UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL & VOCATIONAL

EDUCATION REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

ELECTRONICS I
I
COURSE CODE: EEC234

YEAR II- SEMESTER III

PRACTICAL

Version 1: December 2008

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Department Electrical Engineering Technology
Subject Electronics II
Year 2

Semester III

Course Code EEC 234

Credit Hours 4

Theoretical 1

Practical 3

Week 1
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (FET) STATIC CHARACTERISTIC IN COMMON SOURCE
CONFIGURATTION

Week 2
DISCUSSION ON THE RESULT AND ANALYSIS OF FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (FET) STATIC
CHARACTERISTIC IN COMMON SOURCE CONFIGURATION

Week 3
COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER CHARACTERISTIC
Week 4
DISCUSSION ON THE RESULT AND ANALYSIS OF COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER
Week 5
COMMON BASE AMPLIFIER

Week 6
DISCUSSION ON THE RESULT AND ANALYSIS OF COMMON BASE AAMPLIFIER
Week 7
COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER (EMITTER FOLLOWER) CHARACTERISTIC

Week 8
 DISCUSSION ON THE RESULT AND ANALYSIS OF THE COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER
CHARACTERISTIC
Week 9
FRQUENCY RESPONSE CHARACTERISTIC OF A COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER

Week 10
DISCUSSION ON THE RESULT OF THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE CHARACTERISTIC OF THE
COMMOM EMITTER AMPLIFIER
Week 11
COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER IMPEDANCE,POWER AND PHASE RELATIONSHIP
Week 12
DISCUSSION ON THE RESULT OF THE COMMON EMMITER AMPLIFIER IMPEDANCE, POWER
AND PHASE RELATIONSHIP
Week 13
TRANSFORMER COUPLED CLASS A AMPLIFIER
Week 14
DISCUSSION ON THE RESULT AND ANALYSIS FOR THE TRANSFORMER COUPLED CLASS A
AMPLIFIER
Week 15
TRANSFORMER COUPLED CLASS B AMPLIFIER
 1
PZgIQ €PyICy 3QANSIS7OR (Ifl7) SVAYIC CHARAC¥'E¥IS’I¥CS
0 CO’MMO¥ SOOCE CONFIGURATION
tion transistors. In this experiment we shall concern oursel-
ves maialy with the N- channel JFET only.
1. Toinvestigatethe staticoutput(drain) characteristics
of junction field effect Transistor (JFET) int£e com- In the FET the drsin corresponds to the collector of a bi-
mon-source configuration. polar transistor, the soatce to the emitter, and the date to the
6ue. The major operational ‹difference is that the drain
2. To investigate the transfer characteristics of JFET. current (ID) 8 the JFET is controlled by gate-to-source
voltage(VGS),whereas collector current inthebi-polartran-
sistor is controlled by base current.
Like the bi-polar junction transistor, the FET has
three electrodes, namely: the date (G), soume (S), and Fig. 5.2 shows the bias arrangement for an N-channelJFET.
drain (D). FETs are made in various forms. The Here, plc notice that the gate G is reverse-biased relative to
construction and sym- bolof the junction FET (JFET) the source while the drain is forward-biased relatire to the
type are show in Fig. 5.1 SOMCg.

Drain (D)

Depletion. Channel
region

G(G)
VDD

(a) Construction
Vcs

Fig. 52: The bias armngement for an N-channel JFET.

Tbe channel is a resistive patb through wbicb voltage *as

can drive a current D
Vcs If a battery +nD is connected across the channel, Ltd the
(b)Symbol polarity shown, the negative - charge carriers (electrons) in
Fig. 5.1: the N channel move toward the positive termini of tâe
battery, and electrons from tfie negative ternind of the
JFET battery move through the source into tfie N channel to
replace those that vacated the drain. In this way, current
The fF£T bas two forms namely: N-channel and P-Channel the circuit will continue as long as the circuit is complete. In
types, v6icâ we analogous to PNP and NPN bi-polar junc-
 this way, a limited control of current is possible by varying As shown in Fig. 5.3(a), the pinch-off voltage Vp is the
V
- D voltage value at which ID no longer increases with
increased VDs probably until Vos(tax)is reached. Fig,
The drain current Ip is controlled essentially by varying a SP(b) show the family of drain characteristics for different
reverse-biased voltage Vcs Increase in the negative value values of Yes.
of
Vcs has the effect of widening the depletion region in the Each output (drain) characteristic can broadly be tub-
channel (see Fig. 5.2 above) and blocking the channel and divided into four regions, as clearly marked in Fig.
5.3(a). [Link] decreases. These are, namely:
If the gate is connected directly to the source (Vcs = 0). D (i) the resistive region, where YDs Vp (region I)
will rise graduallyto the maximum value of Ipy ast6e drain-
sowce voltage ( Ds) increases to the pinch-off voltage, (ii) Onset of pinch-off, where +Ds = Vp. (region II)
Vp.
ID (iii) Pinch-off region, where VDs > Vp (region III)
(iv) break-down region (region IV).
VGS = 0V
From the drain characteristic curves, it is possible to deter-
mine the following parameters of JFET:
(i) drain (or output) resistance,

(Oluos) for VGS = coast. (fed) (S.1)

AVns
Vns for ID = const. (fixed) (5.2)

Vm(ma)

(a) Output (drain) characteristics of JFET when VGA = (iii) mutual conductance,
OV.
for VDs = const. (fixed) (SJ)
g- BAGS(Sieaeas)
Note that gp can also be determined directly from the trans-
s ” fer characteristic discussed below.
The transfer characteristic which is a plot of ID versusVGA
for a constant value of Yes› is shown in Fig. 5.4. This curry
D can be plotted also by using the same experimental circuit of
Fig. 5.5 used for plotting the drain characteristics. In tku
case however, VDSi keptat some constant value while Ypt
2-- C SGS - -1.0V is varied, and I D » measured. When the resultsare plotted
they will resemble what we have in Fig. 5.4.
i Alternatively, we can select a value of VDS (Sity, VDS -
A Vcs --2.0V
+6V) on the drain characteristics (Fig 5.3(b)) and draw i
4 6 line vertically upward to intercept the drain characteristic
z vr s 10 20
curves at points A,B,C,D and E. The next step is then tc
(b) Pamily of output (drain) characteristics of n-channel determine the corresponding value of ID and VGS at th
JFET. points A,B,C,D and E to plot the transfer curve from th
family of drain characteristic curves. The corresponding
Flg. $3: Ouput characterlstit currts of JFET values of *GS and Ip, read from the drain characteristic
 DSS and that D 0, when VpJ = Yp as seen on the transfer
characteristic curve of Fig. 5.4.

VDs + 6V References
Boylestad, R and Nashelsky; L. Electronic Devices and Cir-
cuit Theory. Prentice - Hall, 4th Edition, New Jersey, 1987,
pp. 388 - 390.
Lurch, E. N. Fundamentals of Electronics, 3rd Edition, John
Wiley, New York, 1981, pp. 213 - 220.

3 -2 - 0
'f v,“ Linear potentiometers - 500f2, 2.5kf2 and 5kf2 (1 each)
JFET, 2N38l9 or any other suitable n-channel JFET (e.g.
Flg. 5.4: JFET transfer characteristic (n<hannel) 2N5484, or equi dent)

curves serve as the coordinates of points on the ID versus

VGs*urve. Stabilised (dual) power supply unit 0-30V d.c., FAR-
NELL type LT 30-1 or equivalent.
Two important points on the transfer characteristic curve D.C. milliameters (1 No each) with ranges (0-2)mA; (0-
show in Fig, 5.4. are the values Ipss and Vp. When 5)mA; and (0-10)mA.
these points are fixed, the rest of the curve can be
obtained theoretically from the relation. D.C. voltmeters (lNo each) with ranges
2 (-10'V-0-(+ 10V); aad (0 - 30)V.
vGs
Ip = IDSS 1 - (3.4) Connection leads.
VD
which represents the transfer characteristic curve of Fig. 5.4.
Notice that from Equation (5.4) when Vcs 0, the ID

VDD = -1- UV
Ri 2N3819

0-30V

(-10 • 0 -10)V

Fig. SP: Circuit for investigatlng JFET characteristics

 fl8b/ b/i gB8\lf’4ttICBt9 0b éZ8itt tbBt'¥Ckfi9t!CS

' VGS,V -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 4J 0

(i) Connect the circuit of Fig. 5.5, and set RJ to give Ip, mA
and keep Ycs = 0.
(ii) Adjust Ri, R3 accordingly in order to set Ans - 0
initially. Next, increase Vps in step of lY, Using the results in Table 5.1, plot the drain clarac-
starting from 0V untd a maximum of 10V is teristic curres.
reached and measure the c0«ispondingID in each 2. Using the results in Table 5.2, plot the transfer câar-
case. Record your readings as slow in Table 5,1.
u.a. ii '< a‹°u«›a i» >‹ (a•s•a) d• •iza»••ae a
zazasxrz ip fit /5d rizre aad ix adsq«cu escs when §UP•5TI0B9
jssifire ro/xct«/F0sarr ix sts
*! (a) Froza your grapftsia step 1, estknate tbe ydye o(Yp,
(i?i) Repeat step (ii) for Pcs 60.W, u Pcs = IDSS*
+0SV separately.
{b) Obtaiareadings /or/D aad Ycsmole the drain c6ar-
(iv) Repeat step (ii) io turn for YGs = -0.W, -0.W acteristic curves for Vg = 10V. Use tbese resdts
and to plot tire transfer characteristic cure. How does
-0.7V.Uz02mA)fl. I rmmI0B MOD this plot compare Ntâ the one obtained in step
for,fixed vJ« Pcs - - 0.25V for Pcs -[Link] and 2?
Vcs - -0.75V, it is advisable to use (0-
1mA)d.c. milliammeter to measure If to (c) Froa tote grapb in step 1, deteroiac tb ovtpvt
ensure accurate measurnients. (6aia) resistaace at tote following poiats:
(i) VDS - 1V, VGS - + [Link]
(Y) IJsingths saae circuit ofFig. 5.5, setaad keep Vis (ii)
VDS = 8V, Vcs = + 0.25V
at 10V.
Compare your results and comment.
t (d) Froa the grapf› in step 1, detemiae
(fi) Pleasure aad record ia Tablc S.2 the values of ID lo
each value of Vcs 0V, -03V, -1.0V, [Link], -2.0V (i) the voltage gets of the JFET'f0r D
aad -2.W (ii) tbe zautizl coaducttoce o(tbe JFET for

7ablc 5.1: MzasurUocats oa éraia cbaractcrlstlcs (e) Determine this saac factual conductaacc froza the
g 3 )1 III 5(e &0d C0III§3fC }0\II' US\IN(5.

’D G9 - Q9 - CGI" G9- VGS ^ /G9^

+0.5V +0.25V +0V *0.15V *0.5V *0.7ST

io
WEEK 2
TITTLE:
DISCUSSION ON THE FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (FET) STATIC
CHARACTERISTIC IN COMMON SOURCE CONFIGURATTION

OBJECTIVES:

I. To determine the level of understanding in the students from the experiment conducted
II. To allow the Students express their feelings and observation with respect to the experiment
III. To have an interaction the lecturer concerned

REQUIREMENTS:

1. Writing materials such as pencils, biros, etc.

2. Student’s jottings i.e what the students must have jotted down during the experiment
3. Relate the experiment to theory thaught

PROCEDURES:

 The lecturer should start by given a general introduction of the discussion on the experiment
.
 A general summary of the pratical, mentioning what happened from the first point up to the last point of the
activities that took place during the experiment

 The lecturer should allow the students to give their on contribution base on their understanding.

 Finally, the students should be given chance ask questions, where the students will be asking question
associated with the experiment

ASSIGNMENT:
An assignment should be given to students to write report on experiment conducted, sharing their experience,
knowledge gained and observation.
 2

d.c. voltage at the collector relative to ground. VBE*

*•e voltage drop between the base, B and the emitter, E
1. To investigate the d.c. requéements of a cooanon - while CE is the voltage drop between the collector, C aad
emitter (CE) Amplifier for proper operation, the E emitter E. For proper functioning of a transistor
2. To investigate the a.c. characteristics of a CE amplifier, we expect DOfDlally theft DBE' (0.6 - 0.7)V
and Y =

If the d.c. supply vokage * . = 10V, then we expect V

= 5V. If these voltage values are maintained in the
ampli£ei cécuit, then the appropriate vdues of (quiescent)
d.c. base current (IB)and tlen (quiescent) d.c. collector
current (If)
For a traasistor azaplifier circuit to fraction correctly, :t will be aaiataized ia tbe circuit.
slould & properly fed Nt6 a d.c. voltage source. In
In a CE amplifier, If - Ip (IElS the d.c. emitter current).
other words, the circuit must be correctly blased. This
means that be base, emitter and the collector of the At this juncture it is necessary to state that useful
transistor in tire amplifier circuit must be at certain fomiuhe exist by which we can pre-determine the
voltage ‘values either relative to tle ground or relative to aforementioned (biasing) voltages, depending greatly on
one another. ow choice of com- ponents [Link], Rb and Rd. These
Consider the CE amplifier showa in Fig. 13.1, wherevoltage- formulae can be stated as f0ll0us:
divider biasing method is used, Quiescent dc base voltage, (potential dividing of V«by Ri
Y$isthe d.c. voltage at the base relative to the ground, Yp is & Ri)
the [Link] at the emitterrelativetogroundand V is the

Ri
C2

Ve

Rb“ CE
Fig. 13.1 circuit diagraza ofa CE amplifier.
 R2V$ Vo
RTR Vi
Ouiesceatde base emitter voltage, W C(C by- Y0ltJfl i Plitudeof the input signal and
Y - ampbto6o othe output s@pB.
BE- B- E (13.2)
Quiescent dc collector-emitter voltage,
Etc a/Chan yotogj@n

Y - Vt‹ — 5Rt — \Rp When Cp is not in circiiitt£e voltage gain A,of the amplifier
is drastically reduced because a phenomenon for as

Quiescent dc collector (or eo›itter) cMreat,

If point X and Y are connected, then Rc and Ri be in
I =1
(13.4) parallel although this may not appear obvious ualess an a.c.
equivalent circuit diagram is provided.
If V is thc output voltage when RLi unconnected, then
(13.J)
the output voltage becomes wlten RL'sconnected and
2
RLiS
Here, the word‘quiescent’ refers to d.c. voltage and current made equal to Rc =agaitude(i.e. if Rd Rd).
measurements before any input a.c. signal is applied to the
aniplifier, Dist«ned ooh
In this experiment, we shall compare calculated and Sea a particdar love) (amplitude) of tbe iapyt sigad is
measured values of those voltages specified ia Equations exceeded, a distorted output sigaal is produced wI›icb
(I3.1-t3J) is uadesizable.
A,C. C£cractcztetlcs
The a.c. characteristics of the CE amplifier which we shall
consider are tle fo$o g:
o voltage gain A of the amplifier. (voltage gain is t)ie
ratio of the amplitude of the output signal voltage, Vo
over the amplitude of the applied input signal voltage
Vi)
o effect of emitter capacitor, Cp on voltage gain.
o edect of external load RLon voltage gain.
o effect of the magnitude of applied input signal on tbe
(distorted) output signal,
o phase relationship between the input - and output -sigad
Y0)(3ggS.

Ideally, we expect the following characteristics with respect

to the amplifier circuit in Fig. 13.1.

For aa undistortcd output sipial the voltage gain of the 180a

amplifier is defined as: Fig.l32: not-orphan relationship beHecn Y; and
At mid-frequencies within the audio frequency range, the PROCSDURfi
aqu épul i iaP out of p#ase with the i°put sig°d ai
yudiatedâ Yg, jyy, D.C. Meaaurtm0nts.
gyp p (i)
Connect the circuit shown in Fig 13.3 and set Vp =
10V. Using a digital voltmeter or AVO meter,
Zbar, P.B. £‹ ie Electronics,’ A Text - Lab Manual, 19th measure +B Vb dBd V‹ 8t QO ts B,E, aad C
respec- Edition, Mc. Graw-Hill, New York,1976, pp. 98 - 102. tively. Measure V«also.

o NPN transistor type BC 107 or equivalent.

e Resistors 4.7kEI (2 Nos), 3.bk0 , 3b10 , a»d 36 i (all
MW - rated).
o Capacitors 22pF (2Nos)
o Connection lead.
(it) Coaaect Cg in tbe circuit but leave out RL »\It of
q$gp$ circuit.
t Stabilised d.c. power supply unit. FARNELL type LT30- (ml) Apply a 20inV p-p sine wave at 1 KHZ to the input
1 (0 - 30V) or equivalent. terminals of the amplifier. Measure the correspond-
s Sine/Square oscillator. FARNELL type LF-1 0-1 MHZ ag (uadistortsd) output signd, V usiag aa osciJJo-
or equivdent.
o Oscilloscope. Gould OS 255. (0-15) MHZ or equivalent. 0 0 â •
o Digital voltmeter or AVO-meter. (iv) Disconnect Ce from the circuit and repeat step 5.3.
(x) Coaagct Csback to the circuit.
$ + V« = 10V

Rl 56it

C1 22,aF
BC107
2#P

5.61

0Y

Wgl33:I'wMeBdmd‹ifsCEamplfes
 ’f'able 13.1: DC calculated Anti iacnsured values

(ñ ) Coaaect RL t6g ClfCUit byjokdng poiats X had Y Yg(yolt) Vy(bolt) Vc(volt)Ie(»A/

with a coaaection cable aad repeat step (iii).
Cdculated
(vii) Now disconnect Rd frooi tbe circuit. Measured
To obtain the measured Ic, use the measured VU
d the measured Vc
(viii)Increase gradually the amplitude of the input sink Equation (13.5)
wave from 20mV p-p unti) a distorted output signd is
noticed on the screen of the oscilloscope (CRO). A,C. Neas«remeats
Measure and record the aniphtude of the input sine
wave when the distortion just occurs. Sletch the 2. Record all your results in steps (iii), (iv) and (fi).
waveform of the distorted output signd.
’3. Profide properly labelled sketches required ia steps
(ix) Reduc'e the input signd level back to 20mV p-p and viii) a»d (x).
notice that the distortion disappears.
gUZ5TIOXG
(a) What effect does the change ofRi and Rt have on
5.10 Keep the input signal of 20inV p-p at 1KHz'and set the Erasing voltages of the amplifier?
up the coiuiection thou in Fig. 13,4 in order to
monitor both the input arid output sigoals (b) has capacitor Cp any effect on the biasing of the
simultaneously on the CRO. Draw to scale the amplifier? Giyg your feason? Wky is it desizablg
input and output waveforms observed on the to connect CE across REV
CRO.
What effect All a clangs of Vrr have on the operation
of the amplifier ill Fig. 13.3?

(d) What, in your opinion, tan cause a distorted otitput

signal if the applied input signal is undistorted?

Fig.13.4: Clrcult dlagraoi to demonstrate phase

relationsiilp between input and output signals

R£SULT ANALYSIS

\. D.C. talculate4 ané measured values.

Using the formulae listed in Equation 13:1 - 13.5 and
component values of resistors Ri, Rz, Rc andRE
given in Fig. 13.3, determineGB, Vp and Vc, (assume
TCE - +iV‹r for your calculation). Fill in
these results into Table 13.1as indicated below.
WEEK 4
TITTLE
DISCUSSION ON THE COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER CHARACTERISTIC

OBJECTIVES:
IV. To determine the level of understanding in the students from the experiment conducted
V. To allow the Students express their feelings and observation with respect to the experiment
VI. To have an interaction the lecturer concerned

REQUIREMENTS:

4. Writing materials such as pencils, biros, etc.

5. Student’s jottings i.e what the students must have jotted down during the experiment
6. Relate the experiment to theory thaught

PROCEDURES:

 The lecturer should start by given a general introduction of the discussion on the experiment
.
 A general summary of the pratical, mentioning what happened from the first point up to the last point of the
activities that took place during the experiment

 The lecturer should allow the students to give their on contribution base on their understanding.

 Finally, the students should be given chance ask questions, where the students will be asking question
associated with the experiment

ASSIGNMENT:
An assignment should be given to students to write report on the experiment sharing their experience, knowledge
gained and observation.
 3
GOMMOH • &AGE AMPLIFIER

1. To investigate the voltage gain of a common-base

(CB) amplifier.
2. To investigate the input and output impedance of
the CB amplifier,

BACKGROUND INPORHATION
The most primitive form of the CB transistor amplifier cir-
cuit has Wo power supply facilities such as that show in
Fig. 17.1(a).
The‘modern' torm of the CB amplifier looks like a
modified common - emitter (CE) amplifier circuit
shown in Fig. 17.1(b). In fact, a common - base amplifier
configuration (i.e earthed base for a.c signals) is obtained
from a common - emitter amplifier circuit just by
connecting a capacitor (C,) between the base and the earth.
Besides, the input terminal of theNcuit is now between the
emitter and the earth.
It should be noted that a NPN - transistor could be used.

r»’
CI
instead of the PNP transistor in Fig.17.1(a) and (b).
Cx
In general the CB amplifier is characterised by very
low input impedance, high voltage gain, and output
impedance. With reference to Fig. 17.1(b), the output
impedance of the amplifier is approximately equal to its
load resistance (Rt), This result is due to the fact that the (s)
output resistance of the
transistor is high compared with R,.
Fig. 17.1: Common•base amplifier circuits.
In this experiment we shall investigate all the
aforemen- tionedproperties of the CB amplifier at some Boylestad R. & Nashels , L. Electronic Devices and Cimuit
randomly fixed audio frequencies. iJtcoy. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1987, pp. 345 - 348.
The procedure which will be adopted in measuring the
input and output impedances is the same as that
described in detail, in Experiment 15. Components
Reference o PNP transistor AC 128 or equivalent
o Resistors 1.2kf2, 2.2kf2, 15kf2, 33kD (all MW)
Experiment 15
o Capacitors 2.5yF, 10yF and 47yF (all electrolytic)*
Havill, R.L. & Walton, A,K, ñ/eiiieitts of Electronics for
Physical Scientist. ELBS & Macmillan, London, 1975, pp. 82 • Potentiometers (externally connected) 100f2, Sidi f2and
- 85. stO (I linear type). OR Resistance Decade Box
 V = -10V

2.2k
Ri
Ct

AC 128

Ci
B

47¿iF

Fig. 17a: Practical circuit diagram of a CB amplifier.

gqulpment loscope) the resulting output signal (to) across AG.

o Stabilised d.c. Power Supply unit, FARNELL Type Record your result as shown in Table 17,1
LT-
Repeat step (iii) for input signal of the same
30-1 0-30V or equivalent
amplitude at lkHz and 10kHZ. Obtain tbe cor-
« Signal generator FARNELL, Type LF-1 10Hz-1 MHz responding output signal, Vp at each frequency.
- or equivalent. Record yollf results.
o fi)sci1loscope GOULD. Type 05 255 0-15 MHz or Iztpzzt
equivalent.
+ Connection leads. (v)
Without R in circuit meanwhile (i.e short-circuit
PROCEDURE points X and Y), apply (Vi) a 20mV p-p, 500HZ sink
wave across BG. Measure and record the
Voltage gain amplitude of the signal (Vi) across YG.
(«) Remove the connection lead between X and Y, (R is
(j now in circuit)
connect the circuit shown in Fig. 17.2. Switch on the
power supply unit and set it to Vat = -10V. None As you apply the 20mY p-p, 500HZ sine wave
of the potentiometers should, yet be connected in (u before) vary R, gently and monitor the line
the circuit. Link up points X and Y with a wave V' on the CRO. Stop varying R when the
connection had, amplitude of V'i is exactly one half of Vi. R is then
removed from the circuit and its resistance value
(*) Connect the signal generator to the mains supply and is measured. Record yow result as shown in Table
switch it [Link] it to produce a 20 mVp-p, 500HZsine 17.2.
wave. Use the oscilloscope to checl this signal ensur- N.B.
ing that it is undistorted. the CB amplifier.)
Apply (Vs) the 20 mV p-p , 500HZ sine wave across
the input terminds BG and measllfe (using the oscil-
 (vii) Repeat steps (s) an6 fi), EU the frequency ot the 2. Retord the measured input and output impedances
input signal changed to lKHz and 10KHz. Record as shown in Table 17.2:
your results as before,
Table 17a: Relationship between input and output
(riii) Remove R finally from the circuit, and link up points impedance with frequency.
X and Y with a connection lead.
Frequency
500lIz l kHz l0kHz
(ix) Apply a 20mV p-p,500HZsinewaveacross the input Input
terminals BG, and measure the output signd Vo izapedance
without the load Ry IB ClfCllit initially. ( (Obms)
N.B. Make cure that the mp I signal produced is uwd'ui- Input
iortef, otherw’we rHucethe amplitude ofdie iuyut siyuil unpedance
uufil I/iz 4/sforñân d"zsappeazs.) (Z (Oluns)

Next, connect the 5k£1 - potentiometer (Ry) in

3. From your results instep 2, arc yen convincedthattht
cirtuit across terminals AG and vary Ry ntil a new
input impedance of the CB amplifier is low at all the
output signal equal to one hNJin aptitude) of vz
frequencies considered? Comment.
’c ob- tained.
The potentiometer Ry is ihem r‹nnovedficm the 4. Are your measured values of R significantly different
cir- cuit and its resistance value is measured. frown the values of Re (collector resistance)?
The measured value in Ohms equals the Coa- ment.
output im- pedanC Zo of the amplifier. Record gSSSTIOWG
your result as show in Table 17.2
(a) State the major differences between the
(x) Repeat step(ix) withthefrequeacyofthe input signal circuit diagrams of a CE amplifier (with voltage-
changed to lKHz and 10KHz. Record your results as divider bias- ing) and the CB amplifier in Fig. 17.1
before. (b).
(xi) Switch off the power supply unit and disconnect the If a NPN -transistor were used in Fig. 17.2, what other
modification would you expect in the circuit to ensure
its proper operation.
b)

RE8ULT ANALYSIS
(c) State one area of application of a CB amplifier.
1. Record the data for the voltage gain as shown in
Table
17.1.
Table 17.1: Relationship beWeen voltage gain and

(mV)
Vo
(mV)
Yoltage gain
 WEEK 6
TITTLE:
DISCUSSION ON THE RESULT AND ANALYSIS OF
COMMON BASE AMPLIFIER
OBJECTIVES:
VII. To determine the level of understanding in the students from the experiment conducted
VIII. To allow the Students express their feelings and observation with respect to the experiment
IX. To have an interaction the lecturer concerned

REQUIREMENTS:
7. Writing materials such as pencils, biros, etc.
8. Student’s jottings i.e what the students must have jotted down during the experiment
9. Relate the experiment to theory thaught

PROCEDURES:
 The lecturer should start by given a general introduction of the discussion on the experiment
.
 A general summary of the pratical, mentioning what happened from the first point up to the last point of the
activities that took place during the experiment

 The lecturer should allow the students to give their on contribution base on their understanding.

 Finally, the students should be given chance ask questions, where the students will be asking question
associated with the experiment

ASSIGNMENT:
An assignment should be given to students to write report on experiment conducted, sharing their experience,
knowledge gained and observation.
 coxxox. cozzzmo*nxrizcrsnpxzwzn*o**OOn)

'"’ its voltage gain is approximately unity, i.e.

1. To measure the input and output impedances of a ,
common - collector (CC) amplifier or emitter fol-
lower. (iii) its power gain is much greater than unity.
• 2. To measure the voltage gain of tbe emitter follower. (iv) it exhibits no phase difference between the input
3. and output signals.
To measure the power gain ot the emitter follower.
4. It is generally known that, for a common•collector
To observe the phase relationship between the input
amplifier the input impedañ ce is usually hundreds of
and output signal voltages in the emitter follower.
kiloOhms (typi- cally 100kD - 500kCi) while the output
BACKGROUND INPOR tATION impedance is tens of ohms (typically 10a - 90Ct).

The common - collector amplifier or emitter follower under N.B. Readers are hereby remindedthatthe techniques used for
consideration is a transistor amplifier in which the output measuring input and output impedante already d’is’•
is taken from the emitted rather than from the cwsed in Experiment 15 will also be employed in
this experiment. Therefore, readers may vish to rev’is'e
collector, as slows in Fig. 16.1.
them.

For completeness we state without proof the formulae

for obtaining certain parameters of the emitter follower.

Input Impedance, Z,.

With reference to Fig. 16.1, the input impedance Z; of the
amplifier is determined as the parallel combination of RB
Ci
and Zt,.
i.e. Zi = Rg | | 2t, (16.1)
“ Vo

( ie› fe dre parameters of the transistor used in the circuit)

and Zb is the input impedance of the transistor in
Fig. 16.1: Clreult diagram ofa common -
common- collector configuration). We note that in
tiillector
practice, ht » > 1
amplifier or emitter follower
ilnd feRE > hie•

The emitter follower has,some important properties which In that case, Zb = httRE
can be summarised as follows:
Output Impedance, z,
(i) its input impedance is high while its output im-
pedance is low. (Tltis impedance characteristic of The output impeda c of the amplifier, is determine‹I
the amplifier makes it useful for impedance - as the parallel combination of Rp and @
matching applications).
 o Stabilised power supplyunit, FARNELL Type LT 30-1
(0 - 30Y) or equivalent.
fe ie› therefore the resistance Z, is usually quite
smali. Consequently, @ drops well below the value of Rp. 0 Oscilloscope. GOULD TJpe OS 255. 15 MHZ range or
equivalent,
Voltage gain, As o Conllection lead.
The voltage gain of the emitter follower is giYen as:
PROCBDURfi
Vo RE
v ' RE +
'
(i) Connect thg circuit shown in Fig. 16.2 with &ts, A
and B linked by a connection lead. Set Vct to + 10V.
As we mentioned above, Z« = anh it is usually (
::) Set the signal generator to produce a 2V p-p, 1
quite small. Therefore, Av can be assumed approximately sinusoidal signal (Vi) measured across terminal BX.
equal to unity if we take Rp > > J. Consequently, Ag is
just close to unity, Use the oscilloscope (CRO) for your mcilSllfflm0llt
of Vi. Move the CRO probes to measure output
The power gain may be calculated from the experimentally Vo across YX. Record your readings shown as in
determined values of input impedance Zi, output impedance Table 16.1.
@, input signd voltage [Link] the corresponding
output voltage, V . Thus: (iii) Repeat step (ñ ) for frequency Vi Set to, IOKHZ
and 100 KHZ. Later, removc the connection lead
across points A and B.
P; (power in) =
Input Impedance
V0
(powerout)) = (iv) Connect the 1- Mfl potentiometer between pouils A
and B, and set it initially to zero resistance.
Set the signal generator to produce a 2V p-p, 1 KHZ
Power gain = (16.4) (’) sinusoidd signd (Vi) across BX. Measure with CRO.

References (vi) With the CRO connected across BX, ittcrease slowly
Havill, R.L & Walton, A.R Elements ofElectronits for the resistance of the 1-MW input potentiometer until
Physi- cal Scientists. ELBS, London, 1978 Up. 82- 85. the input voltage at tlje input to the amplifier) across
BX is 1V p-p. (just one-hall’ the previous value).
Boylestad, R & Nashekky, L. Electronic Devices and Circuit (*)
R«oy. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1987, pp. 340 - 345.
Remove the potentiometer immediately from the cé-
cuit, measure its resistance, and record it as the value
xnrzeiaie eegumsn of J.
(viii) Remove the potentiometer from the circuit and link
Components points A and B with a connection lead.
o NPN transistor BC 107 or equiralent (ix) Set the signal generator to produce a 1-K1-IZ
o Resistors 4,?kf2, 1 Mfg (all /-W) sinusoidal signd (V,).

o Potentiometers (linear) lMCi, 500f) R.B You are freeto choose lhe amplitude of Yi. However, ytu
should ensure lhut it doe›' not lead to «
o Capacitors (electrolytic) 4.7pF, 10yF. undistortrâ output signal,from the amplifur).
Measure the niiJpuf voltage Yq usingthe CRO.
 Ci
BC 107

Ct
4.7jiF

4.7k

Flg.162: Practical clrcult flagrant of an emitRr • follower

'J Connect a 560-O potentiometer across the output

teraiiiiab YX and adjust it untf it gires an output 2. Record the measured value of the inputimpeda ce at
voltage just one - hdf the pieriousvalue (i.e V$2). If IKHz.
clip iagor dts*tortiooresults,use a szaaJler aaiplituds 3, Record the measured value of tk oatpat impe&nu
of iztpvt sigad aad repeat tke expeñaeat. at 1 KHz.
Reaove the poteatiooieter froza tke circuit zaeasure
its resis- tance aad record the yaIye aslJzs oytput 4. (a) If we assume that for the transistor BC IN
used in Flg. 16.2 hie- 1.5k I and h(# "
izopedaace, 1t0, compute Zi and using the formulae
given by Equations 16.1 & 16.2 respectively,
Pkase zelatloaeblp bet 'eea Yi aa4 Yo. (b) Cozapare your ‹ssults itb tbe acasyrcd
values ia steps 2 a«d3.
(xi) Repeat step (§),but aoaitor tks iaput sigaal(Yj)
and output tigaal(V«) simultaneouslyon aDouble - 5, Compute the power gain of the emitter - follower
chan- nel CRO. Observe and draw the two tismg JQtidtioh 1b.4. FOf OUf C0II1}3tlt (i0B, Sg t)1C
waveforms ob- tained on the CRO. voltage gain at lKHz from Table 16.1; Z;and Zo Tom
steps 2 d3 respectively.
“B£EULT YGIS
1. Fill in the data as appropriate in Table 16.1 belt, 6. Draw the waveforifl5 Hi dlld Obtained Step (xi).
Deduce the phase relatioaslup you notice beWcen
them.
Frequent Frequent Frequency gUS8TION8
IKHz 10 KHz 100 KHz
V, (a) Is the voltage gain o{the emitter follower frequency-
2 2 2
( @) dependent? If yes, state your reasons.
v0 (b) How will the resétance value of REin Fig. 16. 2affect
(volt) the input impedance (resistance) of the circuit.
’0
*i II Draw the waveforms you would expect to see on tâc
CR0 'J the UI $ (Vi)and OULD\It M@ ( o)
were 180' out of phase.
 WEEK 8
TITTLE
DISCUSSION ON THE RESULT AND ANALYSIS OF THE COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER
CHARACTERISTIC

OBJECTIVES:

X. To determine the level of understanding in the students from the experiment conducted
XI. To allow the Students express their feelings and observation with respect to the experiment
XII. To have an interaction the lecturer concerned

REQUIREMENTS:

10. Writing materials such as pencils, biros, etc.

11. Student’s jottings i.e what the students must have jotted down during the experiment
12. Relate the experiment to theory thought

PROCEDURES:

 The lecturer should start by given a general introduction of the discussion on the experiment
.
 A general summary of the practical, mentioning what happened from the first point up to the last point of
the activities that took place during the experiment

 The lecturer should allow the students to give their on contribution base on their understanding.

 Finally, the students should be given chance ask questions, where the students will be asking question
associated with the experiment

ASSIGNMENT:
An assignment should be given to students to write report on experiment conducted, sharing their experience,
knowledge gained and observation.
 4
ERE@UEHCT REGPOHfiE CHARATTEhIfiTIC OF A GO%%OY

20mV
At 1000Hz, gain = =4
1. To investigate the frequency response of a conaion
emitter (CE) amplifier. bmV
At 10,000Hg gain =3
2. To investigate a factor that affects the low-frequency = JmV
response of a CE amplifier. Thus, the voltage gain of an amplifier is frequency -
depen- dant.
[Link] INPORHATION
The frequency response of an amplifier is a plot of gain
One important characteristic of an amplifier is that it does versus frequency (at many frequency pcints). When these
not amplify an input signal equally at all frequencies. points are connected smoothly, we produce what is genera#y
For illustration, suppose a sinusoidal wave of a fixed known as the frequency response curve as shown in Fig. 14.1
aaipDtude, Vin (say, 5 mV peak - to - peak) is applied to Concerning the frequency response curve we take note of the
the input tcrninds of the amplifier but at three different following:
fre- quencies (say, 200 Hz, 1000 Hz and 10, 000 Hz). Then
the resulting output sinusoidal signd might have (i) The gain •axis is usually expressed in Decibels (dB)
ampDtude (V ) say, 10mV, 20mV and 15mV respectively.
VO
Consequently, the voltage gains of the amplifier at those In other words, gain A dB = 20 l0gl0
frequencies are as follows:

V _ 10aV (ii) The frequency axisis always expressed in logarithm

At 2fDHz, gain =2 scale. This is so because the range of frequencies
= evolved in this type ot experiment is so mde that a
linear division of frequencies cannnt accommodate

gain A,
dB

3dB

bandwidth = (f2 - fi)

 all the frequencies involved. It is impossible to divide
linearly between l0Hz and ltD,0tDHz except by
the use of the logarithmic scale! There is a graph
paper kawn zs sent - log graph paper which is
suitable and commody used for plotting frequency
response cur- ves.
(ui) Am (dB) is the maximum gain level; it is always
mailed on the gain- axis. A drop by 3 d8 from Am
leads us to another gain level Anno. A straight
horizontal line through the gain level Anno cut the
frequency response curre at to points A and B. Fig. 143: Circuit diagram of a CE amplifier.
A vertical line fawn points A and B will intercept
tite frequency- axis at frcqucncie› I and f2 The shape of the high-frequency response region YB is
respectively. normally affected by parasitic capacitive elements of
The difference in value beWeen f2and ft is called the the nétwork and active device (transistor) or the frequency
bandwidth. (i.e. bandwidth = fi-fi). de- pendence of the gain of the active device,
The gain versus frequency characteristic can be determined
experimentally by using a sine-wave generator as the signal In this experiment, we shall concern ourselves with the effect
source and an oscilloscope for observing and measuring the of C, (tle coupling capacitor) only on the low-frequency
input and output signak. This arrangement is shown in Fig. response. In order to study theeffect we shalliavestigatetbe
14.2. frequency response of the amplifier with to different values
of Ct, as show in Fig. 14.4later.
.0stillosto

Sigñ al 8oylestad, R & Nashelsky, L. Electronic Devices and

GeneY8tofi
Cimuit f7ieoy, 4th Edition, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey ,
1987, pp. 456 - 475.
Amplifier

o HPN transistor BC 109 or equivalent

o itesistors 1k£i (2Nos), 5.6kf2, l0kf2 , 56k0 (all MW)
Flg 14d: Prnctlcal arrangetnenHor measuringamplifler
o Capacitors [Link], 22,uF (2 Nos), 80pF.

Now, we should expatiate on our earlier statement that the

gain of an amplifier is frequent dependent and identify o Signal Generator FEEDBACK FG GO1 (0-1 MHZ) or
frequency- dependent components in a single stage CE equivalent.
amplifier circuit which are res'ponsib1e fpr that charac- o Oscilloscope GOULD 0$ 255. (0-15 MHZ) or
terisuc. equivalent.
Let us consider the circuit diagram of the CE amplifier o Connection leads.
show in Fig 14.3.
PR0CP•DURE
Capacitors Cs. be and CE are the frequency - dependent
components which affect the low-frequency response. try can. uhe . :t.a>*.i.r.,.t4.4«itavs,e‹t,
In other words, they affect the shape of the frequency + 10V and C‹ = 22,uF (initially). *
response curve of F'y 14.1 only in the region XA.
(ii) Connect the signal generator and the oscilloscope to
the mains and switch them on.
 +V - IOV

11

l0k

Flg. 14.4: Practical circuit diagram of CE amplifer

(iii) 5et the signal generator to produce sine wave 2. With Cci - [Link], set up another Table similar
signal Vin — 10mV p-p (fixed) at 10Hz. Check the to Table 14.1
signal on the ORO in order to ensure that it is
actually sinusoidal and that its amplitud• is 10mV 3. Using data in Table 14.1, plot Jhe frequency response
p-p. curves on a single semilog graph paper, for CCz
= 22,uF and Cci = [Link].
(iv) Use the arrangement shown in Fig 14.2 to amplify
Vi» and measure the amplitude of the corresponding 4. Determine the bandwidth of the amplifier from the
out- put signfil Vo• RBcoid your result as shown in hequency response"éurves in steps 3 and 4.
Table 14.1.

() Repeat steps (iii) and (iv) at signal frequencies of 14

(a) What is meant by the "frequency response’ of an
Hz, 18Hz, 20 Hz, 24Hz, 30Hz, 50 Hz, 80Hz,
100Hz, 500Hz, IKHz, 5KHz, 10KHz, 50KHz,
100KHz, (b) Sketch the frequency response curve (s) you would
200KHz, 5fDKHz, 7fDKHz and lMHz. expect if th'e coupling capacitors Cci = ltfJoP.
(vi) Now, change Cc to [Link] and repeat steps (u) (vj. CC,
= UF and Cci = [Link] are used in turn ion 14.1.

1. With Cct = 2JF, fdl in the results in Table 14.1

Tsble 14.1: Frequency-response date

Frdquenc 10Hz 14Hz 100Hz 200Hz 500Hz IkIIz l0kHz l00kHz IMHz
vm (oV) 10 IN 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Vo{wV)

A = 20 logio
Vin
WEEK 10
TITTLE:
DISCUSSION ON THE RESULT OF THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE CHARACTERISTIC OF THE
COMMOM EMITTER AMPLIFIER

OBJECTIVES:

XIII. To determine the level of understanding in the students from the experiment conducted
XIV. To allow the Students express their feelings and observation with respect to the experiment
XV. To have an interaction the lecturer concerned

REQUIREMENTS:

13. Writing materials such as pencils, biros, etc.

14. Student’s jottings i.e what the students must have jotted down during the experiment
15. Relate the experiment to theory thought

PROCEDURES:

 The lecturer should start by given a general introduction of the discussion on the experiment
.
 A general summary of the pratical, mentioning what happened from the first point up to the last point of the
activities that took place during the experiment

 The lecturer should allow the students to give their on contribution base on their understanding.

 Finally, the students should be given chance ask questions, where the students will be asking question
associated with the experiment

ASSIGNMENT:
An assignment should be given to students to write report on experiment conducted, sharing their experience,
knowledge gained and observation.
5
first measured with no load. The rheostat load is
then connected as shown and adjusted until a new
output signal ’‹›ut is equal to one-half the original
measured value of i’‹›ut- out s then removed from
the circuit and its resistance measured. The mea-
sured value in ohms equals thc output impedance
Z„ of the 'amplifier.
In measuring the in put and output impedance
care must be taken to maintain an undistorted
input and output signal.

Power Gain
Fig. 16-2. Kirchhoff's voltage law applied to the output of
The power gain of an amplifier is the ratio of the CE amplifier states that 7‹ ‹ = i,. x P, + v„.
output- to input-signal power.
therefore decreases. As i,. decreases, the voltage
across R decreases, and r,.„ increases.
Power gain A numerical example will illustrate this princi-
ple. Assume P„ = 6 V, R, —— l00o n, and i, varies
Output and input power may be calculated
sinusoidally between 3 mA maximum and 1 mA
when the input- and output-signal voltages and
minimum. Assume 2 mA is the steady-state col-
imped- ances are known. Thus
lector current with zero base signal. The output-
signal voltage at the collector will vary from 3 to
( 16-4)
R‹iut 5 V as in Fig. I 6-3. It is evident that for an NPN
transistor i,. and v, are 180° out of phase.
R„ (16-5) For an N PN transistor as the input-signal
volt- age on the base r;, goes more positive,
Substituting the values of Poutand in ifl Eq. (l 6-3), collector current increases; as v; goes more
we have negative, col- lector current decreases. Hence,
in the circuit of Fig. 1 6-2, i, is in phase with v .
But we just es- tablished that v, (the output
Power gain = !*‹›u t
( 16—6)
signal) is 180° out of phase with i,. Hence v, is
180° out of phase with r,».
The power gain of an audio amplifier is usually The conclusion that v is 1 80° out of phase
given in decibels (dBL with v„ is equally true for a PN P CE amplifier.
It is possible to demonstrate this phase reversal
experimentally using an oscilloscope and a sine-
Power galfl (d B) — 10 log

Phase RelaGons
lt can be demonstrated that in the common-emitter
amplifier the output-signal voltage at the
collector v,. is 180° out of phase with the input-
signal voltage at the base •’in- Refer to the circuit
in Fig. 1 6-2. The output voltage v ., from the i (mA) 2|
collector to the
emitter twhich is at ground potential) will vary
in- versely with the collector current i,.. This rela-
tionship can be demonstrated by means of Eq.
( 16-8), which is an application of Kirchhoff's volt-
age raw to l‹*.<° O tpii /'r it . p
 470 n jutting P, un tit the voltage i ,. ucre s S A is
equal to i'„.
4. The out put impedance nut If ct C k amplifier
may be measured expei‘imentally by connecting
AUDIO a rheostat fi„„ IFJg. l 6- l b) as a variable load in
OSCILLATOR
TO AMPLIFIER the collector circuit. Struts adjusted u ntil the
IN PUT load vol tagC ’out equals one-half the no-load
voltage. The resistance of the rheostut then
eQuals the output impcdance ot’ the anaplifier.
5. The power gain of an amplifier is defined as

Power grtin

where R „ and nut tire the know n or

measured values of input and output
impcdance. respec- t ivel y. of the circuit.
6. The power gain of an amplifier is usu‹ill y stuled
in decibe1s t‹1B):

’out Power gain (d B) — l t4 log ' "'

lbs 7. 1 n a C E amplifier the out put-signal voltage at

the collector is 1 80° out of phase with the input-
Fig. 16-4. Diode rectifier with input and output waveforms. signal voltage at the base.

wave input with external sync/trigger as in preced- [Link]

ing experiments. It is also possible to determine Check your- understanding by answering these
experimentally the phase relationship between the questions.
input and output signals in a CE amplifier using I . I n Fig. l 6- 1 R ,. is adjusted until the voltage
the test circuit shown in Fig. l 6-4s. The diode U „, — U„, . To find the input impedance of the
rectifies the audio signal injected by the AF amplifier it is neces sary io measure the
generator. The
rectified waveform appearing across the 5000-f1 of
load is shown in Fig. 1 6-4b. This negative-going *. In dig. I 6- 1 , f'„ — 0.5 V,.q„ U , = 1 V,q„ and
waveform is now injected into the base of the R ,. — 1000 D. The input impedance of the
grounded-emitter amplifier. The output waveform amplfier is f1.
is then observed on an oscilloscope at the col- 3. The rms voltage measured at the collectoi of
lector. A 1 80° phase reversal will appear on the the amplifier in Fig. 1 6- 1 ri is 4.6 4' without
os- cilloscope as a signal reversal, that is, as a positi load. When a 250-0 load is connected act oss
ve- going waveform. The amplifier must not be the out pu i. the rms voltage measured at the
over- driven during this process. collector load is 2.3 V. The output impedance
of the circuit is II.
4. An oscilloscope. externall y li‘igSeied by the
SUMMARY output signal at the collector of Fig. 1 6- I and
1. The input impedance Z „ o R; of an amplifier connected to observe the input signal › „ , is ‹ad-
is defined as justed to show a sin31e sine wave, whose posi-
tive alternation leads the negative al1CI’nation.
R in
’in When the oscilloscope is connected ft om col-
lector to ground, the alternation of
where v„ is the signal voltage on the base and the sine wave observed on the scope le‹ids the
i „ is the signal currcnt in the base. alternation by deli ees.
2. N;, may be determine‹1 experimentally by 5. I f the rectified out put i „„ of Fig. 1 6-4 b is in-
mea- suring v; and i; and computing their jected into the input of Fig. 1 6- 1 n. the wave-
ratio. form observed with an oscilloscope at the col-
3. £;, may also be computed by inserting a rheo- lector will be a -going rectified si ygnal
stat ñ ,. in the base circuit as in Fig. l 6- 1, in- voltage.
jecting an audio sine wave into the base, and ad-

100 Basic Electronics

 WEEK 12

TITTLE
DISCUSSION ON THE RESULT OF THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE CHARACTERISTIC OF THE
COMMOM EMITTER AMPLIFIER

OBJECTIVES:
XVI. To determine the level of understanding in the students from the experiment conducted
XVII. To allow the Students express their feelings and observation with respect to the experiment
XVIII. To have an interaction the lecturer concerned

REQUIREMENTS:

16. Writing materials such as pencils, biros, etc.

17. Student’s jottings i.e what the students must have jotted down during the experiment
18. Relate the experiment to theory thought

PROCEDURES:
 The lecturer should start by given a general introduction of the discussion on the experiment
.
 A general summary of the pratical, mentioning what happened from the first point up to the last point of the
activities that took place during the experiment

 The lecturer should allow the students to give their on contribution base on their understanding.

 Finally, the students should be given chance ask questions, where the students will be asking question
associated with the experiment

ASSIGNMENT:
An assignment should be given to students to write report on experiment conducted, sharing their experience,
knowledge gained and observation.
OBJDC¥IPEB
with amplifier factors (for transformer
1. To determine the d.c. power dissipated by the amplifiers) such as:
amplifier.
(i) d.c. power dissipation by the amp
2. To investigate the relationship between load resis-
tance Rg and efficiency, q of the amplifier. (ii) power efficiency of the class-A ai
To ver that the maximum possible efficiency, q of (iii) impedance matching to the resist
the amplifier is less than 50%.
D.c. power dlnatpatlon by the as
Fitst, we should determine the input d
Bipolar junHidn transistor amplibers can be classified in tained from the dc power supply unit (V
different wa One of such way is according to claxs current, Ip from the supply unit.
e.g. Class A, Class B, Class AB and class C. Class A Therei to Fig. 20.1 we can calculate
amplifiers, ia turn, cao be sub-divided into series-fed class- Pi(d ) as:
A amplifier and transformer-coupled class A amplifier, A
i(dc) - cc !Q
series - fed class A amplifier has characteristically low
efficiency (its maximum possible efficiency does not where, Vp = d.c. supply voltage
exceed 25%) while transformer-coupled class A amplifier
bas a higher efficien- cy(its maximum possible efficiency’is Up - d.c. quiescent @llector
notgreater than 50%). Later on we shall define efficiency
and explain how its value can be calculated! At tbis stage, ciii co can be practically determined by
we skall coacera ourselves
mea
a.c. input signal is applied) when a d.u
nected between the terminals X and Y.

Nr: Nt

EC 109

No > N2

10fyiF

OV

Fig. is.i: Schematic circuit diagram of a transformer-coupled Class-A amplifier

Next, assumiisg aa ideal.. traiisfoitnér, the a.c. power, Ni
(Pq„j) developed acid the iaaasfbmzer A also :tAe a.c = step-down turns ratio needed to make the
*=
power, (Pi) &1i to the load.. Nz
The. Jr across the foafi can be expressed as: load resistance appear as a lafgér effective
resistance seen from the treesformcr primary.
For Tx;lmp1e, the effective resistance (R‘;_) seen Eroding into
Rc the primary .of ,a IS:1 transfocrmer uu acted to .an
where VL ^ ibe rois of the ac voltage across ,the :W ootpiit load of 40 is obtained as:
foraicr secoadazy. Nr"
15 4 = 0.9kO
. RL =. Lbe load resistor acro8s tbr 3
rraosfozazcrse‹x›a-
dary ceriz›iaals. Proai the foregoing, we can dcduue ibat diffcrmt Rp leads
Gooscqn0ntly, for the transformer-coupled ampliEer the tn different Valués of R'p and flown Equatim %J this reads
oaly power lost is that dissipated by .the: power transistor consequence to different Pqp). However, there is a •
(are ti•c coflccior - cminer junction) as ‹alcuisted by .ti‹;uIar load due, RLFch ca•pt‹›dum - - $o{uo)
a•dm•x rum efficiency,of the amplifier.. (as shown inP-qui-
the folioseing equation:

Incidentally, one of oiur tasks in this experiment iS to

where Pg - power ‹dissipated (as heat) by the amplifier. dcter- miisthc load resistance (Ri) which gives
m•*••'iuinefficico-

Power e&cicocy of the class - A amplifier can be

Boyteitaii, R.. iad Nashglslty, L. 2ffecfzonic Zie4icnr wild Cir-

cuit 77izoJ. Prentice - Hull; New Jerseyi 1987, pp. d03 - M.

calculated Lurch E2'J. FundArncnrafs ‹if£ieceo tics. 3rd Edkio•, 3ohn

Wiley, New York, t96J, pp. 352 - 354.
where Pgpj and Pi(gt) arc obtainable from Equations 20.Z

For a class - A transfoimer-coupled amplifier, the mszimnm

tbeorc0cal efficiency is. 50%. This is one of the claims we
s NPN transistor BC 109 or equivalent
• Resistors”1JcL2, 33kU, 220k62 (eacb MW)
o Capacitors, (Electrolytic) lQuF (16V), l0tjrF (10Y)
The resistance seen looking into the primary of the
traas- formet is related lo the resistance connected • Audio frequency (Step-down) transformer. RS Gtoi:k No
aiross the secondary. T£e ratio of sccnndnry resistance 21?-567 or equivalent.
io primary resistance may be expressed as:

o Stabilise.d.: d.c. [Link] [Link]. FARNELL LT 30-1 or

Rc’ N2 , equivalgnt
o AVO meter
• [Link] OS 255 or equivalent
wbere RL Resistance of load conncclnd across
the transformer secondary. • Sice/S qu are wave oscillator PARNEnc or- i or
R'p = Elective r+sista•ce seen looking into equivalent
transformer primary. e Resistance Decade Box. Type JJ.
o Coa»ec6o Lead. (vi) Next, re-connect the amplifigr circuit to -1- Voc (1.e,
.+ 10V) d.a, supply and pass the signal [Link] V;

Increase tho signal amplitude Vi gradually from the

10mV until you just begin“ to observer a clipi›ed (dis-
torted) output' voltage Vi_([Link] across A-B.
Now, measure and record t1ie;ampbtudes of the new
set the AVO eieter to read dc curient'and co•nca i•put (Vi) and output signals Y -p).
it between terminals X and Y.
lfiBi Reñ ieinber, Pa(xc) = , VL(rms) = .

:[Link] recoFd.l£iQ and Vq• (Repeat the cns•

tance,'Rj set on the resistance decide box'to'4£2, 6£1,
f#Bf#lCac)=fCgFw 8D; l0f2, 2tM, 40d, and 3£Of2 in turn, and mcerd
the corresponding Vi and Vp
(iv) &wlkuho8Mopoumrsup§yedrssxwcMeAVO

1 Record iir eieasured‘values I and V Calculits

decade bi›x iicrna terminals A-B and set it to RL = your dissipated power Pity) once [Link] all.
2. Record all you i easured values ofV . and Vigil
cigiul generator to pioduce xinmvo,. (Vi), l0mV and Yyyy fin varying Rr in steps (vi) - (viii.
Calcu- late tbe corresponding P tee) and Po
occilloscopc (GIRO). Mea while, diaco0occt the (using Equa- tions 20.2 and 20.3 as [Link] in
Table 20.1.
Cñ O from the circuit.: ’

T tile 20.1: Power dlsalpeicd by the umpllfler

Lzmd resistance
2 4
3. Usiag your aieasurcd vatxss Of VL{zas) Ie varyñ zg
Rr. caIotIat< tbc afbci•acy of tk• atapl¥ ›r, y a• set

2 8 10

(a). Comment on the relationship between the lend

resis- tance Rr and Pp(se) as obtained Table
20.1. Docs
4. From tfie data in Table 20.2, determine the load resis-
tance value Mwhich gives mnzimum eEkicncy of

the If 'the 'audio ’frequency transformer were removed

5. Check Table 20.2 to sec whether of not the elficiency, coaipl*tcly from the circuit and the eolieaor load
p exceeded S0% fur any value of Rs were replaced by RL (previous}y rrinnemed acfosi
terminals A-B) would you expect the efficiency of
the azopliñ er to iztcreuse or decrease io
caasequcacc2 Comz•cnt bAoDy oo your xaswcr.
 WEEK 14
TITTLE:

DISCUSSION ON THE RESULT AND ANALYSIS FOR THE TRANSFORMER COUPLED CLASS A
AMPLIFIER
OBJECTIVES:

XIX. To determine the level of understanding in the students from the experiment conducted
XX. To allow the Students express their feelings and observation with respect to the experiment
XXI. To have an interaction the lecturer concerned

REQUIREMENTS:

19. Writing materials such as pencils, biros, etc.

20. Student’s jottings i.e what the students must have jotted down during the experiment
21. Relate the experiment to theory thought

PROCEDURES:

 The lecturer should start by given a general introduction of the discussion on the experiment
.
 A general summary of the pratical, mentioning what happened from the first point up to the last point of the
activities that took place during the experiment

 The lecturer should allow the students to give their on contribution base on their understanding.
 Finally, the students should be given chance ask questions, where the students will be asking question
associated with the experiment

ASSIGNMENT:
. An assignment should be given to students to write report on experiment conducted, sharing their experience,
knowledge gained and observation.
 EAPERlMEMT Push-pull Power Amplilie:r

d&lECTtVES
class B. Curre'nt bows for more than '180° but less
1. To define class. B operation than 360', as i r i z. *a- i ‹•. I t is clear from the cur-
2. To connect and [Link] a pus:[Link] audio rent waveforms tr.« ir « ingle transistor operating:
‘° power afliplifier into a rexistive told were biased class B or AB,.
signal distortion would ace ur. A pu'sft-pull circuii

INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION

Class B Operation Push-pull Amplifier

High-power audio systems require .more audio When biased foi‘ class AB or ciass B operation.
power than a single outpui stage can provide. One push-pull output urnplitiers can handle a signal am-
solution is to use two or more transistors con- pIitude approximated y t w ice as large as lhat nf a
nected in .push-pull. Push-pull amplifier circuits conventional class A poxs'c r amplifier. For this
.are operated either class B or class AB.. reason .c]ass 8 and class AB output siages can
In the preceding experiment we learned that in deliver mure po\[Link] than a single-ended class A
class A operation the erriitter-base section of ihe stage.
transistor is forward-biased for the entire period A push-put 1 output .stage is shown in Fig. 22'-2
of the input signal. Current flows for 360° and the @.. and @„ are output iransistors connected as
output is undistorted, as in Fig. 22-1 rr. common-emitter amplifiers in a balanced circuit.
In class B opera:ti'on, the emitter base of a lran- T.. an input transformer. couples 9,. called the
sistor is forward-biased by the signal during one- driver. to stages O: and Q z.
half of the input signal an'd reveise-biased during The bases of Q.. and .@, are connecied to the
the other half. The. collector-current waveform of ends of the CT secondary of T.. Hence ihe bases
a class B circuit appeam as in Fig. 22- I b. Note receive two sis••!s. cqual in itmpli£ude but 186'
that current bows for approximately 180° and is oul of pfiase. For a line-wave input, the base of Q
cut off during the remainder of the cycle. will be positiv e when the base of J„ is negalive.
Class AB operation lies between class A and When 9.. swings negative. the base of @, goes pos-
itive. As. a result. when current flc •s in the col-
lector of @.., n0 Current flows in Q,. ancl vice versa.
The collector currents of g„ anJ g, Row in op-
posite directions through the primary of T . the
output tr¿»sfcrmer. [Link] the magnctic field
\fiat the collector current of @ sets up about the
primary is expanding whe.c collector current in g.,
is increusing. At Ibe same time collector current in
@, is [Link], and tfie resulting magnetic field
is moving in the same direction as the fietd arising
from @... Thus the fields aid and ipduce a larger
emf in the secondary than either could alone.
:Q.. -and @„ are .two medium-power t ransistors,
operated close to c]as 9 B, with just enough
forward bias l supp|ied by. R, ’and the comtiination
of ft,; and
A. j to cause .a small collector idling current In how
Ag. z2-‹. Current waveforms in lay ttass A, (d} «lass B, (d)
class AB amplifier. in /.. and g7., which prevent cmssox'er Jistonion.
The waveform in Fig. 2-'-1 shows the distunion
which occurs when traijsisturs in a push-pull staye.
6. A C E amplifier has a voltage gain of 50, an m Equipment: Oscilloscope; EV M: AF sine-wave
input impedance of 1 000 Al, and an out put generator
impedance of 2fJt) iL The pou.'er gai n of this
■ Resistors: '/z-W 470-, 56t)-f1, two I -. 4.7-, 8.2-,
amplifier is
I 8—k I
7. The decitael power gain of the amplifier in ques-
tion 6 is d B. ■ Capacitors: Two 25-QF 50—V; l 00-QF 50-V
■ Semiconductors: 2N 6004; I N 41 ñ4, or equiva-
MATERIALS REQUIRED lent
■ Power str ppl y: Variable regu lated low-voltage dc ■ Miscellaneous: SPST switch ; 2-W 5ooo-n po-
so rce tentiometer

PROCEDURE

Input Impedance Power Gain

1. Connect the circuit of Fig. 1 6- 1 o . Note that fi , 7. Co rnpute and record in Tablc I 6-1 the voltage
is a 1000-f1 res istor, not a potentiometer. gain and power gain (in decibels) of the circuit
2. Power on. Adju st the A F sine wave generator under load. Show your computations.
for 1 000 Hz ‹ind set the generator Seve J
(output) control for 70 percent of iiio-iivium
iiii di.s touted oil tpat, i'„„ as observed with an Effect of Unbypassed Emitter Resistor
oscilloscope ccinnec ted across the out put.
With an oscilloscope. measure and recorcl in 8. a. Do not chair gr tlir le vel nf the inytit .si gnal.
Table I 6-1 the peak -to-peak vol tage a. Remove bypass capacitor Cz from the circuit.
v„ across A C. b. >„, or r„ across BC. and With an oscilloscope observe the output signal
c.r„u, in the output. i'„,t. Why has the output of the amplifier
4. Compute i ,. across R . by sub trac ting t „, from dropped so dramatically?
i .„ . Record in Table 1 6- I . Compute and b. With C, still out of the circuit, increase the
record i„ and II „,. Show your‘ computations. generator output until you, Equals 1 V p-p. Re-
peat steps 3 through 7.

Output Impedance Phase Relationship

5. Do itot i ‹i rv th‹• ink tit-siquail /e ‹•/. [Link] nect a
5000-D rheostat 6„„. as in Fig. 1 I›- I h. across 9. Power off. Remove R from the circuit and
the output. Adjust R„„, until the measui cd conncct points A to B. Connect the half-wave
outpul signal v„„ equ ‹its one -half the out put rectifier circuit shown in Fig. 16-5. The
measured in step 3c. 1000-H z signal from the generator is coupled
6. Re mo›'e ñ„,t fro m th e ci rcuil. M ensure and to the in put of the half-wave rcctifier. Thc
record its resistance . This is the value or the output of the half-wave rectifier is connected
as the A F signal source for the CE amplifier in
output impedance „R u , of the amplifier. Fig. 1 6-1 .
NOTE: The output impedance of the amplifier is not 10. i'ower on. Reset the signal generator so that
„ a fixed quantity: it depends on the load resistance is at thc same yr«k-ve›/zr/ye level as in step 3b.
and transistor voltages. 11. With an oscilloscope observe two cycles of the

TABLE 6- . CE Amplifier Impedance and Power Measurements

V p-p Gain

?-7
 relation lips in the cii cuit of Fig. I ñ- I . Follow

QUESTIONS
AUDIO TO INPUT 0F
AMPLIFIERS FIG 16 \ I, (‹i) I I yuu wished la me SUFC ›',. (8’0tl?l/C itCI“0S8 @ ,')

fig. 16-5. Adding signal rectifier to experimental grounded-

emitter amplifier.

TABLE 16-2. Phase RelationS in CE Amplifier

4.

input signal waveform. Draw this waveform in

Table [6-2.
[Link] no cycles of the output waveform.
Draw them in proper time phase wlth ltte inpul
in Table 16-2.

13. Explain in deiall a method, other than the oce cd11 iu any substanliatinj9 é‹ita in 1his experiment,
USCd IO this procedure, for deterninin/ ‹h‹ Answers t0 Self-
Test input impedance of a CE amplifier. Follow thistptypp g
procedure and record your results. a §gg
)4. Explain in detail a method, other than the one j ¿Jr
used in this procedure, for vcrify›ny the phase 4. cj›rvr. pa ir ’r. IXU