ACTIVE DEVICES /CHAPTER V : POWER AMPLIFIRES L04

POWER AMPLIFIERS

1. Introduction:

Power amplifiers are large-signal amplifiers. This generally means that a much larger
portion of the load line is used during signal operation than in a small-signal amplifier.
Power amplifiers are normally used as the final stage of a communications receiver or
transmitter to provide signal power to speakers or to a transmitting antenna.
In small signal amplifiers, the main factors are usually amplification linearity and
magnitude of gain.
Large-signal or power amplifiers, on the other hand, primarily provide sufficient
power to an output load to drive a speaker or other power device, typically a few watts to
tens of watts. The main features of a large-signal amplifier are the circuit’s power
efficiency, the maximum amount of power that the circuit is capable of handling, and the
impedance matching to the output device.
In this chapter, we will cover three classes of power amplifiers: class A, class B and class
AB.

2. Classes of amplifiers:

The amplifier classifications are based on the percentage of the input cycle for which the
amplifier operates in its linear region. Fig.1 and Table 1 give the different classes with the
conduction angle and efficiency.

Fig.1. Classes of amplifiers

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Table.1. Classes of amplifiers

3. Power considerations:

The power amplifier works on the basic principle of converting the DC power drawn
from the power supply into an AC voltage signal (AC power) delivered to the load.
Although the amplification is high the efficiency of the conversion from the DC power
supply input to the AC voltage signal output is usually poor.

Fig.2. Power amplifier block diagram

 Input DC power : The power into an amplifier is provided by the supply. The DC
current drawn is the collector bias current, ICQ. The power then drawn from the
supply is :

Pi(DC) = VDC*ICQ
VDC : The total DC power supply

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 Output AC Power: The output AC signal power is the product of the rms load
current and the rms load voltage.

Po(AC) = vo(Rms)*io(Rms)

 Efficiency:The efficiency () of any amplifier is the ratio of the output signal power
supplied to a load, to the total power from the dc supply.

% = (Po(AC)/ Pi(DC))*100%

 Power dissipation capability: It can be defined as the ability of a power transistor to

dissipate the heat developed in it. As a power transistor handles large currents, it gets
more heated up. Metal cases called heat sinks are used in order to dissipate this heat.
The dissipated power is:

PQ= Pi(DC) - Po(AC)

 Distortion: Distortion is defined, as the change of output wave shape from the input
wave shape of the amplifier. In power amplifiers, as large current are used , the
problem of distortion certainly arises.

Fig.3. Power transistors+heat sink

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4. Class A power amplifier

In a Class A amplifier, 100% of the input signal is used (conduction angle = 360°). The
active element (transistor) remains conducting all of the time.
An amplifier may be considered to be a power amplifier if it is rated for more than 1 W and
it is necessary to consider the problem of heat dissipation in components.

Fig.4.1 Class A power amplifier

4.1.Common emitter class A power amplifier :

Fig.4.2. Common emitter class A power amplifier

The maximum efficiency for the C.E. Power amplifier is given in the case of maximum
symmetrical swing. So the optimal Q point is:

ICQ= Vcc/(2*RC), VCEQ=Vcc/2

For a maximum swing: ic= ICQ sin(t) and vce = VCEQ sin(t)

The Input DC power: Vcc*ICQ

The maximum Input DC power: Vcc*ICQ= Vcc* Vcc/(2*RC)

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Pimax (DC)=Vcc2/(2*RC)

The Output AC power: vce(Rms)* ic(Rms)= ic2(Rms) * RC=vce2(Rms)/RC

The maximum Output AC power:

ic(Rms)= Vcc/2 (2*RC) and vce(Rms) = Vcc/22

Pomax (AC)=Vcc2/(8*RC)

%max= (Pomax (AC)/ Pimax (DC))*100% = 25%

Conclusion : The maximum efficiency of a class A C.E. circuit, occurring for the largest
output voltage and current swing, is only 25%.
4.2 . Transformer coupled class A power amplifier :

Fig.4.3. Transformer coupled class A power amplifier

Fig.4.4. Transformer operation: voltage , current and impedance transformation.

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 R'L is the effective resistance seen looking the primary of the transformer in the case
of AC signals.
 N1/N2 is the turns ratio of the transformer.
 Rp and Rs are the impedances seen from the primary and the secondary respectively.

V1= Rp* I1…………(1)

V2=Rs *I2………….(2)
(1)/(2)= V1/V2= (Rp/Rs)*(I1/I2)………(3)
Rs=RL and Rp=R'L in eq. (3)
V1/V2= (R'L / RL)*(I1/I2)………………(3')
V1/V2=I2/I1=N1/N2 in eq. (3')
R'L = RL (N1/N2)2 The effective resistance
The DC load line : VCE=Vcc
The AC load line : vce = - R'L*ic

The total signal (AC+DC) load line : vCE = - R'L*iC + R'L*ICQ+VCEQ

Fig.4.5. DC and AC analysis

The maximum efficiency for the Transformer coupled class A power amplifier is given in
the case of maximum symmetrical swing. So the
optimal Q point is:

ICQ= Vcc/ R'L, VCEQ=Vcc

With RDC= 0 and RAC = R'L

For a maximum swing: ic= ICQ sin(t) and

vce = VCEQ sin(t)

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The Input DC power: Vcc*ICQ

The maximum Input DC power: Vcc*ICQ= Vcc* Vcc/ R'L

Pimax(DC)=Vcc2/ R'L

The Output AC power: vce(Rms)* ic(Rms)= ic2(Rms) * RC=vce2(Rms)/RC

The maximum Output AC power:

ic(Rms)= Vcc/2 R'L and vce(Rms) = Vcc/2

Pomax(AC)=Vcc2/(2* R'L)

%max= (Pomax (AC)/ Pimax (DC))*100% = 50%

Conclusion : The maximum efficiency of the Transformer coupled class A power amplifier,
occurring for the largest output voltage and current swing, is about 50%.

Application 1: For the circuit of Fig.APP1, Vcc= 20V, VBB= 10V,

RC= 20, RB= 1K, =50.

1. Find the operating point.

2. Compute the efficiency of this amplifier if ic= 0.3 sin(t) (A).
3. Find the dissipated power.
4. Find the maximum output current swing (icMax) and deduce the
maximum efficiency in this case.

Fig.APP1

Solution:

1. Q point:
IBQ=(VBB-VBE)/RB=9.3mA
ICQ =* IBQ =0.465A
VCEQ=Vcc-RC*ICQ=10.7V
2. Efficiency:
Pi(DC)= Vcc*ICQ=9.3W
Po(AC)= vce(Rms)* ic(Rms)= ic2(Rms) * RC=(0.3/2)2 * 20=0.9W
% = (Po (AC)/ Pi (DC))*100% = 9.67%

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3. The dissipated power.

PQ= Pi(DC) - Po(AC)=8.4W
4. The maximum output current swing (icMax):
The total signal (AC+DC) load line :
vCE = - RAC*iC + RAC*ICQ+VCEQ
vCE = - RC*iC + RC*ICQ+VCEQ
vCE = - 20*iC + 20
icMax= Min(0.535A, 0.465A)= 0.465A
vce Max= Min(9.3V, 10.7V)= 9.3V
Maximum efficiency:
Po(AC)= vce(Rms)* ic(Rms)= ic2(Rms) * RC=(0.465/2)2 * 20=2.16W
%max = (Pomax (AC)/ Pi (DC))*100% = 23.25%

Application 2: For the circuit of Fig.APP2, Vcc = VBB = 20V,

RL= 20, RB= 1K, =50, N1:N2= 1:1.
1. Find the operating point and the effective resistance R'L.
2. Compute the efficiency of this amplifier if ib=6sin(t) (mA).
3. Find the maximum output current swing (icMax) and deduce
the maximum efficiency in this case.

Fig.APP2

Solution:

1. Q point:
IBQ=(VBB-VBE)/RB=19.3mA
ICQ =* IBQ =0.965A
VCEQ=Vcc =20V
The effective resistance : R'L = RL (N1/N2)2 =20
2. Efficiency:
Pi(DC)= Vcc*ICQ=19.3W
ic= * ib= 50*6 sin(t) (mA)=0.3 sin(t) (A)
Po(AC)= vce(Rms)* ic(Rms)= ic2(Rms) * R'L =(0.3/2)2 * 20=0.9W

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% = (Po (AC)/ Pi (DC))*100% = 4.66%

3. The maximum output current swing (icMax):

The total signal (AC+DC) load line :
vCE = - RAC*iC + RAC*ICQ+VCEQ
vCE = - R'L *iC + R'L *ICQ+VCEQ
vCE = - 20*iC + 39.3
icMax= Min(1A, 0.965A)= 0.965A
vce Max= Min(20V, 19.3)= 19.3V

Maximum efficiency:
Po(AC)= vce(Rms)* ic(Rms)= ic2(Rms) * R'L =(0.965/2)2 * 20=9.31W
%max = (Pomax (AC)/ Pi (DC))*100% = 48.25%

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5. Class B power amplifier

When an amplifier is biased at cutoff so that it operates in the linear region for 180°
of the input cycle and is in cutoff for 180° it is a class B amplifier.

Fig.5.1 Class B power amplifier

The class B amplifier is biased at the cutoff point so that : ICQ = 0 and VCEQ = VCE(cutoff).
It is brought out of cutoff and operates in its linear region when the input signal drives the
transistor into conduction. This is illustrated in Figure 5.2 with an Emitter-follower circuit
where the output is not a replica of the input.

Fig.5.2 Common-collector class B amplifier.

Obviously, the output is not a faithful reproduction of the input if only one half-cycle
is present. Two class B circuits are necessary, one to provide output on the positive output
half-cycle and another to provide operation on the negative-output half-cycle. The combined
half-cycles then provide an output for a full 360° of operation. This type of connection is
referred to as Push-Pull operation.

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5.1. Class B Push-Pull operation

There are two common approaches for using push-pull amplifiers to reproduce the entire
waveform. The first approach uses two complementary symmetry transistors; these are a
matching pair of npn/pnp BJTs (see Figure 5.3). The second uses transformer coupling.

The circuit in Figure 5.3.a (npn BJT) only conducts for the positive half of the cycle.

The circuit in Figure 5.3.b (pnp BJT) conducts for the negative half of the cycle.

Fig.5.3. Push-Pull amplifiers, using two complementary symmetry transistors.

The second which uses the transformer coupling is illustrated in Figure 5.4.

Fig.5.4. Push-Pull amplifiers, using the transformer coupling.

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The input transformer has a center-tapped secondary that is connected to ground,

producing phase inversion of one side with respect to the other. The input transformer thus
converts the input signal to two out-of-phase signals for the transistors. Notice that both
transistors are npn types. Because of the signal inversion, Q1 will conduct on the positive
part of the cycle and Q2 will conduct on the negative part. The output transformer combines
the signals by permitting current in both directions, even though one transistor is always cut
off. The positive power supply signal is connected to the center tap of the output
transformer.

Problem

When the dc base voltage is zero, both transistors are off and the input signal voltage
must exceed VBE before a transistor conducts. Because of this, there is a time interval
between the positive and negative alternations of the input when neither transistor is
conducting, as shown in Figure 5.5.
The resulting distortion in the output waveform is called crossover distortion.

Fig.5.5. Output of Push-Pull amplifiers and crossover distortion.

Solution

To overcome crossover distortion, the biasing is adjusted to just overcome the V BE of the

transistors; this results in a modified form of operation called Class AB.

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6. Class AB power amplifier

An amplifier may be biased at a DC level above the zero base current level of class B and
above one-half the supply voltage level of class A; this bias condition is class AB. Class AB
operation still requires a push-pull connection to achieve a full output cycle, but the DC bias
level is usually closer to the zero base current level for better power efficiency. For class
AB operation, the output signal swing occurs between 180° and 360° and is neither class A
nor class B operation.

6.1. Biasing the Push-Pull Amplifier for Class AB Operation

In class AB operation, the push-pull stages are biased into slight conduction, even when no
input signal is present. This can be done with a voltage-divider and diode arrangement, as
shown in Figure 6.1. If the diode characteristics of D1 and D2 are closely matched to the
characteristics of the transistor base-emitter junctions, the current in the diodes and the
current in the transistors are the same; this circuit produces the desired class AB operation
and eliminates crossover distortion.
VBA= 0.7V-0.7V=0V

Fig.6.1. Biasing the Push-Pull Amplifier for Class AB Operation

In the bias path of the previous circuit:

 R1 and R2 are of equal value, as are the positive and negative supply voltages (+Vcc
and –Vcc).
 This forces the voltage at point A (between the diodes) to equal 0 V and eliminates
the need for an input coupling capacitor.
 The DC voltage on the output is also 0 V.
 Assuming that both diodes and both complementary transistors are identical, the drop
across D1 equals the VBE of Q1, and the drop across D2 equals the VBE of Q2.
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Class AB amplifier has the potential for thermal instability if the transistor’s VBE drops are
not matched to the
diode drops or if the diodes are not in thermal equilibrium with the transistors.

 Input DC power : The power supplied to the load by an amplifier is drawn from the
power supply (or power supplies) that provides the input DC power. The amount of
this input power can be calculated using

Pi(DC) = Vcc*IDC

In class B (or AB) operation, the current drawn

from two power supplies has the form of a half
wave rectified signal from each supply. So, the
value of the average current drawn can be
expressed as:
Pi(DC) = 2Vcc*ILp/
Where :

IL=(IL+)-(IL-)

VL=RL*IL

Fig.6.2.Output current and voltage

 Output AC Power: The output AC signal power is the product of the rms load
current and the rms load voltage.

Po(AC) = vo(Rms)*io(Rms)= VL(Rms)*IL(Rms)

Po(AC) = V2L(Rms)/RL= I2L(Rms)*RL
VL(Rms = VLp/2
IL(Rms = ILp/2
So :
Po(AC) = V2LP/(2*RL)= I2Lp*RL/2

VLP and ILP are the peak values of the load voltage and current respectively.

 Efficiency: % = (Po(AC)/ Pi(DC))*100%

% = ( I Lp*RL/2) /(2Vcc*ILp/) *100%=(  *ILp*RL)/4Vcc *100%
2

 The maximum efficiency is given in the case of maximum swing with:

VLP = Vcc and ILP=Vcc/RL

%max = ( /4) *100%=78.54%

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Conclusion : The maximum efficiency of the class B(AB) power amplifier, occurring for the
largest output voltage and current swing, is 78.54%.

 Power dissipation capability: The power dissipated (as heat) by the output power
transistors is the difference between the input power delivered by the supplies and the
output power delivered to the load.

P2Q= Pi(DC) - Po(AC)

where P2Q is the power dissipated by the two output power transistors. The dissipated power
handled by each transistor is then :
PQ1= PQ2= P2Q /2

6.2. Single-Supply Push-Pull Amplifier

Push-pull amplifiers using complementary symmetry transistors can be operated from

a single voltage source as shown in Figure 6.3. The circuit operation is the same as that
described previously, except the bias is set to force the output emitter voltage to be Vcc/2
instead of zero volts used with two supplies. Because the output is not biased at zero volts,

Fig.6.3. Single-Supply Push-Pull Amplifier

Input /Output power :

Pi(DC) = Vcc*ILp/
Po(AC) = VL(Rms)*IL(Rms)
Po(AC) = V2L(Rms)/RL= I2L(Rms)*RL
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VL(Rms = VLp/2
IL(Rms = ILp/2
 The maximum efficiency is given in the case of maximum swing with:
VLP = Vcc/2 and ILP=Vcc/(2*RL)

%max = ( /4) *100%=78.54%

Application 1: Determine the ideal maximum peak output voltage and current for the
circuit shown in Figure 6.2. Vcc= 15V, R1=R2= 450, RL= 100.

1. Determine the maximum peak output voltage and current allowed by this circuit.
2. What are the maximum input and output powers.
3. If Vin= 10 sin(t) (V), Find the peak output current swing (ILp) and deduce the
efficiency in this case.
4. Compute the dissipated power.

Solution:

1. The maximum peak output voltage and current allowed by this circuit:
VLp = Vcc=15V
ILp=Vcc/RL=0.15A

2. The maximum input and output powers:

Pi(DC) = 2Vcc*ILp/=1.432W
Po(AC) = V2L(Rms)/RL= I2L(Rms)*RL= I2Lp*RL/2=1.125W

3. Finding the peak output current swing (ILp) and the efficiency (Vin= 10 sin(t) V ):
VLp = Vinp=10V
ILp=VLp/RL=0.1A
Pi(DC) = 2Vcc*ILp/=0.95W
Po(AC) = V2L(Rms)/RL= I2L(Rms)*RL= I2Lp*RL/2=0.5W
% = (Po(AC)/ Pi(DC))*100%=52.63%
4. The dissipated power by the two transistors..
P2Q= Pi(DC) - Po(AC) =0.45W
The power dissipated by each transistor is:
PQ1= PQ2= P2Q /2=0.225W

Application 2: Determine the ideal maximum peak output voltage and current for the
circuit shown in Figure 6.3. Vcc= 15V, R1=R2= 450, RL= 100.

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1. Determine the maximum peak output voltage and current allowed by this circuit.
2. What are the maximum input and output powers.
3. If Vin= 10 sin(t) (V), Find the peak output voltage and current swing . What do you
remark?
4. If Vin= 5 sin(t) (V), Find the peak output current swing (ILp) and deduce the
efficiency in this case.
5. Compute the dissipated power.

Solution:

1. The maximum peak output voltage and current allowed by this circuit:
VLp = Vcc/2=7.5V
ILp=Vcc/2RL=0.075A

2. The maximum input and output powers:

Pi(DC) = Vcc*ILp/=0.358W
Po(AC) = V2L(Rms)/RL= I2L(Rms)*RL= I2Lp*RL/2=0.281W
3. Finding the peak output current swing (ILp) and the efficiency (Vin= 10 sin(t) V ):
Vinp=10V > VLp distorted output
4. Finding the peak output current swing (ILp) and the efficiency (Vin= 5 sin(t) V ):
VLp = Vinp=5V
ILp=VLp/RL=0.05A
Pi(DC) = Vcc*ILp/=0.238W
Po(AC) = V2L(Rms)/RL= I2L(Rms)*RL= I2Lp*RL/2=0.125W
% = (Po(AC)/ Pi(DC))*100%=52.52%
5. The dissipated power by the two transistors..
P2Q= Pi(DC) - Po(AC) =0.113W
The power dissipated by each transistor is:
PQ1= PQ2= P2Q /2=0.056W

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