Biological and Evolutionary Theories of Crime

 The environment (that of our ancestors) has shaped evolution of humans

 Environment constantly influences our biology
 Ancestral environment is an evolutionary term that refers to the hunter-gatherer era, from when most
of our current day adaptations are hypothesized to have evolved

Context
Franz Gall – Phrenology
 Relationship between shape/size of persons head and behaviours
Cesare Lombroso—Continued on Gall’s Work
 Criminals possess distinct physical features (atavisms)
 Criminals were evolutionary throwbacks
 Criminals had more in common with Neanderthals than modern humans
Charles Darwin
 Argued humans evolved from ancestral species through natural selection (primary mechanism through
which evolution created all species natural selection works by allowing the “trait” that bestowed a
reproductive fitness advantage to be “selected” for in the sense that those with the trait lived long
enough to procreate and pass it on to the next generation)
Galton
 Eugenics is the belief that the evolution of the human species can be artificially improved by preventing
individuals considered genetically “defective” from reproducing by methods such as forced sterilization
o Connected to what happened under Hitlers control

Definitions
 Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) is an official diagnosis in the DSM-5, referring to a constellation
of antisocial behaviours occurring during adulthood that have persisted for at least six months
 Conduct Disorder (CD) is an official diagnosis in the DSM-5 referring to constellation of antisocial
behaviours occurring during childhood that have persisted for at least 6 months
 Psychopathy is a constellation of affective, interpersonal, and behavioural characteristics such as
superficial charm, grandiosity, manipulation and lying, absence of remorse, inability to feel empathy,
impulsivity, risk-taking, irresponsibility, and living a parasitic lifestyle
 Aggression refers to the intent and action of inflicting harm on others though physical or indirect
means
 Antisocial Behaviours is a generic term that encompasses a wide range of behaviours (hitting, slapping,
punching, lying, cheating, stealing, running away, b&e’s, homicide etc.)

Why do we care?
What makes a strong theory?
 A theory is simply an explanation of particular phenomenon
 A strong theory is:
o Parsimonious
o Clearly identifies the causal mechanisms, corresponding mediators, and moderators
o Is testable/falsifiable
o Based on empirical data/modified with new data
o Possesses interdisciplinary compatibility
o Respects gender, ethnicity, culture
Methodology
How is biology-focussed research conducted?
 Behavioural genetics—Twin studies
 Molecular biologists—compare genetic makeups
 Neurochemical approaches – how genes express themselves as neurotransmitter systems
 Brain imaging is helpful (CT)

Biological Theories of Crime

Genetics and Crime – Twins, adoption, molecular genetics
 Every human shares 99% of their DNA, it is the 1% that is studied
 Increased chance of criminal activity if monozygotic (identical) twin engages in crime
 Slightly less, but still increased chance if dizygotic (fraternal) twin engages in crime
 Genetic studies are just as much about genes as they are environment
Mednick et al. (1984)
 They found the if biological parents had criminal records, it increased the chances of children engaging
in crime
o Same with adoptive parents, but not as likely as biological
o Highest probability is if both adoptive and biological parents had records
 The crime-gene link is most likely not a direct connection, but a function of mediational effects of
inherited characteristics that predispose to antisocial behaviour (lower intelligence, impulsivity, ADHD)

Molecular Genetics Research

 Caspi et all (2002) found interaction between specific gene and well known risk factor – child
maltreatment and low activity of monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene
Hormones
 Regulate metabolism, growth, development, impact behaviour
 Violence and aggression and hormones  testosterone
o Positive relationship, yet weak
 Could be that aggression causes increased testosterone levels instead of the reverse
Neurotransmitters
 Serotonin levels substantially lower in antisocial individuals
o Plays role in behavioural inhibition, mood regulation
 More pronounced for those under 30

Psychophysiology of Crime
 Psychophysiological theory uses physiology (e.g. low resting heart rate) to explain psychological
constructs (e.g. emotions, motivations, learning)
 Those who engage in crime tend to have low heart rates and low electrodermal activity (don’t sweat
much)
 Theories to explain the above:
o Fearlessness theory—do not experience fear as much
o Stimulation-seeking perspective – seek to fulfill need for stimulation
The Brain and Crime – Neuroimaging and Neuropsychology
 Structural/functional deficits in 4 areas”
1. The frontal lobe (high order functions – reasoning, planning, judgement, patience, abstract
thought, moral reasoning)
2. The temporal lobe (production/inhibition of aggression regulation—amygdala, hippocampus)
 3. The parietal lobe (integrates sensory information related to movement /space)
4. The cingulated gyrus (partially surrounds corpus callosum)
Brain Imaging
 Looks at structural and functionality of brain
o Function – PET and SPECT
o Structure – MRI and CT

 Structural and functional impairments of the prefrontal cortex and common among antisocial
populations
 Poor executive functioning is related to antisocial behaviours
 Prenatal, perinatal, diet, environmental toxins can all change our biology and make us more likely to
engage in antisocial behaviour
o Lead exposure – cumulative effect

Evolutionary Theories of Crime

Charles Darwin
 Species did not always exist in their current form, they evolved from ancestral species
 The evolutionary mechanism for this transformation was natural selection
Evolutionary Psychology
 Trying to map a universal human nature
 The environment is the programmer
 Selection pressures are recurring conditions in the ancestral environment that favoured certain traits
and thus promoted their eventual conversion into adaptations
 successful adaptations are housed in genetic makeup, so only way to be passed on is through genetics
 must first appear in genetic makeup by chance
 process takes a few thousand years
 evolutions may not be adaptive in contemporary times
Criticisms/Misconceptions of Evolutionary Psychology
1. we cannot change what happened in an ancestral environment, so why are we using the theories to
solve current problems?
o Evolution has designed us to be highly flexible/adaptive to our environment
2. Evolutionary theory is flawed because it legitimizes aggression/violence
o Just because it is studied, does not mean it is condoned
3. Assumes individuals consciously decide to act a certain way
o Only true drivers of evolutionary adaptations are automatic – genes, culture, ecological

Methodology
How is evolutionary research conducted?
 Psychologist would look for explanation and explore behaviour as serving an adaptive function in an
ancestral environment
Evolution and crime: What do we know?
 Evolutionists: recurring conflict (resources) drove the selection pressures that shade evolutionary
adaptations, manifesting wide range of antisocial behaviours including violent and non-violent offences
Life History theory and antisocial behaviour
 Always trade-off for cost-benefit associated with each activity
 When resources are scarce, ancestors may put themselves in harms way to attract/keep mate, when
threat is not present, behaviour is likely to result in criminal involvement
  Childhoods with chaos and unpredictability—more likely to engage in aggression, delinquency, crime
later in life
Psychopathy
 Pathway to psychopathy can be explained through evolutionary framework – principle of frequency
dependent theory
o Natural selection needs diversity in population
o Reproductive success depends on frequency in population – too common means it is no longer
adaptive
o Strategy to manipulate someone into dependency can only happen if uncommon, and there are
people who are able to be manipulated
o This is a controversial theory that need more investigation
Homicide
 Most homicides occur as result of altercations
 Usually unmarried and unemployed
 Daly and Wilson
o Man’s reputations depend on maintenance of credible threat of violence
o Homicide perpetrators may actually be responding to perceived reputational/status threats
Female-Perpetrated Crime
 Risky behaviours may be naturally selected for reproductive success in certain environments
 Resource scarcity drives property/violent offending in women
 Rewards/costs for mating efforts are different in men and women (impossible for women to be able to
produce as many offspring as men)
 Offspring survival is not nearly as dependent on men as it is on women

Learning Objectives
1. Describe the range of biological explanations of crime, including genetics, neurochemistry, hormones,
psychophysiology, and more
Genetics – child can inherit traits/disorders that contribute to criminal behaviour
Neurochemistry – mood disorders are created by deficits in certain neurotransmitters & can affect behaviour
Behavioural genetics researchers might employ trin methodology to ask whether identical twins are more
likely to commit crimes than non-identical twins
Molecular biologists might compare the genetic makeup of a group of “criminals” to one of “non-criminals” to
look for distinct genetic differences between the two

2. Explain the basic principles of evolutionary psychology and demonstrate how these principles are used
to understand crime in general as well as specific forms of crime and specific types of criminal
behaviours
In contrast, ultimate, or more distal explanation as question about function and adaptation for an entire
species. This level of analysis asks questions such as “why did humans develop the capacity for speech,
emotion, or aggression?”
Ultimate explanations focus on identifying the evolutionary function of behaviours that contribute to the
survival of individuals.
Darwin made 2 critical points:
 Species did not always exist in their current form but evolved from ancestral species
 The evolutionary mechanism for this transformation was natural selection
Evolutionary scientists are trying to map a universal human nature
 3. Demonstrate that biological and evolutionary theories of crime are as much about the environment as
they are about biology and evolution
Evolution – natural selection
Biological – environment and evolution are synonymous due to some risk factors being learned as a means of
survival
4. Demonstrate that biological and evolutionary explanations are not incompatible with traditional
theories of crime, but rather complementary.
Social learning theory – all relate to cognitive behaviour and the social learning theory relies on learned and
rewarded behaviours (behaviours that have kept the individual alive)

Summary
1. Biological/evolutionary explanations of crime underscore the importance of the environment.
Environmental insults (e.g., a mother who drinks during pregnancy) change the biological makeup of an
individual such that he or she is now predisposed to a future criminal lifestyle. Evolutionary
mechanisms were shaped by the environment, albeit a distant one. Evolution itself has shaped our
minds such that they adapt and change to current environmental cues. The theory of evolution has
more in common with environmental theories such as social learning (discussed in Chapter 3) than one
might think. The only difference is that evolution focuses on the learning environment of the entire
species whereas social learning theories focus on the learning environment of an individual.
2. It is a myth that evolutionary accounts of crime contradict traditional theories. Evolutionary
perspectives simply focus on providing ultimate explanations, while traditional criminological theories
focus on more proximate explanations. The perspectives tend to complement rather than contradict
one another. When theories do diverge, it indicates that one perspective is incorrect.
3. This chapter has shown that research unequivocally supports the influence of genetics on criminality. It
has also demonstrated that the path to crime is complex and that a number of biological subsystems
interact with one another to increase risk of future criminality, with the environment greatly
influencing whether certain biological predispositions will manifest.
4. Evolution is uncontested in scientific circles. However, evolutionary psychology, in particular
evolutionary forensic psychology, is in its infancy.
5. The link between evolutionary and biological explanations of crime is a natural one. In the evolution
section, we focused on psychological mechanisms that have evolved in response to ancestral selection
pressures. This does not negate the existence of evolved biological mechanisms such as those reviewed
in the first part of the chapter.

Discussion Questions
Identify your favourite explanation of crime. Now put it to the test. What kind of a grade does it get with
respect to the criteria reviewed at the beginning of this chapter (what makes a strong theory)? What
challenges did you face while you were doing this task? What additional information would have made your
task easier?

Does society hold a more deterministic view of biological/evolutionary explanations of crime versus
sociological explanations (i.e., if the cause is in your genes, we can’t fix it, but if the cause is in the environment
we can)? If so, how can we change current thinking?

What is the implication of the MAOA findings for females? Recall that the MAOA is X-linked. Does this mean
that females might have built-in resiliency against aggression and crime? If so, why?
Based on evolutionary principles, what predictions would you make about how human behaviour will change
over the next 1000 generations? What are the selection pressures in contemporary society? How are they
shaping our species’ collective future reproductive success?