VEHICLE ENGINE

This is the vehicle’s main source of power; it uses fuel and burns it to produce mechanical power
therefore its function is changing Chemical Energy into Mechanical Energy

Types of engines

 Internal combustion engines (ICE) are classified into two according to the type fuel it
uses:
o Spark-ignition (SI) engines: Also known as gasoline engines, these engines use
a spark plug to ignite a mixture of gasoline and air in the cylinder. This is the
most common type of engine used in passenger cars.
o Compression-ignition (CI) engines: Also known as diesel engines, these engines
use the heat from compressing air to ignite diesel fuel. Diesel engines are
typically more efficient than gasoline engines and are often used in trucks, buses,
and other heavy-duty vehicles.

Components of an internal combustion engine

Stationary components

The "stationary components" of an engine refer to the fixed parts that provide structure and
support for the moving parts. These components form the framework of the engine and house the
moving parts that create power.

1. Engine Block:

 Function: The cylinder block is the main body of the engine. It houses the cylinders,
where the combustion process takes place. It also provides mounting points for other
engine components, such as the crankshaft, camshaft, and cylinder head.
2. Cylinder Head:

 Function: The cylinder head sits on top of the cylinder block and seals the combustion
chamber. It contains the valves, spark plugs (in gasoline engines), and injector nozzles (in
diesel engines) that allow air, fuel, and exhaust gases to flow in and out of the cylinders.

3. Crankcase:

 Function: The crankcase is the lower portion of the engine block that encloses the
crankshaft and connecting rods. It also serves as a reservoir for engine oil.
4. Rocker harm cover

It protects the inner moving components of the engine and preventing any debris from entering.
Other components

1. Exhaust Manifold:

 This is a series of pipes that collect exhaust gases from each cylinder and channel them to
the catalytic converter and muffler.

5. Intake Manifold:

 Function: The intake manifold is a series of pipes that deliver air (and fuel in gasoline
engines) from the air filter to the cylinders.
These stationary components provide a stable and rigid foundation for the moving parts of the
engine, allowing them to function efficiently and generate power. It's important to note that some
components, like the timing chain or belt, while technically stationary, play a crucial role in
coordinating the movement of other components and are essential for proper engine operation.

Moving components

1. Pistons and Piston Rings:

These are cylindrical components that move up and down inside the cylinders. The movement
of the pistons creates the reciprocating motion that drives the engine. Pistons have rings that seal
the combustion chamber and minimize friction.

 The function of pistons is to compress the air-fuel mixture in the cylinder during the
compression stroke and are forced down by the expanding hot gases during the
combustion stroke, transferring the force to the crankshaft.

2. Crankshaft and Connecting Rod:

 Crankshaft: This is a rotating shaft that converts the reciprocating motion of the pistons
into rotational motion. It's located at the bottom of the engine block.
  Connecting Rod: This is a rod that connects the piston to the crankshaft. It translates the
up-and-down motion of the piston into the rotating motion of the crankshaft.

 As the piston moves up and down in the cylinder, the connecting rod translates this
motion to the crankshaft, causing it to rotate. This rotation is what ultimately powers the
vehicle.

3. Valves:

 Valves: These are controlled openings in the cylinder head that allow air and fuel to enter
the cylinder and exhaust gases to exit. There are typically two sets of valves: intake
valves and exhaust valves.
  The valves open and close at specific points in the engine cycle to control the flow of air,
fuel, and exhaust gases into and out of the cylinders. This is crucial for the proper
functioning of the four-stroke cycle (intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust).

4. Camshaft and rocker arm assembly

 Camshaft: This is a shaft with lobes that control the opening and closing of the valves.
The camshaft rotates and pushes on the valve lifters, which in turn open and close the
valves at specific points in the engine cycle.

 The camshaft dictates the timing of the valve opening and closing, ensuring the proper
sequence of events in the four-stroke cycle.

These moving components work in a precise and coordinated manner to transform the chemical
energy of fuel into the mechanical energy that powers the vehicle.

Rocker arm assembly

It controls the opening and closing of valves

5. Flywheel

Not only rotates the engine, the function of the flywheel is to store mechanical energy to balance
the engine so that it continues to have good performance.

Principles of operation of engines

Two-Stroke S.I Engine operation

A two-stroke engine is an internal combustion engine that completes the entire cycle of intake,
compression, combustion, and exhaust in two strokes (one up and down movement) of the
piston, as opposed to the four strokes needed in a four-stroke engine.

Components:

1. Cylinder: The chamber where combustion occurs.

2. Piston: The reciprocating component that compresses the air-fuel mixture and transfers
force to the crankshaft.
 3. Piston Rings: Rings that seal the combustion chamber and minimize friction between the
piston and cylinder wall.
4. Crankshaft: The rotating shaft that converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into
rotational motion.
5. Connecting Rod: The rod that connects the piston to the crankshaft.
6. Spark Plug: Ignites the air-fuel mixture in the cylinder.
7. Intake Port: The opening that allows the air-fuel mixture into the crankcase.
8. Transfer Port: The opening that allows the air-fuel mixture to flow from the crankcase
to the cylinder.
9. Exhaust Port: The opening that allows exhaust gases to escape from the cylinder.

Diagram:
Operation:

1. Upward Stroke (Compression and Ignition):

o As the piston moves up, it compresses the air-fuel mixture in the combustion
chamber.
o When the piston reaches the top, the spark plug ignites the compressed mixture,
causing combustion and pushing the piston back down.
2. Downward Stroke (Power, Exhaust, and Intake):
o As the piston moves down during the power stroke, the expanding hot gases force
the piston down, rotating the crankshaft.
o Just before reaching the bottom, the piston uncovers the exhaust port, allowing
exhaust gases to escape.
o Slightly later, the transfer port is uncovered, allowing the fresh air-fuel mixture
from the crankcase to flow into the cylinder, pushing the remaining exhaust gases
out through the exhaust port.
o As the piston reaches the bottom, the intake port is covered again, trapping the
fresh air-fuel mixture in the crankcase for the next cycle.

Key Points:

 Two-stroke engines use the crankcase as part of the intake and compression process.
 There are no valves in a two-stroke engine, relying on precisely timed port openings and
piston movement for gas exchange.
 Two-stroke engines are simpler and lighter, but often less efficient and have higher
emissions than four-stroke engines.

Points to note:

 Two-stroke engines typically require an oil mixing system, where oil is pre-mixed with
the fuel or injected directly into the crankcase, to lubricate moving parts.
 Two-stroke engines are commonly found in applications like lawnmowers, chainsaws,
motorcycles, and small outboard motors due to their simplicity and power-to-weight
ratio.
Advantages of Two-Stroke SI (Spark Ignition) Engines:

 Simple design: Two-stroke engines lack valves, relying on ports in the cylinder wall for
intake, transfer (optional), and exhaust. This simpler design translates to:
o Lower cost: Fewer parts mean lower production costs, making them attractive for budget-
conscious applications.
o Lightweight: Reduced complexity makes them lighter than many four-stroke engines,
making them ideal for applications where weight is a concern, like chainsaws and small
motorcycles.
o Easy maintenance: The simpler design generally translates to easier maintenance and
repairs for users.
 High power-to-weight ratio: Two-stroke engines produce power in every upward stroke of
the piston, leading to a higher power output for their size compared to many four-stroke
engines.
 Can operate in any position: The lack of reliance on an oil sump for lubrication allows
them to operate in any position without lubrication issues, making them ideal for applications
like lawnmowers and outboard motors.

Disadvantages of Two-Stroke SI Engines:

 Lower fuel efficiency: The way two-stroke engines scavenge exhaust gases can lead to
incomplete combustion and wasted fuel. This results in lower fuel efficiency compared to
most four-stroke engines.
 Higher emissions: Incomplete combustion also contributes to higher emissions of
hydrocarbons and unburned oil, contributing to air pollution. Stringent environmental
regulations have led to a decline in their use in some applications.
 Shorter lifespan: The combined effect of higher combustion temperatures and reliance
on fuel-oil mixture for lubrication can lead to increased wear and tear, resulting in a
shorter lifespan compared to many four-stroke engines.
  Noisy operation: The scavenging process and simpler exhaust systems often lead to
louder operation compared to many four-stroke engines.
 Limited power band: Unlike four-stroke engines, two-stroke engines tend to have a
narrower power band, meaning they operate most efficiently within a specific RPM
range.

Four stroke S.I engine

A four-stroke SI (Spark Ignition) engine completes the combustion cycle in four distinct strokes,
each requiring one full movement (up and down) of the piston. These strokes are:

1. Intake Stroke:

 Piston Movement: The piston moves downward from Top Dead Center (TDC) to
Bottom Dead Center (BDC).
 Valve Operation: The intake valve is open, while the exhaust valve is closed.
 Air-Fuel Mixture: A mixture of air and fuel (gasoline vapor) is drawn into the cylinder
by the increasing volume created by the descending piston.

2. Compression Stroke:

 Piston Movement: The piston moves upward from BDC to TDC.

 Valve Operation: Both valves are closed.
  Air-Fuel Mixture: The trapped air-fuel mixture is compressed, increasing its pressure
and temperature.

3. Combustion Stroke (Power Stroke):

 Piston Movement: The spark plug ignites the compressed air-fuel mixture,
causing rapid combustion and a significant increase in pressure and temperature.
This forces the piston downward from TDC to BDC.
 Valve Operation: Both valves are closed.
 Power Generation: The expanding hot gases push the piston down, rotating
the crankshaft through the connecting rod. This rotation is the engine's power output.

4. Exhaust Stroke:

 Piston Movement: The piston moves upward from BDC to TDC.

 Valve Operation: The exhaust valve is open, while the intake valve is closed.
 Exhaust Gases: The burnt gases from the combustion are pushed out of the cylinder
through the open exhaust valve as the piston rises.

Points to note:

 Each stroke requires one full up-and-down movement of the piston.

 The engine completes two revolutions of the crankshaft for each complete cycle.
 Spark plugs are used to ignite the air-fuel mixture in SI engines.
 Four-stroke engines are generally more efficient and cleaner than two-stroke engines
due to a complete separation of intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust processes.

 The four-stroke cycle is precisely timed by a camshaft that opens and closes the valves at
specific moments.
 A lubrication system and cooling system are essential for maintaining engine operation
and preventing wear and tear.
  Four-stroke SI engines are widely used in automobiles, motorcycles, and other
applications due to their efficiency and cleaner emissions.

Advantages

 Higher fuel efficiency: Four-stroke engines have separate intake and exhaust cycles,
enabling cleaner burning of fuel and resulting in better fuel economy compared to two-
stroke engines.
 Lower emissions: Due to complete combustion and the use of a dedicated lubrication
system, four-stroke engines generally produce fewer harmful emissions compared to two-
stroke engines, making them more environmentally friendly.
 Longer lifespan: Dedicated oil lubrication reduces wear and tear on engine components,
leading to a longer lifespan and better durability compared to two-stroke engines.
 Smoother operation: The four-stroke cycle inherently allows for smoother operation and
quieter running compared to two-stroke engines, as there's no need for scavenging
exhaust gases.
 Wider power band: Four-stroke engines typically have a broader and more consistent
power delivery across a wider range of RPMs compared to two-stroke engines.

Disadvantages

 Higher cost and weight: The more complex design of four-stroke engines, with valves,
cams, and other components, often leads to higher production costs and heavier engines
compared to two-stroke engines.
 Increased complexity: The additional valves, timing belts, and other components make
four-stroke engines generally more complex and potentially require more specialized
maintenance compared to two-stroke engines.
 Lower power-to-weight ratio: Due to the heavier weight and single power stroke per
cycle, four-stroke engines typically have a lower power-to-weight ratio compared to two-
stroke engines of similar size.
  Limited applications: While dominant in cars and motorcycles, the heavier weight and
complexity of four-stroke engines limit their use in some applications where compactness
and ease of operation are priorities, such as chainsaws and small lawnmowers.

Two stroke C.I engine

Two-stroke compression ignition (CI) engines, also known as two-stroke diesel engines, are less
common than their gasoline counterparts but exist in some applications. They share some
similarities with two-stroke SI engines but have key differences due to the nature of diesel fuel
and the absence of a spark plug. Here's a breakdown of the principles of operation of a two-
stroke CI engine:

Components:

 Cylinder: The chamber where combustion occurs.

 Piston: The reciprocating component that compresses air and transfers force to the
crankshaft.
 Piston Rings: Rings that seal the combustion chamber and minimize friction between the
piston and cylinder wall.
 Crankshaft: The rotating shaft that converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into
rotational motion.
 Connecting Rod: The rod that connects the piston to the crankshaft.
 Fuel Injector: Injects atomized diesel fuel directly into the cylinder.
 Intake Port: The opening that allows air into the crankcase.
 Transfer Port(s): Openings that allow compressed air to flow from the crankcase to the
cylinder.
 Exhaust Port: The opening that allows exhaust gases to escape from the cylinder.
Operation:

1. Upward Stroke (Compression and Injection):

o As the piston moves up, it compresses the air in the crankcase.
o Just before reaching the top, the transfer port(s) is/are uncovered, allowing the
compressed air to flow into the cylinder, pushing any remaining exhaust gases out
through the exhaust port.
o At the top of the stroke, the fuel injector sprays a fine mist of diesel fuel directly
into the hot, highly compressed air in the cylinder.
2. Downward Stroke (Combustion, Power, and Exhaust):
o The heat from the compressed air ignites the diesel fuel, causing combustion and
pushing the piston down (power stroke).
o As the piston descends, it uncovers the exhaust port first, allowing the burnt gases
to escape.
o Later, the intake port is uncovered, allowing fresh air into the crankcase for the
next cycle.

Key Points:
  Two-stroke CI engines rely on the heat of compression to ignite the fuel, eliminating the
need for a spark plug.
 Similar to two-stroke SI engines, they use the crankcase for part of the intake and
compression process.
 The timing of port openings and fuel injection is crucial for efficient operation and
minimizing emissions.
 Two-stroke CI engines are generally used in larger applications like locomotives,
generators, and some marine engines due to their higher torque
output and simplicity.

Points to note:

 Two-stroke CI engines, similar to their SI counterparts, often require an oil mixing

system for lubrication.
 Emissions control techniques are crucial for two-stroke CI engines due to their inherent
challenges with complete combustion and higher particulate matter emissions compared
to four-stroke engines.

It's important to note that two-stroke CI engines are less common than four-stroke CI engines
due to higher emissions and lower efficiency. However, their simplicity and power density
make them suitable for specific applications requiring those characteristics.

Advantages:

 Simpler design: Similar to two-stroke SI engines, they could potentially offer a simpler
design with fewer moving parts compared to four-stroke CI engines.
 Lightweight: This could be beneficial in applications where weight is a concern.
 Potentially lower cost: Due to the simpler design, production costs could be lower
compared to four-stroke CI engines.
Disadvantages:

 Difficult to achieve complete combustion: Unlike four-stroke engines, the two-stroke

cycle may struggle to achieve complete combustion of the fuel-air mixture, leading to:
o Lower fuel efficiency: Incomplete combustion would result in wasted fuel and
lower fuel economy.
o Higher emissions: Unburned fuel and soot particles could contribute to increased
air pollution.
 Starting difficulties: Initiating combustion in a two-stroke CI engine could be
challenging due to the lack of a dedicated compression stroke for air intake.
 Limited power output: The scavenging process in two-stroke engines can lead to some
fresh air being lost, potentially limiting power output.
 Lubrication challenges: Ensuring proper lubrication for all engine components within
the two-stroke cycle could be complex.

Four stroke C.I engine

Four-stroke compression ignition (CI) engines, also known as four-stroke diesel engines, are the
most common type of CI engine used in automobiles, trucks, buses, and other heavy-duty
applications. They operate in a similar four-stroke cycle as four-stroke spark ignition (SI)
engines, but with crucial differences due to the properties of diesel fuel and the absence of a
spark plug. Here's a breakdown of the principles of operation of a four-stroke CI engine:

Components:

 Cylinder: The chamber where combustion occurs.

 Piston: The reciprocating component that compresses air and transfers force to the
crankshaft.
 Piston Rings: Rings that seal the combustion chamber and minimize friction between the
piston and cylinder wall.
 Crankshaft: The rotating shaft that converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into
rotational motion.
 Connecting Rod: The rod that connects the piston to the crankshaft.
  Fuel Injector: Injects atomized diesel fuel directly into the cylinder.
 Intake Valve: Allows air to enter the cylinder.
 Exhaust Valve: Allows exhaust gases to exit the cylinder.

Operation:

1. Intake Stroke:

 Piston Movement: The piston moves downward from Top Dead Center (TDC) to
Bottom Dead Center (BDC).
 Valve Operation: The intake valve is open, while the exhaust valve is closed.
 Air Intake: Fresh air is drawn into the cylinder by the increasing volume created by the
descending piston.

2. Compression Stroke:

 Piston Movement: The piston moves upward from BDC to TDC.

 Valve Operation: Both valves are closed.
 Air Compression: The trapped air is compressed to a high pressure and temperature.
This high temperature is crucial for igniting diesel fuel without a spark plug.

3. Power Stroke (Combustion):

 Piston Movement: Just before reaching TDC, the fuel injector sprays a fine mist of
diesel fuel into the hot, highly compressed air. The heat from the compressed air ignites
 the fuel, causing combustion and a significant increase in pressure and temperature.
This forces the piston downward from TDC to BDC.
 Valve Operation: Both valves are closed.
 Power Generation: The expanding hot gases push the piston down, rotating
the crankshaft through the connecting rod. This rotation is the engine's power output.

4. Exhaust Stroke:

 Piston Movement: The piston moves upward from BDC to TDC.

 Valve Operation: The exhaust valve is open, while the intake valve is closed.
 Exhaust Removal: The burnt gases from the combustion are pushed out of the cylinder
through the open exhaust valve as the piston rises.

Key Points:

 Four-stroke CI engines rely on the high temperature of compressed air to ignite diesel
fuel, eliminating the need for a spark plug.
 Unlike two-stroke engines, they use separate valves for intake and exhaust, allowing for
better control of the combustion process and reduced emissions.
 Each stroke requires one full up-and-down movement of the piston.
 The engine completes two revolutions of the crankshaft for each complete cycle.

Points to note:

 The timing of fuel injection and valve openings and closings is crucial for efficient
operation, power output, and emissions control.
 Four-stroke CI engines are generally more efficient than two-stroke CI engines due to
better combustion control and reduced fuel waste.
 They are also cleaner burning because the complete four-stroke cycle allows for more
complete combustion and better control of exhaust gas emissions.
Four-stroke CI engines are the dominant type of diesel engine due to their efficiency, power
output, and cleaner emissions compared to their two-stroke counterparts. They play a crucial
role in transportation and various industrial applications requiring reliable and powerful engines.

Advantages

High fuel efficiency: Four-stroke CI engines offer excellent fuel efficiency due to:

o High compression ratio: This allows for more complete combustion of fuel,
leading to better fuel economy compared to spark ignition engines.
o Diesel fuel characteristics: Diesel fuel has a higher energy density compared to
gasoline, contributing to improved fuel efficiency.
 High torque and power output: Four-stroke CI engines are known for producing high
torque and power, particularly at lower RPMs. This makes them well-suited for
applications requiring substantial pulling power, such as trucks, buses, and heavy
machinery.
 Durability and longevity: These engines are known for their robust design and long
lifespan due to:
o Stronger construction: They are built to handle the higher pressures and
combustion temperatures associated with the CI cycle.
o Efficient lubrication system: Dedicated oil systems ensure proper lubrication of
components, reducing wear and tear.
 Lower emissions of some pollutants: Compared to gasoline engines, four-stroke CI
engines generally emit less carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC). However,
they can emit higher levels of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM).

Disadvantages

Higher upfront cost: The more complex design and heavier materials used in four-stroke CI
engines typically lead to higher purchase costs compared to gasoline engines.
  Higher weight and size: Their heavier construction and additional components make
them heavier and bulkier compared to gasoline engines. This can impact the overall
weight and handling of vehicles, especially in lighter applications.
 Increased noise and vibration: The combustion process in CI engines can be noisier
and produce more vibrations compared to spark ignition engines, requiring additional
noise dampening measures in vehicles.
 Stricter emissions regulations: Due to higher NOx and PM emissions, four-stroke CI
engines are subject to tighter emission regulations, requiring additional technology like
catalytic converters and particulate filters, which can add complexity and cost.
 Sensitivity to fuel quality: These engines are generally more sensitive to fuel quality
than gasoline engines, and using low-quality fuel can affect performance and emissions
output.

Advantages of diesel engines over petrol engines

Fuel Efficiency and Running Costs:

 Higher fuel efficiency: Diesel engines typically achieve 25-30% better fuel
efficiency than comparable petrol engines. This translates to lower running costs,
especially for users who drive long distances frequently.
 Lower fuel price fluctuations: Diesel fuel prices are generally less volatile than petrol
prices, offering some stability in running costs.

Performance and Towing:

 Higher torque: Diesel engines produce significantly more torque (pulling power) than
petrol engines, especially at lower RPMs. This makes them well-suited for towing heavy
loads and navigating challenging terrains.
 Greater durability: The robust construction of diesel engines and their ability to handle
higher compression ratios contribute to longer lifespans and improved
durability compared to petrol engines.

Advantages of petrol engines over diesel engines

Lower Upfront Cost:

 Generally cheaper: When comparing similar models, petrol engines typically have
a lower purchase price compared to diesel engines. This can be a significant factor for
budget-conscious buyers.

Smoother Operation:

 Quieter and less vibration: Petrol engines generally operate with less noise and
vibration compared to diesel engines. This translates to a more comfortable driving
experience.
 Simpler design: The simpler design of petrol engines often results in easier and
potentially less expensive maintenance compared to diesel engines, which may require
specialized attention for components like turbochargers and particulate filters.

Better Cold Weather Performance:

 Easier starting: Petrol engines have a lower ignition point than diesel engines, making
them easier to start in cold weather conditions. This can be crucial for drivers in
regions with frequent cold snaps.

Environmental Considerations:

 Lower NOx emissions: Although both contribute to air pollution, petrol engines
generally emit lower levels of NOx (nitrogen oxides) compared to diesel engines. This
can be a deciding factor for environmentally conscious individuals concerned about air
quality.

Wider Availability:

 More options across segments: Petrol engines are widely used and readily available
across various vehicle segments and manufacturers, offering a broader range of choices
for car buyers.
Comparison of main parts of single and multi-cylinder engines

While the basic function remains the same, there are some key differences in the main parts of
single-cylinder and multi-cylinder engines due to the varying number of cylinders and associated
complexities:

Common Parts:

 Cylinder: Both engines have a cylinder where the air-fuel mixture is compressed and
ignited.
 Piston: Both have a piston that moves up and down within the cylinder, creating
compression and power strokes.
 Connecting rod: Both utilize a connecting rod to connect the piston to the crankshaft,
converting the reciprocating motion of the piston to rotating motion.
 Crankshaft: Both engines have a crankshaft that converts the reciprocating motion of the
piston into rotational motion.
 Valves (Intake and Exhaust): Both types of engines use valves to control the intake of
air-fuel mixture and the exhaust of combustion products.

Differences in Parts:

 Number of Cylinders: This is the most obvious difference. Single-cylinder engines have
one cylinder, while multi-cylinder engines have multiple cylinders (typically 2, 4, 6, or
more) arranged in different configurations (inline, V-shaped, etc.).
 Cylinder Block: Single-cylinder engines have a single cylinder block that houses the
cylinder, while multi-cylinder engines have a single block housing multiple cylinders or
individual cylinder blocks for each cylinder (depending on the configuration).
 Camshaft(s): Single-cylinder engines may have a single camshaft operating all valves,
while multi-cylinder engines may have one camshaft per cylinder bank or a single
camshaft operating all valves through a more complex mechanism.
  Spark Plugs (or Injectors): Single-cylinder engines have one spark plug (or injector for
direct injection), while multi-cylinder engines have one spark plug (or injector) per
cylinder.
 Balance Shafts: Single-cylinder engines usually don't need balance shafts due to the
single piston firing. In contrast, multi-cylinder engines often incorporate balance shafts to
counteract the vibrations caused by multiple pistons firing in sequence.

Additional Considerations:

 Complexity: Single-cylinder engines are generally simpler in design and have fewer
parts compared to multi-cylinder engines. This can affect factors like cost, weight, and
maintenance complexity.
 Performance: The increased number of cylinders in a multi-cylinder engine allows for
more frequent power strokes and smoother power delivery, leading to improved
performance compared to a single-cylinder engine.

CRANK ARRANGEMENT AND FIRING ORDERS

The engine crankshaft and firing order are two essential components that work together to create
smooth and efficient power in an internal combustion engine.

The crankshaft is a rotating shaft that converts the reciprocating motion of the pistons into
rotational motion. It's located at the bottom of the engine block and connects to the flywheel,
which transfers the power to the transmission. The crankshaft has throws, which are the points
where the connecting rods connect to the crankshaft. The number of throws on a crankshaft
corresponds to the number of cylinders in the engine.
Firing Order:

The firing order is the specific sequence in which the cylinders fire (or ignite the air-fuel
mixture) within a multicylinder engine. This order is crucial for ensuring smooth engine
operation and power delivery. It also plays a role in minimizing vibrations and wear on the
engine components.

The specific firing order for an engine depends on the number of cylinders and the engine
configuration (inline, V-type, etc.). Here are some common firing orders for different engine
types:

 Inline-four engines: Typically use a 1-3-4-2 firing order.

 V6 engines: Common firing orders include 1-6-5-4-3-2 (for 90° V6 engines) and 1-2-3-
4-5-6 (for 60° V6 engines).
 Block engine 4 cylinder: Common firing orders include 1-4-2-3 or 1-3-2-4

Understanding the firing order can be helpful for various tasks, such as:

 Troubleshooting engine problems: If an engine is running rough or misfiring, knowing

the firing order can help you identify which cylinder might be the culprit.
 Setting ignition timing: The timing of the spark plugs is critical for proper engine
operation, and the firing order is used to set the timing correctly.
 Replacing spark plugs: Knowing the firing order can help you replace the spark plugs in
the correct order.

Camshaft positions and valve operating mechanisms

The valve operating mechanism in an engine controls the opening and closing of the intake and
exhaust valves. This precise timing is important to ensure the engine functions efficiently and
delivers optimal power.

1. Intake Valve Function:

  Opens during intake stroke: As the piston moves downward, the intake valve opens.
This creates a vacuum that draws in a fresh mixture of air and fuel.
 Closes for compression and power strokes: Once the cylinder is filled, the intake valve
closes, trapping the air-fuel mixture for compression and the subsequent power stroke.

2. Exhaust Valve Function:

 Opens during exhaust stroke: After combustion, the exhaust valve opens as the piston
moves upward, allowing the burnt gases to escape.
 Closes for the intake stroke: The exhaust valve closes to seal the cylinder, allowing for
a new intake stroke to begin.

How the Mechanism Functions:

The valve operating mechanism uses the rotational motion of the crankshaft to control the timing
of the valves. Here are the typical components and their roles:

 Camshaft: Driven by the crankshaft via a belt, chain, or gear, the camshaft has lobes that
determine valve lift and duration.
 Tappets (or lifters): These components ride on the camshaft lobes. As a lobe rotates, it
pushes the tappet upwards.
 Pushrods (in some engines): Pushrods transfer the upward motion from the tappet to the
rocker arms.
 Rocker Arms: These arms pivot against the pushrods, translating the upward motion into
the downward motion that opens the valves.
 Valve Springs: Once the camshaft lobe rotates away, the valve springs close the valves
back into their seats.
Types of Valve Operating Mechanisms:

 Overhead Valve (OHV): Camshaft is in the engine block, using pushrods and rocker
arms to operate valves in the cylinder head.
 Overhead Camshaft (OHC): Camshaft(s) mounted in the cylinder head, operating
valves more directly, sometimes without rockers.
 Variable Valve timing (VVT): Advanced systems alter valve timing and lift based on
engine conditions to improve efficiency and performance.

Importance of Valve Operating Mechanism:

The precise operation of the valve operating mechanism is critical for an engine's:

 Power Output: Optimized timing ensures proper filling and emptying of cylinders,
directly affecting performance.
 Fuel Efficiency: Incorrect timing can waste fuel and lead to incomplete combustion.
 Emissions: Poorly timed valves can increase combustion byproducts and pollution.
 Engine Longevity: Accurate timing reduces stress on valves and other engine
components, contributing to longer engine life.

Valve timing

This refers to the precise timing of the opening and closing of the intake and exhaust valves
in an internal combustion engine. This timing plays a crucial role in numerous aspects of engine
performance, including:

 Power output: Optimized timing ensures proper filling and emptying of cylinders,
directly affecting power generation.
 Fuel efficiency: Incorrect timing can waste fuel and lead to incomplete combustion.
 Emissions: Poorly timed valves can increase combustion byproducts and pollution.
 Engine longevity: Accurate timing reduces stress on valves and other engine
components, contributing to longer engine life.
Terms used in valve timing

i. Lead: Lead refers to a valve event (opening or closing) occurring before its standard position
in the engine cycle. For example:

o Intake valve lead: The intake valve opens slightly earlier than usual, before the
piston reaches TDC on the exhaust stroke.
o Exhaust valve lead: The exhaust valve opens slightly earlier than usual, before
the piston reaches BDC on the power stroke.
 Effects:
o Increased lead generally helps high-RPM performance by allowing for more time
to fill or empty the cylinder.
o Excessive lead can hurt low-RPM performance by diminishing compression or
allowing backflow of exhaust gases.

ii. Lag: Lag refers to a valve event (opening or closing) occurring after its standard position in
the engine cycle. For example:

o Intake valve lag: The intake valve closes slightly later than usual, after the piston
has begun moving upwards on the compression stroke.
o Exhaust valve lag: The exhaust valve closes slightly later than usual, after the
piston reaches TDC and starts the intake stroke
 Effects:
o Increased lag can improve high-RPM power by utilizing exhaust momentum to
scavenge spent gases (exhaust) and draw in a fresh charge (intake).
o Excessive lag can hurt low-RPM performance by allowing exhaust gases to
contaminate the fresh intake charge.

iii. Overlap: The period of time, usually around TDC at the end of the exhaust stroke and the
beginning of the intake stroke, where both the intake and exhaust valves are open
simultaneously.
  Effects:
o Overlap helps improve high-RPM performance by using the momentum of the
exiting exhaust gases to help draw in the fresh intake charge. This creates a
scavenging effect.
o Too much overlap at low RPM can lead to backflow of exhaust gases into the
intake, reducing engine efficiency and performance.

While understanding valve timing is valuable, it's crucial to emphasize that adjusting
valve timing should only be attempted by qualified mechanics or engine
professionals. Improper valve timing can lead to severe engine damage, performance
issues, and even safety hazards.

Instead of focusing on the practical aspects of changing valve timing, here's a

breakdown of the concepts involved:

Methods to Adjust Valve Timing:

 Changing camshafts: Different camshafts have varying lobe profiles that dictate
valve timing characteristics like duration, lift, and opening/closing points.
Replacing the camshaft with one designed for your desired performance goals is
a common method, but requires mechanical expertise and specific tools.
 Adjustable camshafts: Some advanced engines utilize camshafts with
adjustable features that allow altering valve timing to a limited extent. However,
these require specialized tools and knowledge for proper operation.

Calculating Valve Overlap:

There are two main approaches to calculate valve overlap:

1. Using valve timing specifications:

If you have access to the engine's specific valve timing specifications (IVO, IVC, EVO,
EVC), you can use the following formula:

Overlap = (IVO + 360) - EVC

This formula accounts for the full 360-degree crankshaft rotation and calculates the
overlap duration in degrees.

2. Using a valve timing diagram:

This graphical representation visually shows the opening and closing points of the
intake and exhaust valves relative to the piston position. By measuring the angle
between the closing point of the exhaust valve and the opening point of the intake valve,
you can determine the overlap duration.

Important Note:

These calculations are purely theoretical and require accurate valve timing
specifications or a precise valve timing diagram for your specific engine model.
Additionally, they do not account for practical factors like camshaft design, valve
spring characteristics, and potential inconsistencies in real-world measurements.

Therefore, it's strongly recommended to leave valve timing adjustments to trained

professionals who possess the necessary knowledge, experience, and specialized
tools to perform the process safely and effectively.