Geomorphology

 It refers to the study of landforms and the processes which bring about their
existence.

The processes include

 Weathering
 Erosion
 Mass movement

Weathering

Weathering is the disintegration and decomposition of rocks, through contact with the
Earth's atmospheric gases, biota and waters which occurs in situ, or "without movement”.

Here the term disintegration excludes chemical processes while the term decomposition
includes chemical processes therefore there are Two types of weathering. That is physical
weathering and chemical weathering

Physical weathering

 physical weathering is the disintegration of rock and soil aggregates through direct
contact with atmospheric conditions, such as heat, water, ice and pressure, by
physical (mechanical) processes acting primarily on pre-existing fractures (e.g. joints,
cracks between mineral grains); this process reduces size of fragments according to
rock and soil structure (producing grains, crystals, blocks, slabs, etc.), without a
change in mineral composition of the resultant fragments.

Types of physical weathering

Thermal stress/ shattering/insolation weathering

Thermal stress weathering results from the repeated expansion and contraction of rock
caused by temperature changes in rocks containing minerals with different thermal
conductivities. The differential rates of expansion and contraction repeated several times
will result in stress being induced within the rock causing disintegration. For example in
rocks such as granite with the minerals mica ( dark) coloured and quartz ( brightly coloured)
heating of such rocks by sunlight or fires causes expansion of their constituent minerals at
different rates. As some minerals expand more than others, temperature changes set up
differential stresses that eventually cause the rock to crack apart. Because the outer surface
of a rock is often warmer or colder than the more protected inner portions, some rocks
weather by exfoliation which is the peeling off of outer layers of the rock like an onion. This
process is sharply accelerated if ice forms in the surface cracks. When water freezes, it
expands and increases its volume by 105 of its original and this induces stress in the rocks,
disintegrating huge rock masses and dislodging mineral grains from smaller fragments.

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Thermal stress weathering comprises two main types, thermal shock( the material
suddenly breaks due to differential stress) and thermal fatigue( the material breaks down
due to repeated expansion and contraction usually over a long period of time).. Thermal
stress weathering is an important mechanism in deserts where there is a large diurnal
temperature range, hot in the day and cold at night. The repeated heating and cooling
exerts stress on the outer layers of rocks, which causes the outer layers to peel off in thin
sheets like an onion. The process of peeling off is also called exfoliation. Although
temperature changes are the principal driver, moisture enhances thermal expansion in rock.
Forest fires and range fires are also known to cause significant weathering of rocks and
boulders exposed along the ground surface. Intense localized heat rapidly expands the outer
surface of a boulder. Thermal shock occurs when a thermal gradient causes different parts
of an object to expand by different amounts. This differential expansion is understood in
terms of stress or of strain, equivalently. Thermal shattering also talks place in the
seasonally humid tropics where temperatures reach very high levels followed by rainfall
which rapidly cools the rock.

This process is shown in the following diagram

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Frost weathering, frost wedging, ice wedging is common in mountain areas, peri- glacial and
temperate environments where the temperatures oscillate around the freezing point of
water. Water enters cracks in rocks during the day when temperatures are above 0 . At
night when temperatures decrease to below 0 the water freezes and in the process it
increases its volume by about 10 % of its original and this induces stress within the rock.
Repeated freeze thaw cycles the causes the rock to disintegrate leading to block
disintegration forming block fields or felsenmeer. See diagram

Pressure release/ stress (pressure) release: disintegration of rock in parallel sheets as it

expands in response to the removal of confining stress caused by the overburden. This
process affects rocks such as granite which are formed under the earth’s surface and are
affected by deep weathering such that when the overburden is removed by erosion
processes, the underlying rock will expand upwards and outwards as pressure on the rock is
removed. This expansion causes the development of vertical cracks due to expansion

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outwards and horizontal cracks due to expansion upwards. Over time, sheets of rock break
away from the exposed rocks along the fractures, a process known as sheeting. See diagram

ssprolite ;
unconsolida
ted soil
particles
regolith:con
Salt crystallization, also known as known as solidated

haloclasty, causes disintegration of rocks when

saline solutions seep into cracks and joints in the
rocks and the solution is moved upwards by
capillary action causing the water to evaporate
due to high temperatures near the earth’s surface
leaving salt crystals behind. These salt crystals
grow in size and expand as they are heated up,
exerting pressure on the confining rock resulting
in granular disintegration of the rock producing
weathering pits known as Tafonis. Salt
crystallization also takes place when solutions
decompose rocks (for example, limestone and
chalk) to form salt solutions of sodium sulphate or
sodium carbonate, of which the moisture
evaporates to form their respective salt crystals.
The salts which have proved most effective in
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disintegrating rocks are sodium sulfate,
magnesium sulphate, and calcium chloride. Some
of these salts expand up to three times or even
more. Salt crystallisation is normally associated
with arid climates where strong heating causes
strong evaporation and therefore salt
crystallisation. It is also common along coasts. An
example of salt weathering is seen in the
honeycombed stones in sea walls. Honeycomb is a
type of tafoni, a class of cavernous rock
weathering structures, which develops in large
part by chemical and physical salt weathering
processes.
Root wedging
Involves the action of roots which as they grow
expand within cracks found in rocks exerting
pressure in the process causing the rock to
disintegrate.
Chemical weathering
 chemical weathering is the decomposition of
soil and rock which result in a change in
mineral composition by biochemical
processes which takes place insitu.

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  It involves processes such as oxidation,
carbonation, hydrolysis, hydration and
solution.

Oxidation
It refers to the addition of oxygen in the
presence of moisture to mineral elements
found in rocks to form oxides or hydroxides.
Readily oxidised minerals include iron which
combines with oxygen to form iron oxide
which gives the soil its reddish characteristic.
See equation below.

Other readily oxidised minerals elements

include magnesium, sulphur, aluminium and
chromium.
Carbonation refers to the reaction between
calcium carbonate and acidic solutions such
as carbonic acid, sulphuric acid, nitric acid
found dissolved in rain water and
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groundwater. The reaction results in the
production of soluble calcium hydrogen
carbonate which is washed away in solution.
See equation
CaCO3 + H2CO3 ——> Ca+2 + 2HCO3-
HCO3- . The bicarbonate represents the largest constituent of the dissolved load of most

Carbonation is common in limestone

rivers.

regions and results in the development of

karst topography ( to be discussed later).
Carbon dioxide dissolves faster at lower
temperatures and this causes carbonation to
be more effective in temperate regions where
it produces a number of karst landforms.
Hydrolysis
Refers to the decomposition of minerals in
water as hydrogen ions replace cations in
minerals. Hydrolysis is the most important
process in the weathering of silicate minerals
and the most common weathering reaction
on earth is the hydrolysis of feldspars
producing clay minerals
e.g. K-feldspar ——> kaolinte

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2KAlSi3O8 + 2H2CO3 + 9H2O ——>
Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 4H4SiO4 + 2K+ + 2HCO3-
The other weathering products (silicic acid
and ions) are in solution, so the residue is
clay.
Hydrolysis is common in the seasonally
humid, humid and temperate regions where
water is readily available for the process. In
the humid tropics it is responsible for the
development of deep weathered profiles.

Hydration
Mineral hydration is a form of chemical
weathering that involves the rigid attachment
of H+ and OH- ions to the atoms and
molecules of a mineral. When rock minerals
take up water during the wet season they
increase in their volume and when they lose
water during the dry season they decrease in
volume, the alternate wetting and drying
creates physical stresses within the rock
which results in a change in the mineral
composition of the rock. For example iron

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oxides are converted to iron hydroxides and
the hydration of anhydrite forms gypsum.
See equation

Chelation
This is a chemical weathering process which
involves the release of humic acids from
decomposing organic material. These acids
contain chelates which react with minerals in
the rock resulting in decomposition. It is
sometimes called humification and is active in
the humid tropics.
It should be noted that chemical weathering
changes the composition of rocks, often
transforming them when water interacts with
minerals to create various chemical reactions.
Chemical weathering is a gradual and ongoing
process as the mineralogy of the rock adjusts
to the near surface environment.
During weathering the following processes take place

 Exfoliation

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  Block disintegration
 Granular disintegration

Exfoliation refers to the peeling off of the outer layers of the rock along curvilinear joints
caused by processes such as pressure release, wetting and drying and insolation weathering
which takes place in rocks resulting in the formation of exfoliation domes in arid and semi
arid regions especially. It is common in igneous and metamorphic rocks. See diagram

Block disintegration

Refers to the breaking down of rock masses into large angular blocks or boulders which
result from the concentration of weathering processes such as insolation weathering and ice
wedging/ frost shattering along lines of weakness such as faults and joints. It occurs in well
jointed rocks along the joints and bedding planes. It is also common in carboniferous
limestone which has well developed joints and bedding planes. See diagram

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Granular disintegration

Refers to the breaking down of rocks into small fragments or grains which occurs in
crystalline rocks which are made up of different minerals. It is common in rocks such as
sandstones where the cements are attacked by weathering processes to produce sandy
deposits.

Factors affecting the rate and type of weathering

These include

 Climate
 Mineral composition of the rock
 Age of the rock
 Rock jointing
 Grain size
 Rock hardness
 Slope angle
 Vegetation density and type

Climate

This refers to the amount of rainfall and the prevailing temperature conditions.

The amount of rainfall and temperature influence the type and rate of weathering. This led
to Peltier (1950) to come up with a model which tries to explain the relationship between

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weathering and climate .

• Strong chemical weathering occurs in there is a lot of moisture and where

temperatures are high. It is also needed for the rapid decomposition of organic
matter. Water is also needed for freeze thaw weathering on mountain peaks.
Abundant organic acids from the decomposition of organic matter speeds up the
rate of decomposition of rocks.

• Abundant moisture will favour processes such as hydrolysis and this process results
in the formation of oxides of aluminium, iron and clays resulting in the development
of deep weathered layers.

• High temperatures are needed for high rates of chemical reactions because
according to Van’t Hoff the rate of chemical weathering increases by 2 to 3 times for
every 10 rise in temperature.

• Large daily temperature ranges also favour thermal shattering and freeze thaw

• High rainfall and high temperatures also favour the rapid growth of dense vegetation
which in turn will increase rates of infiltration and supply foliage for humification and
chelation

Strong physical weathering

• Areas labelled very strong physical weathering are areas where the temperatures
oscillate around zero degrees Celsius and there is a moderate amount of rainfall.

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 • The rainfall will provide the water which is needed for frost shattering.

• According to Palmer carbonation is very effective in cold regions since the solubility
of carbon dioxide is more at low temperatures.

Slight physical

 It is dominant in areas that are warm and dry such as arid and semi arid
environments. Intense heating and rapid cooling by occasional showers results in
granular disintegration, exfoliation and sheeting. The absence of moisture however
limits the extent of physical weathering such as thermal shattering. Chemical
weathering also occurs on a limited scale in places where there is moisture.

The equatorial rainforest areas

High rainfall and long periods of high temperatures give rise to rapid chemical weathering
processes such as hydrolysis and oxidation. High rainfall leads to the removal of some of the
weathered materials to expose the rock to further weathering.

Deep weathering is predominant resulting in the development of deeps of regolith. There is

also a high supply of organic, matter which rapidly decomposes under humid hot conditions
releasing humic acid which further accelerates the chemical weathering process of
Chelation.

Savanna regions

• Moderate amounts of rainfall in the wet season and moderately high temperatures
during the same season favour chemical weathering processes resulting in the
formation of moderate weathered layers of up to about 20 metres.

Temperate regions

• Rainfall between 600 to 1000 mm and moderate temperatures between 10 to 20

degrees Celsius which sometimes fall to below zero at night cause freeze thaw
weathering to be the dominant weathering process and this is evidenced by the
existence of block fields.

• Average sub surface chemical weathering also takes place as evidenced by the
existence of a relatively deep weathered layer.

Peri glacial environments

• Temperatures fluctuate around 0 degrees Celsius with a minimum of about – 40

degrees Celsius in winter and a maximum of about 10 degrees Celsius.

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 • The result is strong freeze thaw weathering which is also evidenced by the existence
of block fields.

• Shallow weathered layers indicate a limited extent of chemical weathering. The table
below summarises the different types of climate and the weathering processes.

Arid and semi arid regions.

Mechanical weathering is the dominant process since in these areas there is low moisture
caused by the fact that evaporation exceeds precipitation. Temperatures are high during the
day and fall to below zero degrees Celsius during the night making insolation weathering a
dominant weathering process in these areas evidenced by several exfoliation domes found
in these areas. High temperatures also cause a lot of capillary action which bring salts to the
surface and because of high evaporation rates the water evaporates leaving behind salts
which crystallise and increase the rates of salt weathering. This is evidenced by the
existence of several weathering pits on rock surfaces called Tafonis.

Weathering in arid regions is restricted to the surface hence the existence of a very thin
layer of weathered material. The absence of vegetation reduces the availability of humic
acids making processes such as Chelation to be absent in arid areas.

Early morning dews and mists which characterise the western parts of coastal deserts make
chemical weathering processes such as hydration and oxidation possible especially in areas
such as the base of rock pedestals where moisture is able to remain present for a longer
period of time.

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Rock type

15
• Granite resist frost action and exfoliation
in the sub humid tropics resulting in the
formation of free face hill slopes.
• Limestone forms gently sloping terrains
due to its attack by acid rain through
carbonation especially in industrialised
regions. In such areas karst landforms
dominate and these are strong evidence
of the process of carbonation.
• The layering of resistant and non-
resistant rocks causes the less resistant
rock to be rapidly attacked by weathering
and erosion resulting in the formation of
very steep free faces on the hard rock
and rectilinear section on lower parts of
the slope on the weathered soft rock.
• Different rocks are composed of different
minerals, and each mineral has a different
susceptibility to weathering. For example

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 sandstone consisting only of quartz is
already composed of a mineral that is very
stable on the Earth's surface, and will not
weather at all in comparison to limestone,
composed entirely of calcite (calcium
carbonate), which will eventually dissolve
completely in a wet climate producing
soluble calcium hydrogen carbonate. A
rock like granite made up of quartz,
feldspar, and mica will have feldspar being
readily attacked by hydrolysis producing
clay.
• In rocks where there are differences in the
way joints are spaced weathering will be
more in areas where the joints are closely
spaced and will be less in areas where the
joints are far apart. This will result in
differential weathering.
• In rocks containing different minerals such
as granite, the feldspar in it is readily
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 attacked by hydrolysis producing clay
while quartz is very resistant to chemical
weathering processes producing residual
debris.
• The minerals expand and contract at
different rates because of their different
coefficiency of expansion and contraction
and this causes rapid disintegration of the
rock.
• Gabbro which is dark coloured because of
a larger composition of feldspar and mica
boitite absorbs heat faster and loses the
heat faster and this makes it readily
attacked by physical weathering processes
such as insolation weathering.
Rock joints( these are cracks, fissures
which are found in rocks and are
produced due to differential cooling of
intrusive rocks and processes such as
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dilatation and bedding planes( these are
layers which separate one type of
sediment from another in sedimentary
rocks such as limestone).
• Well jointed rocks consisting of closely
spaced vertical and horizontal joints
allow moisture to penetrate making
them easily attacked by chemical
weathering processes such as
hydrolysis. Where the rock is unevenly
jointed it results in selective chemical
decomposition forming a rising and
falling weathering front.

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 •

• Bedding planes, provide pathways for

the entry of water. A rock with lots of
these feature will weather more
rapidly than a massive rock.
Rock hardness
Carboniferous limestone is harder than
tertiary limestone and this makes it more
resistant to weathering. Also igneous
rocks are harder than sedimentary rocks
making them more resistant to
weathering.

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Slope angle and altitude
• On steep slopes weathering products
are quickly washed away by rains and
also easily fall under gravity. This quick
removal of weathered material
exposes new rock surface to
weathering resulting in further
disintegration.
• On gentle slopes the weathering
products accumulate water stays in
contact with rock for longer periods of
time, and thus results in higher
chemical weathering rates.
• Frost action is very effective on
mountain peaks where temperatures
oscillate around 0
• Chemical weathering is predominant
on hill basements where moisture
lingers and temperatures are higher.
Vegetation density and type
 Vegetation supplies foliage which on decomposing releases humic acids which fuels
the chemical weathering process of Chelation especially under humid warm
conditions such as in the equatorial rain forest areas.

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  A dense vegetation cover will favour sub-aerial chemical weathering because the
roots will allow water to penetrate and contribute towards hydrolysis and at the
same time the leaves and branches will provide shade which limits rates of insolation
weathering.

The table below summarises the differences between physical and chemical weathering
processes

Deep weathering
It refers to the decomposition of rock to
depths of many metres induced by the
chemical alteration of rock minerals by soil
moisture and groundwater resulting in the
development of deep layers of saprolite (fairly
weathered material produced from the
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weathering of igneous or metamorphic rocks
which is rich in clay minerals which is
produced by chemical weathering processes
found insitu especially in humid and semi
humid climates). and regolith ( deep layer of
partially weathered and fine materials which
has accumulated over a long period of time
which is also a result of residual
accumulation of weathered materials or a
combination of sub-aerial chemical
weathering and decomposition of coarse
and fine material caused by running
water)Therefore regolith is formed by
both weathered materials insitu and
materials derived from elsewhere and
deposited by the action of running water.
Basal surface of weathering/ weathering
front
Refers to the rising and falling bedrock
surface overlain by deeply weathered rock
debris where the absence of joints caused by

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an increase in pressure and the presence of
impermeable rock prohibits further sub-aerial
chemical weathering. When this limit is
reached then weathering will have reached its
advanced stage and all layers of the deep
weathered profile will be present.
When this basal surface of weathering is later
exposed to the surface by erosion it results in the
development of distinct landforms such as dwalas
and inselbergs especially in the semi-humid
tropical regions in granite rock areas.

Factors influencing deep weathering

Climate
High temperatures are necessary for rapid rates of
chemical weathering because processes such as
oxidation, hydrolysis, chelation and hydration..
Rainfall – high rainfall is necessary for the provision of
moisture needed for chemical weathering processes of
hydrolysis, oxidation and the moisture is needed for
rapid growth of vegetation which supplies foliage
which is needed for the provision of humic acid when it
decomposes and the humic acid increases the process
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of Chelation which readily attacks rocks such as mica
biotite. Vegetation also anchors the weathered
material in place thereby allowing it to accumulate.
Vegetation reduces processes such as overland flow by
increasing rates of interception and reducing through
fall. In savannah type of climates where sometimes
vegetation is destroyed by human beings or natural
fires the rates of erosion exceeds the rate of saprolite
formation due to chemical weathering and this causes
a lot of the weathered material to be removed
resulting in the development of shallow weathered
layers and in some areas the basal surface of
weathering is exposed to produce landforms such as
dwalas and inselbergs.
In desert areas the depth of regolith is very shallow
due to, limited chemical weathering.
In temperate regions the depth of weathered materials
increases because of increased chemical weathering
processes caused by the fact that rainfall amounts
increases and is experienced throughout the year.
In polar region the depth of weathered material is very
shallow because these areas are permanently frozen
limiting the extent of chemical weathering.
Tectonic stability

In areas where there is tectonic stability processes such as mass movement are reduced and
this allows saprolite to accumulate in one place for a long period of time resulting in the
development of deep layers. This is the case with many tropical regions.

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Environmental factors

Deep weathering occurs in areas which are experiencing free drainage such as elevated flat
areas such that the rapid removal of rain water reduces chances of water logging promoting
rock decomposition.

Geological factors

Rocks such as granite which contain the mineral feldspar contribute towards rapid sub-
aerial chemical weathering due to hydrolysis resulting in the formation of kaolin( clay).rocks
such as sandstone which has large grains is also subject and susceptible to rapid chemical
decomposition.

Rocks containing joints and cracks are also susceptible to rapid chemical decomposition
because the joints and cracks increase surface area for chemical attack.

Chronological factors such as climate change help us understand the existence of relict
forms of deep weathered layers in desert areas today as these were formed long back when
deserts were once wetter than they are at present.

Point to note

Deep weathered layers develop over a long period of time due to sub-aerial chemical
weathering if conditions of lithology, climate, tectonic stability, vegetation and site factors
are conducive.

Models for the development of deep weathered layers

Ruxton and berry concluded that there are four layers of a deeply weathered profile.

The first upper zone consists of deeply weathered clay particles which reach depths of about
20 metres which Small referred to as residual debris resulting from the complete
decomposition of rocks. The second zone consists of residual debris and some cores tones
in this case the core stones are less than the residual debris in this Zone.

In zone 3 there are core stones and residual debris in this case the core stones are more
than the residual debris. Zone 4 is made up of partially weathered rock where joints and
cracks have just been opened.

Slope processes and development

 The word slope refers to the inclined part of the earth’s surface which ranges from
the summit of a mountain to the lowest part which is usually a valley.
 Slope process refers to the active agents which bring about changes in landforms,
for example the impact of falling raindrops or running water.
 Slope form refers to the shape of the land surface. It is what you see when you look
at a landscape. Whether a slope is steep or gentle, irregular or smoothly curved, high
or low, is features of its form. The form of a slope, that is, the slope of the ground
surface, is described in terms of profile form and plan form.
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Profile form is a shape when viewed in profile, as if a cross-section were taken at right
angles to the hillside.
Plan form is the shape when viewed from above; it is shown on a map by the curvature of
contours. Slopes that are concave in plan occur mainly at valley heads. The lines of water
flow and regolith movement down such a slope converge, and this frequently leads to more
moisture and thicker regolith toward the base. Slopes with convex plan form occur as spurs
between two valleys.
Profile analysis is to divide the slope into straight and curved parts, called slope units. The
straight parts, on which the angle remains approximately constant, are termed rectilinear
segments. The curved parts are convex and concave segments. A segment that is steeper
than the slope units above and below it is a maximum or free face segment. Above the
maximum segment is the summital convexity and below it the basal concavity.
One simple slopes there is only one sequence of convexity - maximum segment - concavity.
More complex slopes have more than one sequence.
Slope angle made with the horizontal, it expresses the steepness of the slope. Percentage
grade is the vertical rise in metres per 100 metres horizontal distance.

Model classification of slope form

A. Four-unit model

It was proposed by A. Wood in 1943.

The waxing slope is the convex section of the slope which forms the summit of the slope. It
is also called the convex slope or upper wash slope. In this slope, soil creep and rains plash
erosion are the dominant processes. Because rain splash simply redistributes materials on
this slope it is called the slope of no erosion.
The free face - A steep slope or part of a slope formed of bare rock which usually undergoes
parallel slope retreat because the rate of weathering is equal to the rate of removal of the
weathered material.
The constant slope is a slope with a uniform angle that remained unchanged as the slope

27
developed through time. Many constant slopes only have a very thin cover of rock waste. It
usually extends upward to the rock-cut slope of the free face. In this slope weathering and
mass movement are dominant processes.
Waning slope stretches to the valley floor with diminishing angle and is characterized with
fine materials. It is also known as pediment, valley- floor basement or lower wash slope. This
slope is the slope of deposition where all the materials removed from the upper segments
are deposited only to be removed by river [Link] diagram

Slope Evolution
Evolution is the change in slope form with time, as brought about by the action of
processes. Three models of slope
evolution have been proposed: these are called slope decline, slope replacement, and
parallel retreat.

Slope decline(W.M. Davis, 1899)

- Theory based on slopes in what was to Davis a normal climate, NW Europe and NE USA.
- Slope decline is common in many humid temperate regions. Davis suggests that at the
beginning there is a period of rapid uplift followed by a long period of standstill which allows
weathering and erosion to shape the slopes.

He suggested 3 stages

Stage 1

Streams heavily dissect the interfluves through vertical corrosion and head ward erosion
causing the development of deeply incised river valleys, waterfalls and rapids

Stage 2

Vertical incision is replaced by lateral erosion resulting in most rivers achieving graded
profiles. Increased lateral erosion results in the development of flood plains.

Stage 3

A gently undulating surface with a convex concave profile which he called a peneplain
develops-

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- Steepest slopes at beginning of process with a progressively decreasing angle in time to
give a convex upper slope and a concave lower slope.
- The movement of rock waste is seen as one stage between weathering on the one hand
and transportation by rivers on the other. The forms of slopes change as the cycle of erosion
advances. When slopes are first developed they are steep and covered with coarse
material. Later in the cycle the graded slopes are gentler and are covered with a thicker
layer of finer material. The slope decline is caused by the fact that the downwash of soil
from convex upper slopes is faster than its removal from the slope base.

Slope replacement(W. Penck, 1924)

- The theory of slope replacement is particularly applicable to explaining the slope
development of cliff in subtropical semi-humid climatic areas.
- The maximum angle decreases as the gentler lower slopes erode back to replace the
steeper ones giving a concave central portion to the slope.
- This theory assumes that the surface of the slope is weathered evenly and crumbles - the
fragments (scree) falling to the base. Thus maximum angle of the slope decrease and is
replaced by a gentler slope.

Slope retreat (or Parallel retreat) (L.C. King, 1948, 1957)

- The theory of slope retreat is particularly applicable to explaining the slope development
in semi-arid areas. Sea cliffs with wave-cut platforms.
- The maximum angle remains constant as do all slope facets apart from the lower one
which increases in concavity.
- Each of the upper parts of the slope retreats by the same amount and maintains the same
angle. Thus the convexity, free face and debris slope all retain the same length, both
absolute and relative to each other during retreat. The pediment extends in length and
becomes slightly gentler in angle.

Development of slopes

The influence of rock structure and lithology on slopes

- Lithology influences profile form and angle. The strength, stability and permeability of a
rock are important factors in determining slope form. (e.g. convexities form the greater part
of profiles developed on sandstones, about half on limestone and less than half on shales.
Maximum slope angles also vary with lithology, (e.g. max. slope angle on limestome is
usually about 20º, shales 9 º,and on clays 5.5 º )
- The nature of the regolith which is formed is also important. (e.g. surface wash as a slope
forming process depends on the permeability of the regolith. Surface wash is more effective
on less permeable regoliths such as clay.)
- The presence of joints, cracks and bedding planes can allow increased water content and
so lead to sliding. In rocks where the bedding planes dip in the same direction as the slope
mass movement processes such as planar slides are predominant and these result in the
development of gentle slope forms.

Hard coherent rocks will rest weathering and erosion and mass movement causing the
development of very steep slope forms.

29
The influence of climate on slopes
- It affects surface processes directly and indirectly. For example, it determines the
significance of weathering processes such as frost shattering or surface run-off.

The influence of vegetation on slopes

- The main effect of vegetation is the protection it gives the soil from surface wash and
rainsplash.
- Other effects are: the action of roots in holding the regolith on the slope, the contribution
to chemical weathering by the products of organic acids and the supply of organic matter
which improves soil structure.

Human influence
- Deforestation increases the rate of slope movement.
- Building road or quarrying at the foot of slopes upsets the equilibrium.
- The shaking action of heavy traffic.
- The grazing of animals and ploughing loosen soil and remove protective vegetation cover.

Mass movement on slopes

Mass-Wasting and Mass-Wasting Processes

• Mass movement is defined as the down slope movement of rock and regolith on the
Earth's surface mainly due to the force of gravity.
• It takes place when the shear strength of the material is exceeded by the shear
stress induced upon it.
• Water is not a component which transports the material but it is always present. It
can be there to add weight to the material or can be there to reduce friction.
• CLASSIFICATIONOF MASS MOVEMENT
According to the speed of movement and degree of wetness-soil creep and solifluction
(slow movements)
• Moderate- talus creep and mudflow
• Fast –rock slide and slumps
• Very fast rock falls and avalanches
Slope angle over which the materials move
• Gentle slopes- soil creep
• Moderate slopes-solifluction and talus creep
• Steep slopes rock slides and slumps
• Very steep- rock falls and avalanches
Nature of material that moves
 Soil and other materials moved by creep
 Saturated soil and other materials moved by solifluction
 Angular waste rock –talus creep
 Semi fluid mud-mudflow

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  Large masses of rock and debris moved by slumps and slides
 Individual rocks and boulders moved by rock falls.
• These include slow movements, flows (rapid), slides and falls.
• Sediment flows occur when sufficient force is applied to rocks and regolith that they
begin to flow down slope.
• A sediment flow is a mixture of rock, and/or regolith with some water or air. They
can be broken into two types depending on the amount of water present. i.e.
Slurry Flows-
• are sediment flows that contain between about 20 and 40% water. As the water
content increases above about 40% slurry flows grade into streams.
• Slurry flows are considered water-saturated flows.

These include:
Solifluction
• Slow movement of water saturated regolith over a frozen layer of rock debris under
periglacial conditions.
• These occur in areas where the soil remains frozen for a long period of time and
when temperatures increase the top layer thaws and becomes saturated while the
bottom layer remains frozen.
• Flowage at rates measured on the order of centimeters per year of regolith
containing water. Solifluction produces distinctive lobes on hill slopes.
Mudflows

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 • - these are a highly fluid, high velocity mixture of sediment and water that has a
consistency ranging between soup-like and wet concrete.
• They move at velocities greater than 1 km/hr and tend to travel along valley floors.
• These usually result from heavy rains in areas where there is an abundance of
unconsolidated sediment that can be picked up by streams.
• Mudflows can also result from volcanic eruptions that cause melting of snow or ice
on the slopes of volcanoes, or draining of crater lakes on volcanoes.
• Volcanic mudflows are often referred to as lahars. Some lahars can be quite hot, if
they are generated as a result of eruptions of hot tephra.
• Debris Flows
• these occur at higher velocities than solifluction, with velocities between 1 meter/yr
and 100 meters/hr and often result from heavy rains causing saturation of the soil
and regolith with water. They sometimes start with slumps and then flow downhill
forming lobes with an irregular surface consisting of ridges and furrows.
•
Granular Flows
• These include:
• Creep
• the very slow, usually continuous movement of regolith down slope. Creep occurs on
almost all slopes, but the rates vary. Evidence for creep is often seen in bent trees,
offsets in roads and fences, and inclined utility poles terracetes on slopes.
• Creep can be gravity creep or
• soil heave( frost heaving).
• this process is large contributor to creep in cold climates. When water saturated soils
freeze, they expand, pushing rocks and boulders on the surface upward
perpendicular to the slope. When the soil thaws, the boulders move down vertically
resulting in a net down slope movement.
Earth flows
 are usually associated with heavy rains and move at velocities between several
cm/yr and 100s of m/day.
 They usually remain active for long periods of time. They generally tend to be narrow
tongue-like features that begin at a scarp or small cliff.

• Grain Flows
• usually form in relatively dry material, such as a sand dune, on a steep slope.
• A small disturbance sends the dry unconsolidated grains moving rapidly down slope.
Debris Avalanche
 These are very high velocity flows of large volume mixtures of rock and regolith that
result from complete collapse of a mountainous slope.
 They move down slope and then can travel for considerable distances along
relatively gentle slopes. They are often triggered by earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions.

Slides (also called Translational Slides)

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Rock slides and debris slides result when rocks or debris slide down a pre-existing surface,
such as a bedding plane, foliation surface, or joint surface (joints are regularly spaced
fractures in rock that result from expansion during cooling or uplift of the rock mass). Piles
of talus are common at the base of a rock slide or debris slide. Slides differ from slumps in
that there is no rotation of the sliding rock mass along a curved rupture surface .See
diagram

Slumps (also called Rotational Slides)-

• The downward rotation of rock or regolith occurs along a concave-upward curved
surface (rotational slides).
• The upper surface of each slump block remains relatively undisturbed, as do the
individual blocks.
• Slumps leave arcuate scars or depressions on the hill slope. Slumps can be isolated
or may occur in large complexes covering thousands of square meters.
• They often form as a result of human activities, and thus are common along roads
where slopes have been over steepened during construction.
• They are also common along river banks and sea coasts, where erosion has under-
cut the slopes.
• Heavy rains and earthquakes can also trigger slumps. See diagram

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 •

Rock falls

• occur when a piece of rock on a steep slope becomes dislodged and falls down the
slope. A rock fall may be a single rock or a mass of rocks, and the falling rocks can
dislodge other rocks as they collide with the cliff. Because this process involves the
free fall of material, falls commonly occur where there are steep cliffs. At the base
of most cliffs is an accumulation of fallen material termed talus. See diagram

Debris falls

• are similar, except they involve a mixture of soil, regolith, vegetation, and rocks.

Case studies

• Turnagain Heights Alaska, 1964

• During the Good Friday earthquake on March 27, 1964, a suburb of Anchorage,
Alaska, known as Turnagain Heights broke into a series of slump blocks that slid
toward the ocean. This area was built on sands and gravels overlying marine clay.

• The upper clay layers were relatively stiff, but the lower layers consisted of a
sensitive clay.

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• The slide moved about 610 m toward the ocean, breaking up into a series of blocks.
It began at the sea cliffs on the ocean after about 1.5 minutes of shaking caused by
the earthquake, when the lower clay layer became liquefied. As the slide moved
into the ocean, clays were extruded from the toe of the slide. The blocks rotating
near the front of the slide, eventually sealed off the sensitive clay layer preventing
further extrusion. . 75 homes on the top of the slide were destroyed by the
movement of the mass of material toward the ocean.

• See diagram.

•
• Nevados de Huascarán, Peru, 1962 and 1970.

• Nevados de Huascarán is a high peak in the Peruvian Andes Mountains. The peak
consists of granite with nearly vertical joints (fractures) covered by glacial ice. On
January 10, 1962 a huge slab of rock and glacial ice suddenly fell, with no apparent
triggering mechanism. This initiated a debris flow that moved rapidly into the valley
below and killed 4,000 people in the town of Ranrahirca, but stopped when it
reached the hill called Cerro de Aira, and did not reach the larger population center
of Yungay.

35
 •
• Shaking in the area lasted for 45 seconds, and during this shaking another large block
of the Nevados de Huascarán between 5,500 and 6,400 meters elevation fell from
the peak.

This time it became a debris avalanche sliding across the snow covered glacier and moving
down slope at velocities up to 335 km/hr. The avalanche then hit a small hill composed of
glacially deposited sediment and was launched into the air as an airborne debris avalanche.
From this airborne debris, blocks the size of large houses fell on real houses for another 4
km. The mass then recombined in the vicinity of Cerro de Aira and continued flowing as a
debris flow, burying the town of Yungay and its 18,000 residents. See map

• The debris flow reached the valley of the Rio Santa and climbed up the valley walls
killing another 600 people on the opposite side of the river. Since then, the valley
has been repopulated, and currently large cracks are seen on the remains of the
glacier that still covers the upper slopes of Nevados de Huascarán.

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Elm Switzerland, 1881

• In 1870s there was a large demand for slate to make blackboards throughout
Europe. To meet this demand, miners near Elm, Switzerland began digging a slate
quarry at the base of a steep cliff. Slate is a metamorphic rock with an excellent
planar foliation that breaks smoothly along the foliation planes. By 1876 a "v"
shaped fissure formed above the cliff, about 360 meters above the quarry. By
September 1881, the quarry had been excavated to where it was 180 m long and 60
m into the hill below the cliff, and the "v" shaped fissure had opened to 30 m wide.

• Falling rocks were frequent in the quarry and their were almost continuous loud
noises heard coming from the overhang above the quarry. Realizing that the slope
had become unstable, the miners stopped working, thinking that the rock mass
above the quarry would probably fall down.

• On September 11, 1881 the 10 million m3 mass of rock above the quarry suddenly
fell. But, it did not stop when it hit the quarry floor. Instead, it broke into pieces and
rebounded into the air. Residents in Untertal, on the opposite side of the valley from
the slide, saw the mass of rebounded rock coming at the them and ran uphill. But
the mass of rock continued up the walls of the valley and buried them. The
avalanche then turned and ran an additional 2,230 m as a dry avalanche traveling at
180 km/hr burying the village of Elm. The avalanche killed 115 people. See diagram

•
• Vaiont Reservoir, Italy, 1963

• This mass movement was caused by the changes in the hydrological characteristics
of earth materials.

• In 1960 a dam was built across the Vaiont Valley in northeastern Italy near the
border with Austria and Slovenia. The valley runs along the bottom of a geologic

37
 structure called a syncline, wherein rocks have been folded downward and dip into
the valley from both sides (see cross section below).

• The rocks are mostly limestones, but some are intricately interbedded with sands
and clays. These sand and clay layers form bedding planes that parallel the
syncline structure, dipping steeply into the valley from both sides.

• Some of the limestone units have caverns that have been dissolved in the rock due
to chemical weathering by groundwater. Furthermore, the dam site was built near
an old fault system. During August and September, 1963, heavy rains drenched the
area adding weight to the rocks above the dam. On October 9, 1963 at 10:41 P.M.
the south wall of the valley failed and slid into the reservoir behind the dam.

• The slide mass was 1.8 km long and 1.6 km wide with a volume of 240 million m3. As
the slide moved into the reservoir it displaced the water, forcing it 240 meters above
the dam and into the village of Casso on the northern side of the valley.

• Subsequent waves swept up to 100 meters above the dam. Although the dam did
not fail, the water rushing over the dam swept into the villages of Longorone and T.
Vaiont, killing 2,000 people

Nevado del Ruiz volcano in Columbia

• the devastating mudflows that killed 23,000 people in Armero that resulted from an
eruption of Nevado del Ruiz volcano in Columbia.

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 •

Man’s contribution:
 Deforestation destabilises slope as the roots of plants which hold the materials
together are removed causing slopes to be prone mass movement.
 Cultivation on slopes destabilises slope in the sense that it loosens the soils on the
slopes and this leaves the soil susceptible to mass movement.
 Non-engineered construction of roads / railways loosens rock particles allowing
them to easily fall under the influence of gravity as rock falls.
 Obstructing natural drainage such as the construction of dams increases water in soil
resulting in an increase in the weight of the soil and also reduces friction.
 Improper drainage increases water in soil
 Mining and quarrying loosen the rock particles
Economic consequences:
 Destruction of settlements
 Destruction of infrastructure
 Railway line blocked
 Goods cannot be transported
 Destruction of cultivated lands
 Expensive to rebuild
 Loss of property
Measures:
 Concrete spraying on slopes

39
  Building tunnel roofs
 Wire mesh (
 Gabians (building of retaining walls)
 Drilling of bolts into the side of slopes to stabilise slopes
 Cause artificial rock falls to clear debris
 Reforestation or revegetation
 Putting up wire nets to catch falling rock particles
 Mapping of landslide hazards
 Guidelines for planning human settlements and infrastructure
 Landslide disaster management strategies
 Develop settlements on gentle slopes
 No cultivation on slopes
Duricrust refers to the hard elevated crust formation which is made up iron, silica and
aluminium compounds produced due to the leaching of soluble bases and the accumulation
of the insoluble ones under a humid climate which upon being exposed to alternate wetting
and drying due to climate change harden to form a hard crust.

Factors influencing the formation of duricrusts.

 The presence of rocks which contain insoluble bases of aluminium. Iron, silica and
soluble minerals,
 Rocks which are permeable and porous to allow for leaching of soluble minerals to
take place.
 Abundant rainfall which is seasonal to allow for leaching during the wet period and
drying during the dry season
 The presence of conditions which favour rapid sub-aerial chemical weathering for
the complete decomposition of the rock.
 Highly mobile bases which accumulate within the regolith forming the indurated
zone.
 A change in climate which allows for a distinct wet and dry period and increased
rates of erosion during the early days of the rainy season to allow for the removal of
the overburden and exposure of the indurated zone to the surface which upon being
dehydrated the unstable oxides of iron, calcium and aluminium are converted to
more stable compounds which are resistant to weathering forming the hard crust.

Laterite- refers to a highly cemented material rich in secondary oxides of iron or aluminium
or both which harden under natural conditions to form a hard crust produced mainly due to
the re-cementing of pre-existing concentrations of aluminium, iron and calcium which upon
being weathered produces red subsoil due to the presence of iron which are formed in
tropical climates where the weathered materials usually form hydrous oxides of iron.

Classification of duricrusts

40
These are classified according to their mode of formation and under this classification we
have primary laterites and secondary laterites.

Primary laterites are duricrusts which are formed insitu as a result of a long period of deep
weathering followed by both leaching and accumulation of oxides forming the indurated
zone followed by dehydration of the indurated zone as it is exposed to the surface by
erosion.

Secondary laterites are produced due to the degeneration of primary laterites by erosion
and their subsequent re-cementation at lower altitudes.

Duricrust are also classified according to their mineral composition

Under this classification we have three principal minerals which gives us different types of
duricrusts. These minerals are aluminium, iron and silica.

Under this classification 7 types were indentified.

1. Silitic rich in silica

2. Siallitic containing silica and aluminium
3. Allitic-rich in aluminium
4. Ferrallitic rich in iron and aluminium
5. Ferritic- rich in iron
6. Fersiallitic rich in iron and silica and aluminium
7. Fersillic – rich in iron and silica

Classification according to structure

Under this classification we have cellular duricrusts these are duricrusts which are formed
when the mineral elements in the indurated zone form a continuous angular or vesicular
and nodular structure. Such duricrusts have a complex mixture of iron, aluminium and
calcium.

Conglomerate structure formed by the previous cellular duricrusts when their weathered
and broken down segments re-cement. Such duricrusts are formed by a combination of
both small and large fragments cemented together in an irregular manner.

Theories of laterite formation

The relative accumulation theory

Proposed by Jacks (1954) and supported by Dury (1959)

The theory suggests that the indurated zone develops as a result of relative accumulation of
the mobile bases of aluminium, iron and calcium.

The absolute accumulation hypothesis

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Put forward by Woolnough (1930)

Suggest the accumulation of the oxides from lateral influxes and from accumulation and
capillary action when temperatures increase. They argue that iron enrichment occurs as a
result of capillary action. This hypothesis helps us understand why in the pallid and mttled
zones there are reduced amounts of iron. This theory however is un able to explain the
development of thick duricrusts since the contribution by capillary action is unable to bring
enough oxides to cause the development of the thick duricrusts.

Water table fluctuation

According to this theory the indurated zone develops in the aerated zone above the zone of
permanent saturation mainly because of alternate wetting if this zone during the wet
season and drying during the dry season which causes iron enrichment and dehydration to
produce the laterite.

Duricrust profile

It is made up of % zones/ layers

1. Zone 1 top soil

2. Zone 2 indurated zone made up of oxides of aluminium, iron, calcium and silica
3. Zone 3 mottled zone made up of clay and quartz crystals.
4. Zone 4 pallid zone made up of clay and sand
5. Zone 5 transitional zone made up of partially weathered rock and leached mineral
salt settle here.

Beneath the transitional zone there is the parent rock.

Landforms associated with duricrusts

Cap rock escarpments-these are thick layers of resistant rock covering deeply weathered
and less resistant material which are common in desert areas where they are found on top
of mesas and buttes.

Relief inversions

Remnants of dissected duricrusts which are deposited in depressions resulting in the

transformation of these low lands into interfluves.

Flat irons

Levelled pans found on duricrusts summits formed by the smooth removal of the overlying
incoherent debris by surface erosion followed by the uniform cutting of the laterite surface
into a near level rock pediment by the effect of surface wash erosion.

Pipes and carverns

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These are produced when resistant summits of duricrusts are undermined forming openings
within the mottled and pallid zones.

Granite rock and the associated land forms

Characteristics & formation of Granite:

• Granite is an igneous rock formed by magmatic intrusion into the earth's crust
(forming for example a batholiths, sills. Dykes laccoliths and lopoliths

• Due to slow cooling, associated with the depth / pressure inside the earth's crust,
large crystals therefore granite is a crystalline rock;

• It is made up of the minerals Quartz, Mica and Feldspar .

• Granite is a resistant hard rock

• It is impermeable, but areas with excessive jointing are less resistant and permeable
(granite is often characterised by both horizontal and vertical joints)

• As the granite cooled and contracted, vertical joints formed therefore it is a well
jointed rock;

• Later denudation of the overlying layer of rocks led to pressure release, allow re-
expansion of the granite and resulting in the further creation of horizontal and
vertical joints.

• It is these joints that make granite susceptible to weathering processes

Weathering processes in Granite

• FROST SHATTERING (physical weathering) - results in granular disintegration (results

from the cycles of freezing (and consequent expansion) and thawing of water in
joints / crevices found in the rock.

• HYDROLYSIS (chemical weathering) - this involves the dissolving of feldspar minerals

in the granite by hydrogen. The feldspar reacts with hydrogen in water producing
Kaolin (china clay) in the processes of Kaolinisation - this occurs as water circulates
through the granite. Granite weathered by hydrolysis becomes weakened as the
quartz crystals remain as loose crystals, unaffected by the hydrolysis process.

• The joints and cracks found in granite allows the penetration of plant roots and this
fuels root wedging in granite rocks,

• The fact that granite is a plutonic rock makes readily susceptible to dilation because
as the overburden is removed the pressure on the rock is released causing the rock
43
 to expand upwards and outwards resulting in the development of curvilinear joints
and vertical joints which later causes the rock to peel off on exposure to the surface
a process called sheeting.

• The presence of different minerals in granite rock also causes differential expansion
and contraction which causes the rock to be susceptible to insolation weathering
resulting in the development of exfoliation domes due to exfoliation.
Micro features
• Gnamas-little holes of about 2-5mm found on granite rock surfaces formed due to
the weathering of feldspars which give the rock its rough surface.
• Quartz grains-small chunks of sharp angular quartz which remain after the
weathering of feldspars.
• Quartz veins- small ridge like structures which cut across granite rock surfaces.
• Tafoni-larger depressions found on granite rock which are formed due to the
concentration of weathering on places where joints coalesce.
Tors

• One of the most distinctive features of the Granite landscape are tors which are
exposed small piles of rounded granite outcrops formed by selective spheroidal
chemical weathering processes in well jointed granite rocks.

• Tors are of two types that is skyline tors formed on top of massive granite rocks such
as dwalas and subskyline tors that are formed on the ground surface.

Theories of Tor Formation

• There are a number of different theories on the formation of Tors, here is one
possible formation theory:

• 1. Initial Formation of vertical joints in the granite

• During cooling, contraction resulted in the formation of mainly vertical joints in the
granite which are closely spaced.

2. Removal of overlying rock (2-3km thick) and creation of horizontal joints

• The cover of rock above the granite is gradually worn away over time, resulting in
the removal of pressure from the granite below (pressure release), resulting in
expansion of the rock and the creation of horizontal joints and bedding planes in the
granite, following the shape of the surrounding land.

3. Sub-surface chemical weathering widening the joints (Hydrolysis )

• Hydrolysis, results in a reaction between hydrogen in water and the feldspar

minerals in the granite which are broken down into China clay, further weakening
the rock leaving behind corestones.
44
4. Deep weathering of the Granite

• Further weathering of the granite takes place, during a warm period, rainwater is
able to enter the rock through joints, causing hydrolysis and carbonation.

• Organic acids from plants are also carried deeper into the granite, with water -
resulting in further weathering.

• This deep weathering attacks and weakens minerals such as feldspar in the rocks
and widens the joints.

5. Frost shattering and exposure of Granite by solifluction in periglacial times.

• In periglacial times, frost action forces apart the weathered granite, exploiting the
vertical and horizontal joints, breaking the granite into blocks. Loose material
produced by freeze-thaw is then removed by the process of solifluction, exposing the
granite outcrop known as tor.

• The diagrams below show the granite before and after weathering. The joint spacing
is important - the more widely spaced joints, formed large resistant core stones.
Weathered debris accumulated around the tor forms blockfields (where there are
large granite blocks) or clitter (smaller fragments of granite)

Tor formation

After the removal of the over burden

45
Dwalas

• Also called whale backs

• They are large low-lying rock boulders of low angle formed due to the removal of the
overlying weathered rock by denudation processes. Dwalas are actually part of the
basal surface of weathering which has been exposed to the surface by several cycles
of weathering and erosion. See diagram

Inselberg bornhardts

• These are massive steep sided isolated hills made of granite rock often associated
with near level plains.
• They have convex slopes which are symmetrical or asymmetrical.
• They have curvilinear joints which are evidence that they are produced when the
overburden is removed such that the rock expands upwards and outwards. See
diagram
Inselberg bornhardts

46
The dotted lines represent the curvilinear and vertical joints which characterise this
landform.

Block Inselberg

• In rocks containing both vertical and horizontal joints, these are further exploited by
weathering to produce a blocky type of Inselberg known as a block inselberg. See
diagram.

Block Inselberg

Castle kopjes

• These are formed by piles of granite rock which are balance precariously.
• They usually develop from block inselbergs when they are further attacked by
weathering along the joints or they are produced due to the exposure of weakened
or partially weathered rocks followed by disintegration. See diagram

47
Theories of Inselberg formation
• The ecthplanation hypothesis
• The pediplanation hypothesis
The ecthplanation hypothesis
• Proposed by Falconer 1911 adapted later by Willis 1936 and Thomas 1974.
• According to Falconer inselbergs are formed when the rising and falling basal surface
of weathering is exposed to the surface due to the stripping or exhumation of the
over burden by surface erosion.
• The seasonally humid tropics offer ideal conditions for the development of
inselbergs because alternating episodes of wet and dry seasons offer ideal conditions
for deep weathering and subsequent stripping
Strengths
• The process manages to explain the development of various types of inselbergs.
Weaknesses
• The ecthplanation hypothesis is un able to explain the great heights of some
inselbergs given the fact that deep weathered layers beneath most inselbergs are
less than 100 m in depth.
• Small accepted that the greater heights of some inselbergs is justified if we take into
account that they are a product of several cycles of deep weathering followed by
erosion.
Pediplanation hypothesis
• LC king regards inselbergs as late stage residual hills that have resulted from the
destruction of the interfluves by twin processes of scarp retreat and pediment
extension.
• He argued that slope back wearing was a result of lithological factors such as mineral
composition and the presence of joints.
• The factors allowed for selective scarp retreat and down wearing resulting in the
formation of the inselbergs.
Human activities and their effects on granite rock.
• Quarrying and mining increase the rates of physical weathering by actually breaking
the rock into tiny particles.
• Afforestation and reforestation increases the amount of foliage available for
decomposition resulting in the increase of chelation agents which in turn increases
the rates of chemical weathering.

48
 • Deforestation exposes rock outcrops to an increase in insolation causing increases in
physical weathering processes such as thermal shattering.
• Industrial activities also increase the amount of hygroscopic nuclei which fuels cloud
development and this results in more water available for chemical weathering
processes such as hydrolysis, oxidation and hydration.

Limestone landforms

49
50