !
Example 4.3
Find the coefficient of x10 in the expansion of  2 x  3 .
14

Solution
14  14  14 
 2 x  3     2 x      2 x   3      2 x   3 
14 14 13 10 4

0 1 4

10
Therefore the coefficient of x is
14  10
   2   3  83, 026, 944 .
4

4
Example 4.4
10
 1 
Obtain the first four terms of the expansion of 1  x  in ascending powers of x. Hence find
 2 
the value of 1.005 correct to four decimal places.
10

Solution
10  10 10  9  1  10  8  1  10  7  1 
10 2 3
 1 
 1  x    0 1   1 1  x    2 1  x    3 1  x  
 2      2    2    2 
45 2
 1  5x  x  15 x3   6.1
4
Since
10
 1 
1.005  1  .005
10 10
and comparing with 1  x  we get
 2 
1 x  0.005
2
 x  2  0.005  0.01
Substituting this value of x in equation  6.1 we obtain
45
1.005  1  5  0.01 
 0.01  15  0.01 
10 2 3

4
=1+0.05+0.001125+0.000015+
=1.0511 (4 dp)
Example 4.5
Obtain the expansion of 1  x  2 x 2  as far as the term in x3.
8

Solution

20
1  x  2 x   1   x  2 x 2  
8
2 8

8 8 8

=1+    x  2 x 2      x  2 x 2      x  2 x 2  
2 3

1  2  3
=1+8  x  2 x 2   28  x 2  4 x3    56  x 3
 
=1  8 x -16 x 2  28 x 2  112 x3  56 x3 
=1  8 x  12 x 2  56 x 3 

4.2.2 Binomial Theorem for any Index

Theorem 4.2
For any rational number n, the binomial theorem is given by
n  n  1 2 n  n  1 n  2  3
1  x   1  nx 
n
x  x  ,
2! 3!
provided 1  x  1 ie x  1.
Example 4.6
1
Expand in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x 3 .
1 x
Solution
1
 1  x 
1
 n  -1
1 x
Therefore
 1 2   x 2   1 2  3  x 3 
1  x   1   1  x      
1

2! 3!
=1  x  x 2  x3 , provided x  1.
Example 4.7
Obtain the first five terms of the expansion 1  2x in ascending powers of x. State the values
of x for which the expansion is valid.

Solution
1  2 x  1  2 x  2 , n  1
1

2
Therefore
 1   1   1   1    3 
1  2 x  2x  2x  2 2
 
2 2x 
1
2
 1 1 2 2 2 3
2 2! 3!
 12   12    3 2   5 2   2 x 

4

4!
=1  x  1 x 2  1 x3  5 x 4 
2 2 8
The expansion is valid for 1  2 x  1 ie x  1 .
2

21
Example 4.8
1
Expand in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x 3 and state the values of x for
2  x
2

which the expansion is valid.

Solution
2
1   x 
 2  x
2
  2 1   
2  x   2 
2

2
 x
 22 1  
 2
  x   2  3  x   2  3 4   x  
2 3

= 1   2    
1
  +   + 
4  2  2!  2  3! 2 

= 1 1  x  3 x 2  1 x3  
4 4 2 
= 1  1 x  3 x 2  1 x3 
4 4 16 8
For the expansion to be valid,
1  1 x  1 ie x  2.
2
Example 4.9
1 2x
Expand up to the term including x 3 .
1 x
Solution
1 2x
 1  2 x  2 1  x 
1 1

1 x
Now,

 1   1   1   1    3 
1  2 x   2x   2 2
 2x   2 2
 
2 2x 
1 2 3
2
 1 1
2 2! 3!
 1 x  1 x  1 x  2 3
2 2
and
(1)(2) (1)(2)(3)
1  x   1  (1)( x) 
1
( x) 2  (  x )3 
2! 3!
=1  x  x 2  x3 
Therefore

22
 1 2x
1 x

 1  x  1 x 2  1 x3 
2 2  1  x  x 2
 x 3  
= 1  x  x 2  x3     x  x 2  x3     1 x 2  1 x3  
2 2  
1 x 
2 3
 
=1  2 x+ 3 x 2  2 x 3 
2
Example 4.10
Find the first four terms in the expansion of 1  8x 
1
2
in descending powers of x. Substitute
1
x and obtain the value of 23 correct to five significant figures.
100
Solution

1  8 x   1  2 (8 x) 
1
2 1
1 1
2  
2 (8 x)  2
2

1 1 3
2  
2 (8 x)3   
2! 3!
=1  4 x  8 x 2  32 x
3

1
Substituting x with we have,
100
1 1 1 1
 8  2
 92  2  23  4  2
 4  2
 23
1
1        
2

 100   100   100   100 

2
= 23
10
Also
1
 8  2

1    1  4(0.01)  8(0.01) 2  32(0.01)3

 100 
=1  0.04  0.0008  0.000032
=0.959168
2
 23  0.959168
10
0.959168 10
 23   4.79584
2
 4.7958.
Expand 1  2x  x 2  the following as far as the terms in x 3 .
6

Coefficients 1+ 6 (2 x  x 2 ) +15 (2 x  x 2 ) 2 +20 (2 x  x 2 ) 3  ...

x  6 x 2  60 x 2  60 x 3  160x 3
=1+12 x  54 x  100x  ...
2 3

23
1. Obtain the first four terms of the expansion of 1  8x 
1
2
in ascending powers of x. Putting
1
x obtain the value of 3 correct to five decimal places.
100
2. Show that if x is small enough for its cube and higher powers to be neglected,
1 x x2
 1 x  .
1 x 2

24
 LECTURE FIVE
SET THEORY
5.1 Introduction
In this lesson we introduce sets theory, Venn diagrams and applications to counting. The concept
of set is fundamental to mathematics and computer science. Everything mathematical starts with
sets. For example, relationships between two objects are represented as a set of ordered pairs of
objects, the natural numbers, which are the basis of other numbers, are also defined using sets,
graphs and digraphs consisting of lines and points are described as an ordered pair of sets and so
on.
5.2 Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:
i) Discuss basic concepts in set theory
ii) Perform set operations
iii) Simplify set expressions using set laws
iv) Apply set theory to counting.

5.2.1 Introduction to Sets

Definition 5.1
A set is a well-defined list or collection of objects. The different objects that form a set are called
members or elements of the set. The members making up a set are enclosed in braces (curly
brackets) i.e. { }. We usually denote sets by capital letters. For example
A  1, 10, 5, 3 is a set having four members.
A set is finite or infinite according to whether it has a finite or infinite number of members. For
example
i) A  a, b, c, d  is a finite set.
ii) N  1, 2, 3,  is an infinite set.
There are two ways of describing a set;
i) By listing down all of its members.
ii) By stating the properties characterizing each one of the members.
For example
a) A  a, b, c, d , e, f  denotes a set A whose members are a, b, c, d, e and f.
b) B   x : x  0 and x is an integer . Then the members of B are 1, 2, 3, …

 
c) E  x x2  3x  2  0 and x is a real number . Then the members of E are all real numbers
satisfying the equation x 2  3 x  2  0 , that is E  1, 2 .
Null or Empty Set
It is a set with no members and it is denoted by  or { }.
Example 5.1
 
a) The set x x2  1  0 and x is a real number is empty for x 2  1  0 has no real solution.
b) The set  x : x is an even integer lying between 10 and 11, 10 not included is empty.
Membership of a Set
The symbol  means is a ‘member of’ or ‘belong to’.

25
Thus if A  1, 5, 6, 7 , then 1  A .
The symbol  means ‘is not a member of’ or ‘doesn’t belong to’. Thus if B  a, b, e, d  , then
x B.
Equality of Sets
Two sets A and B are said to be equal, written A  B , if they have exactly the same members.

Remark 5.1
The order in which members of a set are listed down is immaterial.
For example
A  a, b, c, d , e, f  and B   f , d , e, a, c, b are equal.
Remark 5.2
It is not allowed to repeat a member of a set more than once.
Thus if A  a, b, a, d , e, e, f  and B  a, b, d , e, f  , then A  B .
Cardinality of a set
The cardinality or the order of a set A is the number of elements in A. It is denoted by n  A or A
. For example if B  3, 7, 8, 9, 11 , then n  B   5 .
Subsets
If every member of a set A is also a member of a set B, then A is said to be a subset of B or A is
contained in B. If A is contained in B, we denote this by A  B . If A is a subset of B, then B is
called a superset of A. The notation A  B means A is contained in B but A  B . In this case, A is
called a proper subset of B. Furthermore the symbol A  B means A is not contained in B, thus
we can find x  A but x  B .
Example 5.2
Find all the subsets of A  1, 2,3 .
Solution
a)  b) {1} c) {2} d) {3} e) {1, 2} f) {1, 3} g) {2, 3} h) A  {1, 2, 3}
Remark 5.3
The empty set  is a subset of any other set since it has no members. The subsets a) to g) are
proper subsets of A.
If A contains an element which is not in B, the A cannot be a subset of B. We denote this by A  B
.

Example 5.3
If A  1, 2, 4, 5 and B  4, 5, 7, 8 , then A  B since 1, 2  A but 1, 2  B.
If n  A  m , then the number N of all subsets of A is N  2 m .
Example 5.4
If n  A  3 , then the number of all subsets of A is 23  8 .
Equality of Sets
A set A is said to be equal to B written A  B if A  B and B  A . Therefore in order to prove that
A  B we need to show that x  A  x  B and x  B  x  A .

26
Universal Set
If we have some sets under consideration, a fixed set which contains all these subsets is called the
universal set and it is denoted by U.
Example 5.5
Let A  1, 2, 3, 4 and B  5, 7, 9 and C  10,12,13 . Then we can take the universal set to be
either
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,10,11,12,13 , 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,10,11,12,13,14,15 , N  1, 2, 3, ... or
Z  ...,  2,  1, 0,1, 2, ... .

Set and set problems may be represented by diagrams called Venn diagrams. The universal set is
represented by a rectangle while subsets of the universal set are represented by circles or discs
lying inside the rectangle as illustrated below;

Complement of a set
If U is the universal set and A is a subset of U, then all elements of U which do not belong to A
form the complement of A. The complement of A is denoted by Ac . Thus
Ac   x : x  U and x  A .
Diagrammatically,

27
 U

A
Ac

Shaded area represents Ac .

Example 5.6
Let U  1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and A  1, 3, 5 . Then
Ac  2, 4, 6 .
5.2.2.2 Set Operations
We consider the following set operations;
Intersection
Let A and B be two sets. Then the set of elements which are common to both A and B is called
the intersection of A and B, denoted by A  B .
Thus
A  B  x : x  A and x  B .
Diagrammatically,

28
 U

A
B

The shaded region represents A  B .

Examples 5.7
If A  1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and B  7, 9,11 , find A  B .
Solution
A  B  7, 9
If A and B have no elements in common i.e. A  B   , then A and B are said to be disjoint.
Diagrammatically,

A B

Example 5.8
If A  1, 3, 5, 7 and B  2, 4, 6, 8 , then A and B are disjoint since A  B   .
Union
The union of two sets A and B is the set of all elements contained in A or B. The union of two
sets A and B is denoted by A  B (read A union B). Therefore
A  B  x x  A or x  B .

29
Diagrammatically,

A B

Shade area represents A  B .

Difference of Two Sets
The relative complement of a set B with respect to a set A, or simply the difference of A and B
denoted by A \ B (or A  B ) is the set of elements which belong to A but do not belong to B.
Therefore
A \ B  A  B  x x  A, x  B .
Diagrammatically,

A B

Shaded area is A \ B .
Example 5.9
Let A  1, 2, 3, 4 and B  3, 4, 6 . Then
a) A \ B  1, 2 and b) B \ A  6

30
 U

A B

Shaded area is A \ B .
Example 5.9
Let A  1, 2, 3, 4 and B  3, 4, 6 . Then
a) A \ B  1, 2 and b) B \ A  6

5.2.3 Algebra of sets

Theorem 5.1 (Set Laws)
Let A, B and C be sets. Then
1. A  A  A A A  A Idempotent Law
2.  A  B   C  A   B  C   A  B  C  A   B  C  Associative Law
3. A  B  B  A A B  B  A Commutative Law
4. a) A   B  C    A  B   A  C 
b) A   B  C    A  B   A  C  Distributive Law
5. a) A   A
b) A U  A
c) A U  U Identity Laws
d) A   
6. A c c
A Involution Law
7. a) A  Ac  U
b) A  Ac   Complement Laws
c) U 
c

d) c  U
 A  B   Ac  Bc
c
8. a) De Morgan’s Laws
 A  B   Ac  Bc
c
b)

31
Remark 5.4
To prove equations involving set operations we use definition of equality of two sets. The
alternative method of proof involves use of a Venn diagram.
Example 5.10
We prove the first of the De Morgan’s Laws.
Proof
Method 1
We first show that  A  B   Ac  Bc . If x   A  B  , then x   A  B  . Thus x  A and
c c

x  B , so that x  Ac and x  B c . Hence x  Ac  B c .

Next we show that Ac  Bc   A  B  . Let x  Ac  B c , then x  Ac and x  B c , so x  A and
c

x  B . Hence x   A  B  , so x   A  B  . Together, these inclusions prove that

c

 A  B
c
 Ac  Bc .
Method 2
Using Venn Diagrams

Figure I Figure II

UU shaded U

A B A
B
A B

Shaded region is  A  B 
c

shaded
shaded
Shaded

Figure III

A B
32
Since the shaded region in Figures I and III are identical then,  A  B   Ac  B c .
c

Example 5.11
Use set algebra to simplify
a) A  A c  B 
b)  A  B   A  B c 
Solution
a) A  A c  B   A  A c    A  B 
 U   A  B
 A B.
b)  A  B   A  B c   A  B  B c 
 A U
 A.

5.2.4 Applications of Set Theory to Counting

A set is finite or infinite according to whether it has a finite or infinite number of elements.
For example
a) A  a, b, c is finite since n  A  3   .
b) N  1, 2,3,... is an infinite set.
Lemma 5.2
If A and B are disjoint finite sets, then A  B is finite and
n  A  B   n  A  n  B  .
Proof
In counting elements of A  B , first count those that are in A. There are n  A  of these. The only
other elements of A  B are those that are in B but not in A. But since A and B are disjoint, no
elements of B is in A, so there are n  B  elements that are in B and not in A. Therefore
n  A  B   n  A  n  B  .
Theorem 5.3 [Inclusion-Exclusion Principle]
Let A and B be any finite sets, then A  B is finite and
n  A  B   n  A  n  B   n  A  B  .
Proof
This follows from the fact that when we add n  A  and n  B  , we have counted the elements of
A  B twice.
This Principle holds for any number of sets.
For three sets we have
Theorem 5.4
For any finite sets A, B, C we have
n  A  B  C   n  A  n  B   n  A   n  A  B   n  A  C   n  B  C   n  A  B  C  .
Example 5.12

33
Among 50 students in a class, 26 got an A in the first examination and 21 got an A in the second
examination. If 17 students did not get an A in either examination, how many students got A in
both the examinations?
Solution
Let P be the set of students who scored A in the first exam, then P  26
Let Q be the set of students who scored A in the second exam, then P  21
Also

 P  Q
c
U  50 and  17 . Therefore
P  Q  50  17  33 .
But
P Q  P  Q  P Q
and so
33  26  21  P  Q
 P  Q  26  21  33  14
Hence 14 Students scored an A in both exams.
Example 5.13
In a survey of 60 people, it was found that
25 people read the Newsweek magazine
26 read Time
26 read Fortune
9 read both Newsweek and Fortune
11 read both Newsweek and Time
8 read both Time and Fortune
3 read all the three magazine
a) Find the number of people who read at least one of the three magazines.
b) Fill in the correct number of people in a Venn diagram.
c) Find the number of people who read exactly one magazine.
Solution
a) We need to find n  N  T  F  . Now
n  N  T  F   n  N   n T   n  F   n  N  T   n  N  F   n T  F   n  N  T  F 
 25  26  26 11  9  8  3  52
b) The required Venn diagram is obtained as follows;
3 read all the three magazines
11-3 = 8 read Newsweek and Time but not all the three magazines
9-3 = 6 read Newsweek and Fortune but not all the three magazines
8-3 = 5 read Time and Fortune but not all the three magazines
25-8-6-3 = 8 read only Newsweek
26-8-5-3 = 10 read only Time
26-6-5-3 = 12 read only Fortune
60-52 = 8 read no magazine at all

34
 N

8
6
3 T

12 5 10

c) 8+10+12 = 30 read only one magazine.

5.3 Assessment
1. In a class of 80 students, 50 students know English, 55 know French and 46 know
German language. 37 students know English and French, 28 students know French and
Germany, 25 students know English and Germany and 7 students know none of the
languages. Find out
a) How many students know all the three languages?
b) How many students know exactly 2 languages?
c) How many know only one language?
2. Prove the following identities
i)  A  Bc    Ac  B    A  B   A  B .
ii) A   B  C    A  B    A  C 

35
 LECTURE SIX
LOGIC
6.1 Introduction

In this lesson we will study Logic and logical operations. Logic is a language for reasoning. It is a
collection of rules we use when doing logical reasoning. Human reasoning has been observed over
centuries from at least the times of Greeks, and patterns appearing in reasoning have been
extracted, abstracted, and streamlined. In logic we are interested in true or false of statements, and
how the truth/falsehood of a statement can be determined from other statements. However, instead
of dealing with individual specific statements, we are going to use symbols to represent arbitrary
statements so that the results can be used in many similar but different cases. The formalization
also promotes the clarity of thought and eliminates mistakes.
6.2 Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:
i) Explain what is meant by a proposition.
ii) Perform logical operations on propositions
iii) Construct truth tables for propositions
iv) Determine truth values of conditional and biconditional statements.

6.2.1 Introduction to Propositions

Many proofs in Mathematics and many algorithms in Computer Science use logical expressions
of the form
‘IF p THEN q ’ or ‘1F p1 AND p2 , THEN q1 OR q2 ’ .
It is necessary to know the cases in which these expressions are either TRUE or FALSE; what
we refer to as the truth values of such expression.
Definition 6.1
A proposition (or a statement) is a declarative sentence which is either true or false but not both.
Consider the following eight sentences;
a) Paris is in France b) 1+1 = 2
c) 2+2 =3 d) London is in Denmark
e) 9 < 6 f) x = 2 is a solution of x 2  4
g) Where are you going? h) Do your homework
All are propositions except g) and h). Moreover a), b) and f) are true whereas c), d) and e) are
false.
6.2.1.1 Compound propositions
A logical connective is a symbol or word used to connect two or more propositions in a
grammatically valid way, such that the sense of the resulting proposition (called compound
proposition) depends only on the original proposition. A proposition which cannot be broken down
into simpler propositions is called a primitive proposition.
Example 6.1
a) Roses are red and violets are blue is a compound proposition with sub propositions ‘Roses
are red’ and ‘Violets are blue.’
b) John is intelligent or studies every night is a compound proposition with sub propositions
‘John is intelligent’ and ‘John studies every night.’

36
6.2.2 Basic Logical Operations
Conjunction p  q
Any two propositions p and q can be combined by the word ‘and’ denoted  to form a
compound proposition called conjunction of the original propositions. Symbolically this is
written
p  q,
and is read ‘p and q’. Since p  q is a proposition, it has truth values that depend only on truth
values of p and q.
Definition 6.3
If p and q are true, then p  q is true; otherwise p  q is false.
The truth values of p  q may be defined equivalently by the following table:
pq
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

The four lines correspond to the four possible combinations of T and F for sub propositions p
and q.
Example 6.2
Consider the following statements
i) Paris is in France and 2+2 = 4
ii) Paris is in France and 2+2 = 5
iii) Paris is in England and 2+2 = 4
iv) Paris is in England and 2+2 = 5
Only the first statement is true. Each of the other statements is false since at least one of its sub
statements is false.
Disjunction p  q
Any two propositions p and q can be combined by the word ‘or’ denoted  to form a compound
proposition called disjunction of the original propositions. Symbolically this is written
pq
and is read as p or q. The truth values of p  q depends only on the truth values of p and q as
follows;
Definition 6.4
If p and q are false, then p  q is false; otherwise p  q is true. Truth value of p  q may be
defined equivalently by the table;
pq
p q pq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Example 6.3

37
Consider the following statements
i) Paris is in France or 2+2 = 4
ii) Paris is in France or 2+2 = 5
iii) Paris is in England or 2+2 = 4
iv) Paris is in England or 2+2 = 5
Only the last statement is false. Each of the other statements is true since at least one of its sub
statements is true.
Negation ~p
Given any proposition p, another proposition called negation of p, can be formed by writing ‘it is
not the case that ….’ or ‘it is false that …’ before p or if possible by inserting in p the word not.
Symbolically this is written
~p
and is read ‘not p ’ or negation of p.
Definition 6.5
If p is true, then ~p is false, and if p is false, then ~p is true.

~p
p ~p
T F
F T

E-tivity 6.2.2: Basic Logical Operations

6.2.3 Propositions and Truth Tables

Let P  p1 , p2 , , pn  denote an expression constructed from the logical variables p1 , p2 ,..., pn ,
which take truth value TRUE (T) or FALSE (F) and various logical connectives ,  and ~ .
Such an expression P  p1 , p2 , , pn  will be called a compound proposition. The main property
of the proposition P  p1 , p2 , , pn  is that its truth value depends exclusively upon the truth values
of the variable. A simple and concise way to show this property is through a truth table.

6.2.3.1 Steps for constructing Truth Table

1. In the first row of the truth table the first n columns are for the variables p1 , p2 ,..., pn . Next,
ensure that there are enough rows in the table to allow for all possible combinations of T
and F for these variables. (For two variables, 4 rows are necessary; for three variables, 8
rows are necessary and in general for n variables, 2 n rows are necessary.
2. There is then a column for each elementary stage of construction of the proposition, the
truth value of each step being determined from previous stages by definition of connectives
,  and ~ .
3. Finally we obtain the truth values of the proposition P  p1 , p2 , , pn  which appears in
the last column.

38
Example 6.4
Construct the truth table for the proposition ~  p  ~ q  .

Solution
~  p ~ q 
p q ~q p ~ q ~  p ~ q 
T T F F T
T F T T F
F T F F T
F F T F T

Remark 6.1
We adopt the following order of precedence for logical connectives;
~ has precedence over  which has precedence over 
Eg ~ p  q means  ~ p   q and not ~  p  q  .
Example 6.5
Construct the truth table for the proposition p  q  r .

Solution
By Remark 2.1, the given proposition can be written as p   q  r  .
p  q  r 
p q R qr p  q  r 
T T T T T
T T F F T
T F T F T
T F F F T
F T T T T
F T F F F
F F T F F
F F F F F

6.2.3.2 Tautologies and Contradictions

Some proposition P  p1 , p2 , , pn  contain only T in the last column of their truth tables or, in
other words, they are true for any truth values of their variables. Such propositions are called
tautologies.
Analogously, a proposition P  p1 , p2 , , pn  is called a contradiction if it contains only F in the
last column of its truth table, in other words, it is false for any truth values of its variables.
Example 6.6
The proposition p or not p, that is p  ~ p is a tautology, and the proposition p and not p, that is
p  ~ p is a contradiction.
a) p ~ p b) p  ~ p
p ~p p ~ p p ~p p ~ p

39
 T F T T F F
F T T F T F

Example 6.7
Determine whether or not p  q  p is a tautology or contradiction.
Solution
The given proposition can be written as p   q  p 
p  q  p
p q q p p  q  p
T T T T
T F F T
F T F F
F F F F

Hence p   q  p  is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

6.2.3.3 Logical Equivalence

Two propositions P  p1 , p2 , , pn  and Q  q1 , q2 , , qn  are said to be logically equivalent or
equivalent, denoted
P  p1 , p2 , , pn   Q  q1 , q2 , , qn 
if they have identical truth tables.
Example 6.8
Consider the truth tables of ~  p  q  and ~ p ~ q

a) ~  p  q  b) ~ p ~ q
p q pq ~  p  q
T T T F p q ~ p ~ q
T F F T
~p ~q
F T F T T T F F F
F F F T T F F T T
F T T F T
Observe that the last columns of both tables are the F F T T T
same; that is both propositions are false in the first case
and true in the other cases. Accordingly, we write
~  p  q   ~ p ~ q .
Example 6.9
Show that ~  p  q   ~ p  ~ q.
Solution
Consider the truth tables of ~  p  q  and ~ p  ~ q

40
 a) ~  p  q  b) ~ p  ~ q
p q pq ~  p  q p ~ p ~ q
q ~p ~q
T T T F T T F F F
T F T F T F F T F
F T T F F T T F F
F F F T F F T T T

Hence ~  p  q  ~ p ~ q.
6.2.4 Conditional and Biconditional Statements
Many statements, particularly in Mathematics are of the form ‘if p then q’. Such statements are
called conditional statements and are denoted by
pq.
The conditional statement p  q is frequently read as ‘p implies q’.
Another common statement is of the form ‘ p if and only if q’. Such statements are called
biconditional statements and are denoted by p  q .
Definition 6.6
a) The conditional statement p  q is false only if the first part p is true and the second
part q is false.
Accordingly, when p is false, the conditional p  q is true regardless of the truth value
of q.
b) The biconditional p  q is true whenever p and q have the same truth values and false
otherwise.

a) p  q b) p  q
p q pq p q pq
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T F
F F T F F T

Now consider the following truth table of ~ p  q .

c) ~ p  q
p q ~p ~ pq
T T F T
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T

Then the truth tables of ~ p  q and p  q are identical, that is, they are both false only in the
second case. Accordingly p  q is logically equivalent to ~ p  q ; that is p  q ~ p  q .

41
Example 6.10
Rewrite the following statements without using conditionals.
a) If it is cold, he wears a hat.
b) If productivity increases, then the wages rise.
Solution
a) Let p be ‘It is cold’ and q be ‘He wears a hat’. Then using p  q ~ p  q , we have
It is not cold or he wears a hat.
b) Similarly if we let p be ‘Productivity increases’ and q be ‘Wages rise’ then using
p  q ~ p  q we get
Productivity does not increase or wages rise.

6.2.4.1 Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive

Consider the conditional proposition p  q . Then the simple propositions
q  p, ~ p ~ q and ~ q ~ p are called respectively, the converse, inverse and
contrapositive of p  q .
Which of these propositions are logically equivalent to p  q ?
Consider the truth table below;

p q ~p ~q Conditional Converse Inverse Contrapositive

pq q p ~ p ~ q ~ q ~ p
T T F F T T T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T T T T T T

We observe that columns 5 and 8 are identical, thus only the contrapositive ~ q ~ p is
logically equivalent to the original conditional proposition p  q .That is
p  q ~ q ~ p .
In addition columns 6 and 7 are identical, thus q  p ~ p ~ q .
Example 6.11
Give the converse, inverse and contrapositive of each of the following;
i) If it snows, they will drive the car.
ii) Only if Mark studies will he pass the examination.
Solution
i) Let p be ‘It snows’ and q be ‘They will drive the car’. Then
Converse q  p
If they drive the car, then it will snow.
Inverse ~ p ~ q
If it does not snow, then they will not drive the car.
Contrapositive ~ q ~ p
If they will not drive the car, then it will not snow.
ii) The given statement can be written as;
If Mark passes the examination, then he studied. Thus if we let p be ‘Mark passes the
examination’ and q be ‘Mark studied’ then

42
 Converse q  p
If Mark studies, then he will pass the examination.
Inverse ~ p ~ q
If Mark does not pass the examination, then he did not study.
Contrapositive ~ q ~ p
If Mark does not study, then he will not pass the examination.

6.3 Assessment Questions

Show that
i) p   q  r    p  q    p  r 
ii) ~  ~ p   p
iii) p  q  q  p

43
 LECTURER SEVEN
METHODS OF PROOF
7.1 Introduction
In the previous lesson we considered how to determine the truth values of propositions
(statements). In this lesson we move a step further and consider methods of proving mathematical
statements. We will consider proof by Induction, Contradiction and Contraposition and direct
proof.
7.2 Learning Outcome
By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:
i) Prove mathematical statements using direct proof.
ii) Prove mathematical statements using indirect proofs.
iii) Prove mathematical statements by induction.

7.2.1 Direct Proof

Direct proof is a way of showing the truth or falsehood of a given statement by a straightforward
combination of established facts, usually axioms, existing lemmas and theorems, without making
any further assumptions. Logical deduction is employed to reason from assumptions to
conclusion.
A direct proof assumes that the hypothesis of a conjecture is true, and then uses a series of logical
deductions to prove that the conclusion of the conjecture is true.
Example 7.1
Show that the square of an even integer is even.
Proof
Suppose n is an even integer, then n  2m for some integer m. Therefore

n 2   2m   4m 2  2 2m 2
2

.
2
n
Hence is even.

7.2.2 Indirect Proof

In an indirect proof, instead of showing that the conclusion to be proved is true, you show that all
of the alternatives are false. To do this, you must assume the negation of the statement to be proved.
Then, deductive reasoning will lead to a contradiction: two statements that cannot both be true.
There are two types of indirect proofs: contradiction, contraposition and counterexample.
7.2.2.1 Proof by Contradiction
Sometimes the only (or the best) way to show why some conclusions holds, is to assume that it
doesn’t. If this leads to ‘nonsense’ contrary to reality or a result contrary to the hypotheses, then
we have reached a contradiction. Such a proof is called a proof by contradiction.
Example 7.2
Prove that 2 is irrational.
p
(A number is rational if it can be written in the form with p and q integers q  0 and gcd of p
q
and q is 1 i.e.  p, q   1 and is irrational if it is not rational.)
Proof
Assume to the contrary that 2 is rational. Then

44
 p
2 , with  p, q   1 , q  0 and p and q are integers.
q
p2
Therefore 2   p 2  2q 2 .
q2
Hence p 2 is even so that p is also even. This implies that p  2k for some integer k , thus
 2k   4k 2  2q 2 and therefore q 2  2k 2 .
2

Thus q 2 and q are also even. Therefore both p and q are even, contradicting our earlier statement.
Hence 2 is irrational.

7.2.2.2 Contrapositive Proof

Given a set of hypotheses H1 , H 2 ,..., H n from which we want to infer a conclusion C, for
contrapositive proof we need to show that
~ C ~  H1  H 2  ...  H n  .
That is, we show that negation of the conclusion implies negation of the hypothesis.
Example 7.3
Prove that if n 2 is even, then n is even.
Solution
We prove the contraposition that if n is not even, then n 2 is not even
If n is not even (is odd), then n  2k  1 for some integer k.
Therefore,
n2   2k  1
2

 4k 2  4k  1

 2 2k 2  2k  1 
2
Hence then n is not even (is odd).

7.2.2.3 Counter Example

A counterexample is a special kind of example that disproves a statement or proposition.
Identifying counterexamples is a way to show that a mathematical statement is false.
Obtaining counterexamples is a very important part of mathematics, because doing mathematics
requires that you develop a critical attitude toward claims. When you have an idea or when
someone tells you something, test the idea by trying examples. If you find a counterexample which
shows that the idea is false, that's good: Progress comes not only through doing the right thing, but
also by correcting your mistakes.
Example 7.7
a) The statement “All prime numbers are odd numbers” is false since for example 2 is a prime
number and it’s not odd. In this case 2 is counter example.
 x  1  x2  1 ” is false since for example
2

b) The statement “for all real numbers x, we have

1  1  12  1
2

1 is a real number and i.e. 4  2 . In this case x  1 is a counter example.

45
7.2.3 Proof by Induction
This is an important tool used when proving theorems on natural numbers (positive integers).
Theorem 7.1
Let p  n  be a statement that is either true or false for each n  N , then p  n  is true for all
n  N provided that
i) p 1 is true.
ii) For each k  N , if p  k  is true, then p  k  1 is true.

Example 7.4
Prove that 1  2  3   n  1 n  n  1 for any natural numbers n.
2
Proof
Let p  n   1 n  n  1 , then
2
1
i) RHS  p 1  1 2   1 and LHS  1, hence the statement is true for n  1 .
2
ii) Assume that p  k  is true for some k  N , that is p  k   1 k  k  1 and show that
2
p  k  1 is true.
Now,
p  k  1  1  2  3   k   k  1  p  k    k  1
 1 2 k  k  1   k  1
= 1  k  1 k  2
2
2
1 k  1  k  1  1
Hence p  k  1 is true. Hence by inductive hypothesis the statement is true for all natural
numbers n.
Example 7.5
Prove that 7 n  4n is a multiple of 3 for all n.

Proof
i) Let p  n   7n  4n . For n  1 , p 1  3 , which is divisible by 3. Hence the statement is
true for n  1 .
ii) Next assume that p  k  is true. We want to show that p  k  1 is a multiple of 3.
Now,
p  k  1  7k 1  4k 1  7k  7   4k  4 
 7 k  4  3  4 k  4 
 7 k  4   7 k  3  4k  4 
 4  7 k  4k   7 k  3 

46
  4  p  k   7k  3 ; but p  k   3m for some m  N
 4  3m   7 k  3
 3  4m  7k  , which is a multiple of 3.
Hence p  k  1 is true so that by inductive hypothesis the statement is true for all natural
numbers.
Example 7.6
Prove that 2  4  6   2n  n  n  1 for all n   .
Solution
Let p  n   n  n  1 . Then
i) If n  1 , LHS  2 and RHS  p 1  11  1  1 2   2 . Hence the statement is true for
n 1.
ii) Assume that p  k  is true for some k  N , that is p  k   k  k  1 and show that
p  k  1 is true.
Now,
p  k  1  2  4  6   2k  2  k  1  p  k   2  k  1
 k  k  1  2  k  1
 k 2  k  2k  2
 k 2  3k  2
  k  1 k  2 
  k  1  k  1  1
Hence p  k  1 is true so that by inductive hypothesis the statement is true for all natural
numbers.

7.3 Assessment
1. Prove that the sum of two odd integers is an even integer.
2. Prove that
12  22   n2  1 n  n  1 2n  1 , n  N .
6
3. Prove that 9  7 is always divisible by 8.
n

47
 LECTURE EIGHT
COMPLEX NUMBERS
8.1 Introduction
In this lesson we will study complex numbers. The set of all real numbers  is incomplete in the
sense that standard operations applied to some real numbers do not yield a real number result (e.g.,
square root: 1 ). It is surprisingly easy to enlarge the set of real numbers producing a set of
numbers that is closed under standard operations, that is the subject of this lecture.

8.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:
i) Carry out arithmetic operations on complex numbers
ii) Determine the modulus and argument of any complex number
iii) State and apply De Moivere’s Theorem

8.2.1 Introduction to Complex Numbers

Consider the quadratic equation x 2  1  0 . Then x 2  1 , hence x 2  1  0 has no real roots.
To solve an equation of this type, we need another category of numbers called complex numbers.
We define i  1 , where i is an imaginary unit. This can be extended to find the square root of
other negative numbers.
Eg. 25   25  1
= 25 1
=  5i
Definition 8.1
The general form of a complex number z is x  iy , where x and y are real numbers and i is the
imaginary unit. The numbers x and y are called the real and imaginary parts of z respectively
written
x  Re  z  and y  Im  z  .
For example if z  2  7i , then Re  z   2 and Im  z   7 .
The set of all complex umbers is denoted by C.
Definition 8.2
Let z  x  iy be a complex number, then the number x  iy denoted by z is called the complex
conjugate of z.
Example 8.1
If z  3  2i, then z  3  2i.

8.2.1.1 Arithmetic operations on Complex Numbers

Let z1  x1  iy1 , z2  x2  iy2 , then we have
1. z1  z2   x1  iy1    x2  iy2 
  x1  x2   i  y1  y2 
2. z1  z2   x1  iy1    x2  iy2 
  x1  x2   i  y1  y2 

48
 3. z1 z2   x1  iy1  x2  iy2 
 x1 x2  x1 y2i  x2 y1i  y1 y2i
2

 x1 x2  i ( x1 y2  x2 y1 )  y1 y2
  x1 x2  y1 y2   i ( x1 y2  x2 y1 )
In particular
z1 z1   x1  iy1  x1  iy1 
 x12  x1 y1i  x1 y1i  y12i 2
=x12  y12 (real number)
z x  iy1
4. 1  1
z2 x2  iy2
We can rationalize the denominator by multiplying by the conjugate of z2 in the numerator
and denominator;
z1 z1 z2  x1  iy1  x2  iy2 
 
z2 z2 z2  x2  iy2  x2  iy2 
x1 x2  x1 y2i  x2 y1i  y1 y2

x2 2  x2 y2i  x2 y2i  y2 2
( x x  y y )  i ( x2 y1  x1 y2 )
 1 2 1 22
x2  y2 2

xx  y y  x y x y 
  1 22 1 2 2   i  2 21 1 2 2  .
 x2  y2   x2  y2 

Example 8.2
Let z1  1  i, z2  2  3i . Find
z1  z2 z1
a) b) z1  z2 c) z1 z2 d)
z2
Solution
1. z1  z2  1  i   2  3i  

 3  1 3 i 
2. z1  z2  1  i   2  3i  

 1  1  3 i 

3. z1 z2  1  i  2  3i 
 2  3i  2i  3
 2 3   32 i 
4. Rationalizing the denominator, we get

49
 z1 z1 z2

z2 z2 z2
1  i   2  3i 

 2  3i  2  3i 
2  3i  2i  3

4  2 3i  2 3i  3


2  3  2  3i
7
2 3 2 3
 i .
7 7
Equal Complex Numbers
If z1  x1  iy1 and z2  x2  iy2 , then z1  z2 if and only if x1  x2 and y1  y2 .
Example 8.3
Solve for x and y if
a) 3  4i   x  iy 1  i 
b) 3 x  2iy  7  5i  xi  5 y
x  iy
c)  5i
2i

Solution
a) 3  4i  x  ix  iy  y
  x  y  i  x  y
Therefore
x y 3
x y 4
- 2 y  -1 y 1
2
x7
2
b) Rearranging the given equation
3x  5 y  i  2 y  x   7  5i
Therefore
3x  5 y  7
x  2 y  5  x  1
y2
x  iy
c)  5  i implies that
2i
x  iy  (5  i )(2  i )

50
  10  5i  2i 1
 11  3i
 x  11 and y  3.

8.2.2 Geometric Representation of Complex numbers

The complex number z  x  iy can be represented by the ordered pair  x, y  . This suggests that
z can be represented in the xy-plane called the z-plane or the complex plane or the Argand diagram.
On an Argand diagram, real numbers are represented on the x-axis and imaginary numbers on the
y-axis.
Thus the complex number P in the figure below for example can be read as  2,5 or 2  5i.

The Argand Diagram

Im (z)

Re (z)

8.5.1 Modulus and Argument

Let P represent the complex number z where z  x  iy , then P has Cartesian coordinates ( x, y ) .
Consider the figure below

51
 r y

By Pythagoras Theorem,
r 2  x2  y 2  r  x2  y 2 .
Also
cos   x , sin   y and tan   y .
r r x
Definition 8.3
Given any complex number z  x  iy , the modulus of z, denoted z is defined by
z  r  x2  y 2 .
The argument of z denoted arg z, is defined by
 y
arg z    tan 1   .
x
y
There is an infinite set of angles whose tangent is , so there is also an infinite set of arguments
x
for x  iy . But the position of  x, y  is unique and corresponds to only one value of  in the
range      . This value is called the principal argument of z.
Now,
x
cos    x  rcos
r
and
x
sin    x  r sin 
r
Thus a non-zero complex number z, can also be written as
z  x  iy  r cos   i r sin 
 r  cos   i sin   ................................................()
() is called the polar form of the complex number z. The polar coordinates of z are  r ,   .

52
(where  is the principal value of arg z).

Example 8.4
Let z  2  2i , find z , arg z and the polar form of z.
Solution
Modulus
z  22   2 
2

2 2
Also z is in the 4th quadrant;

 2 
Principal value  tan 1    tan 1  1  2    7  .
 2  4 4
Therefore
arg z  7   2n , n  0,1, 2,
4
And the polar form of z is

z  2 2 cos 7   i sin 7  .
4 4 
Example 8.5
Let z  i , find z and arg z
Solution
The complex number z  i is on the y-axis;

53
 -i

z  0  i  1 and r  z  02   1

2

1
Principal value is   3 .
2
 arg z  3  2n , n  0,1, 2,
2

8.2.2.1 Products and Quotients of Complex Numbers

We can use polar form to multiply complex numbers.
If z1  r1  cos 1  i sin 1  and z2  r2  cos 2  i sin 2  , then
z1 z2  r1  cos 1  i sin 1  . r2  cos 2  i sin 2 
 r1r2  cos 1 cos 2  sin 1 sin 2   i  cos 2 sin 1  cos 1 sin 2 
 r1r2 cos 1  2   i sin 1  2 
Thus 1   2  is the principal argument of z1 z2 , hence
arg  z1 z2   arg z1 + arg z 2 .
Also
z1 z2  z1 z2 .
Since multiplication and division are inverse operations, it can be deduced that
z1 r1
 cos 1  2   i sin 1  2 
z2 r2 
z 
 arg  1   arg z1  arg z2
 z2 
and
z1 z
 1 .
z2 z2

54
Remark 8.1
It is sometimes convenient to write cos  i sin  as e i or cis  .
so that
rcis  rei  r  cos   i sin   .
The expression ei  cos   i sin  is called the Euler’s formula. The Euler’s formula can be
generalized to
e z  e x iy  e x .eiy  e x  cos y  i sin y  .
Example 8.6
3
If z1   1  i and z2  1  i 3 , find
2 2
a) z1 z2
b) arg  z1 z2 
z 
c) arg  1 
 z2 
Solution
3
a) z1 z2   1  i 1 i 3
2 2
 1 2  2 .
b) arg  z1 z2   arg z1  arg z2
Now,
 3 
arg z1  tan  1 
 
2   tan 1  3    

 12 
3
 
2 .
3
and
arg z2  tan 1  3   3 .
Thus
arg  z1 z2   2      .
3 3
c)
z 
d) arg  1   2 3    3   3 .
 z2 

8.2.3 De Moivere’s Theorem and its Applications

8.2.3.1 Powers of Complex Numbers
Let z  r  cos   i sin   and let z1  z2  z , then
z1 z2  z 2  r 2  cos 2  i sin 2  .

55
In general, if z1  z2   zn  z , then
z n  r n  cos n  i sin n  ................................1) .
If z  r  1 , then equation 1) becomes
 cos  i sin    cos n  i sin n .
n

Theorem 8.1 (De Moivere’s Theorem)

Let  be any angle and n be any integer, then
 cos  i sin    cos n  i sin n .
n

If n is a negative integer, then

 cos  i sin    cos  n   i sin  n  .
n

Proof
We wish to show that  cos   i sin    cos n  i sin n . We proceed by induction. If n = 1,
n

LHS   cos   i sin    cos   i sin  and RHS  cos1   sin1( )  cos   i sin  .
1

Hence the result is true for n = 1.

Assume that the result holds for some integer k, that is
 cos  i sin    cos k  i sin k .
k

Then
 cos  i sin     cos  i sin    cos  i sin  
k 1 k

  cos k  i sin k  cos   i sin  

 cos k cos  i cos k sin   i sin k cos  sin k sin
 cos k cos   sin k sin   i  cos k sin   sin k cos 
 cos  k     i sin  k   
 cos  k  1  i sin  k  1
Hence the theorem is true for the positive integer k + 1. Hence by the principal of mathematical
induction it holds for any positive integer. It can similarly be shown that
 cos  i sin    cos  n   i sin  n  .
n

Example 8.7
Use De Moivere’s theorem to evaluate
10
 1 i 3 
4  i 4 3
5
a) b)  
 1 i 3 
Solution
We write 4  i 4 3 in polar form;

   
arg 4  i 4 3  
2
4  i 4 3  42  4 3 8 and
3

 4  i 4 3  8 cos  3  i sin  3 
By De Moivere’s Theorem,

56
4  i 4 3  85 (cos   i sin  )5
5

3 3
 8 (cos   i sin 5  )
5 5
3 3
 85  1  i 3 
 2 2
Example 8.8
By using De Moivere’s theorem show that
3 tan   tan 3 
tan 3  .
1  3 tan 2 
Solution
sin 3
tan 3 
cos 3
By De Moivere’s theorem,
cos3  i sin 3   cos   i sin  
3

 cos3   3i cos 2  sin   3cos  sin 2   i sin 3 


 cos3   3cos  sin 2   i 3cos 2  sin   sin 3  
Equating the real and imaginary parts,
cos 3  cos3   3cos  sin 2  .........................................i)
sin3  3cos 2  sin   sin 3  .........................................ii)
3cos 2  sin   sin 3 
 tan 3 
cos3   3cos  sin 2 
3cos 2  sin  sin 3 

 cos3  cos3 
cos  3cos  sin 2 
3

cos3  cos3 
3 tan   tan 3 
 .
1  3 tan 2 
Example 8.9
Use De Moivere’s theorem to show that
sin 5
 16 cos 4   12 cos 2   1
sin 
Solution
By De Moivere’s theorem,
cos5  i sin 5   cos   i sin  
5

But
 cos  i sin    cos5   5i cos4  sin  10cos3  sin 2  10i cos2 sin 3   5cos  sin 4   i sin5 
5

 cos5   10cos3  sin 2   5cos  sin 4   i(5cos 4  sin   10cos 2 sin 3   sin 5  )
Equating the real and imaginary parts
cos 5  cos5   10 cos3  sin 2   5cos  sin 4  and sin 5  5cos 4  sin   10 cos 2 sin 3   sin 5 

57
Now,
sin 5
 5cos 4   10 cos 2 sin 2   sin 4 
sin 
 5cos 4   10cos 2  1  cos 2    1  cos 2  
2

 5cos 4   10 cos 2   10 cos 4   1  2 cos 2   cos 4 

 16 cos 4   12 cos 2   1 .

8.2.3.2 Roots of Complex Numbers

A complex number z is said to be the nth root of the complex number z0 if
z n  z0 ..........................................................1)
Thus if z  r  cos   i sin   and z0  r0  cos 0  i sin 0  , then we have
r n  cos n  i sin n   r0  cos 0  i sin n0  .
Since cos   i sin   1 for all real  , then
1
r n  r0  r  r0 n
and
n   0  2 k , for k  0,  1,  2,
  2 k
  0 , for k  0,  1,  2,
n
1     2 k     2 k  
 z  r0 n cos  0   i sin  0   is the n root of z0 for n  0, 1, 2, ..., n  1.
th

  n   n 
Thus there are n distinct roots to be determined, the rest are merely repeated.
Example 8.10
Find all values of z for which z 5  32  0 .
Solution
z 5  32  0  z 5  32
In polar form
32  32 cos   2 k   i sin   2 k  , where k  0,  1,  2, .
Now,
z   32   32 5 cos   2 k   i sin   2 k   5
1 1 1
5

   2 k   2 k 
 2 cos  i sin , where k  0,1, 2, 3, 4.
 5 5 
The values of z are;
  
w0  2  cos  i sin  , for k  0
 5 5
 3 3 
w1  2  cos  i sin  , for k  1
 5 5 
w2  2  cos   i sin   , for k  2

58
  7 
w3  2  cos  i sin 7  , for k  3
 5 5
 9 9 
w4  2  cos  i sin  , for k  4
 5 5 
Example 8.11
Find all the cube roots of  2  i 2 .
Solution
Let z0   2  i 2 . Then
z0  2  2  2 and arg z0  tan 1  1  3  .
4
Thus
  
z0  2 cos 3   2 k  i sin 3   2 k  , k  0,  1,  2,
 4 4  
Now,
  3   2 k   3   2 k  
z  z0 3  2 3 cos  4   i sin  4   , k  0, 1, 2
1 1

  3   3 
    
1    2 k    2 k 
 2 3 cos     i sin    , k  0,1, 2 .
 4 3  4 3 
The three roots are
1   
w0  2 3 cos  i sin  , for k  0
 4 4
1  11 11 
w1  2 3 cos  i sin , for k  1
 12 12 
1  19 19 
w2  2 3 cos  i sin , for k  2 .
 12 12 
Example 8.12
1
 1 i  6
Evaluate   .
 1 i 
Solution
Since

1  i  2 cos   i sin 
4 4  and 1  i  2 cos    4   i sin    4  we have
 
1
1  2 cos   i sin   6

 1 i  6
 4 4 
 
  
 
 1 i 
 
 2 cos   4  i sin   4  


  
1

   
1 6
  cos   i sin  cos    i sin   
 4 4 4 4 

59
   
1
 cos   i sin  cos   i sin 
6

4 4 4 4

  cos   i sin   
1
2 6

4 4

  cos   i sin  
1
3
4 4
 cos   2 k   i sin   2 k  , k  0, 1, 2.
12 3 12 3
The three roots are;
w0  cos   i sin  , for k  0
12 12
w1  cos 3  i sin 3 , for k  1
4 4
w2  cos17  i sin 17 , for k  2 .
12 12
8.3 Assessment
1. Solve for x and y
2  5i
a)  x  iy b) 2 x  3iy  4ix  2 y  5  10i  x  y  2   y  x  3 i
1 i
2. Use De Moivere’s theorem to show that
4 tan   4 tan 3  5 tan   10 tan 3   tan 5 
i) tan 4  ii) tan 5 
1  6 tan 2   tan 4  1  10 tan 2   5 tan 4 
iii) cos 5  16 cos5   20 cos3   5cos 
3. Solve the equation z 4  16i  0.

ANSWERS
Lesson One Assessment Questions

1. a) 25 b) 3 c)  5
4 4 2

x 2 x 3
4. a) Either the set of all x such that 3 or the set of all x such that 4.

3  x  5
b) Either the set of all x such that .

Lesson Two Assessment Questions

 77
1. a) -7 b) 27

a4 b  13 4 x3  13x  6   x  2  2 x  1 2 x  3

2. ,

Lesson Three Assessment Questions

60
 1. 1820
2. a) 144 b) 7776 c) 756

Lesson Four Assessment Questions

1. 1  12 x  54 x 2  100 x 3 

1  8x  2  1  4x  8x2  32x3
1
2. 3  1.73205
and

Lesson Five Assessment Questions

1. a) 12 b) 54 c) 7

Lesson Eight Assessment Questions

1. a) x   3 y7 b) x   53 y   34
2 and 2 7 and 7

3. 
w0  2 cos   i sin 
4 4 

w1  2 cos 3  i sin 3
4 4 

w2  2 cos 5  i sin 5
4 4 

w3  2 cos 7  i sin 7
4 4 

61