Ethics – Often called moral philosophy, a study that o Morality involves impartiality because it ensures

death with the principle and laws governing the moral that all interest are accounted for, weighed
that human act. rationally, and assessed without prejudice.
Morality of human acts- means the goodness or Seven-step Moral Reasoning Model
badness, the rightness or wrongness or the acceptability
1. Stop and think
or wrongness or the acceptability or unacceptability of
2. Clarify goals
human acts.
3. Determine facts
Difference between Ethics and Morality 4. Develop options
5. Consider consequences
Ethics- It Provides the theory or principles of right or
6. Choose
wrong or goodness and badness on the morality of
7. Monitor and modify
human acts.

Morality- It actualizes the theory. 1. Stop and think – this involves a step-back from
the situation to make sure that you do not act
What is Good?
out of impulse.
According to proponents a situation or an action may 2. Clarify goals- clarify your short term and long
have two moral spectrums: term aims. Sometimes, in the heat of the
moment, short-term wants eclipse long-term
 First, considered that goodness lies in an action goals.
itself which is the position of so called 3. Determine facts- make sure you gather enough
deontologist. information before you make a choice.
 Second, considered that goodness in the 4. Develop options- clear your mind and try to
consequences of an action, which is the position think of other creative ways of clarifying your
if the so called consequentialist. motives and implementing your actions with
According to Aristotle the goodness of an action lies in the least ethical compromise.
the action itself whatever consequences it may incur. 5. Consider consequences – filter your choices
and separate ethical from the unethical choices
For instance, the act of “telling the truth” bearing in mind both your motives and the
whatever consequences it may incur, it is good in itself. potential consequences of your action.
6. Choose- make a decision. If the choice hard to
make, try consulting others who may have
o The human can be achieved through and by knowledge or experience of your situation.
action, especially when it is a good action. 7. Monitor and modify- monitor what happens
o The good for Aristotle is attainable by action. after your decision and have enough humility to
o For Aristotle, the good is a human act and not modify your action or behavior as necessary.
an abstract idea.
o It is significant to know precisely the proper
function of man and whatever we do that can
flourish our ability to rationality is good for
Three elements comprise Moral Act
man.
o Unlike other organisms that are simply driven  Object
by the survival instinct, human beings  Intention
experience the world in a variety of ways  Circumstances
through a variety of perspective capacities.
Object
o Apart from our rational capacity which allows us
to reckon with imaginative and calculative  For an act to be morally good, the object must
lenses, our feelings also play a crucial part in be morally good.
determining the way we navigate through  Some actions are intrinsically evil (always
various situations that we experience. wrong).
o Reason and feelings must constructively  Examples include: lying, killing the innocent,
complement each other whenever we are sins against marriage.
making choices.
o It must be noted that reason in and by itself is Circumstances
also not a sufficient instrument in assessing  The factors that occur with the act and that
moral situations. contribute to the morality of the act.
o Moral situations often involve not just one but  Affect the morality in a lesser way than object
others as well. and INTENTION do.
  The three layer system makes it clear that o Environmental Ethics
morality is not subjective or relative, and that o Business Ethics
there are actions that are always good or evil. o Legal Ethics
Intention/END Bioethics/ Biomedical Ethics
 The motive behind a person performing an  Concerned with rightness or wrongness of
action. procedures that are performed in the practice
 The intention can change the quality of an of medicine and tha provision of health care
indifferent act into a good or evil act. system.
 The intention can NEVER make an evil action a
Environmental Ethics
good one.
 In order for an action to be good, the intention  It covers acceptable or unacceptable actions
must be good. affecting the environment.
Example  This ethical field promotes the welfare of
human beings by promoting the well being of
“I know you’re not supposed to steal, but I wanted to the environment since we are part of it.
give my mother something for her birthday”
Business Ethics
Name the object: STEALING
 Concerned with what is acceptable and
o Is the object moral or immoral? unacceptable business code of conducts
are affecting the business enterprise.
Name the intention: TO GIVE A GIFT
 This field measure and establish guidelines
o Is the intention moral or immoral? for the economic dynamics as a whole,
including the moral aspect of the supply
Name the circumstance:
and demand, the benefits-cost-profit
o Name some circumstances about the PERSON ration rule of competition and fair
committing this action might affect opportunity for tha consumers.
responsibility? Legal ethics
o Examine what was done.
 Norms of conduct and standard that law
practitioners, such as , judges, lwayers, notary
Different Applied Fields in the Ethics public, law makers, must follow in the practice
o Bioethics/ Biomedical Ethics of the profession.

1.Case Scenario:

Scenario: Mary, a high school student, discovers that her close friend, Sarah, has been spreading false rumors about
another friend, Emily. The rumors are damaging Emily's reputation and causing her significant distress.

Mary's Reaction: Mary is torn between confronting Sarah about the rumors or staying silent to avoid conflict. After
careful consideration, Mary decides to talk to Sarah privately to address the issue.

Analysis:

1. Object:

 Definition: The object refers to the specific action or behavior itself.

 Analysis: In this case, the object is Mary talking to Sarah about the false rumors. The objective is to
address the issue and potentially stop the spread of false information.

2. Intention:

 Definition: The intention refers to the purpose or motive behind the action.

 Analysis: Mary's intention is to resolve the conflict between Sarah and Emily by addressing the false
rumors. Her goal is to maintain the well-being of her friends and uphold the values of honesty and
integrity.

3. Circumstances:

 Definition: Circumstances encompass the context and conditions surrounding the action.
  Analysis: The circumstances include the fact that false rumors are causing harm to Emily's reputation
and emotional well-being. Mary's decision to address Sarah privately indicates her consideration for
resolving the issue in a way that minimizes harm and promotes a constructive resolution.

Conclusion:

Mary's decision to talk to Sarah about the false rumors reflects a thoughtful consideration of the moral elements
involved. The object is to address the issue, the intention is to maintain the well-being of her friends and uphold
honesty, and the circumstances highlight the harm caused by the false rumors. This analysis suggests that Mary's action
aligns with ethical considerations, as she is seeking to address a moral dilemma in a manner that promotes fairness and
constructive resolution.

2.Case Scenario:

Scenario: Alex, a college student, is part of a group project. One team member, Jordan, consistently fails to meet
deadlines and contributes minimally to the project. The group is frustrated, and the project's overall quality is at risk.

Alex's Reaction: Alex is torn between two options. One option is to confront Jordan and express the group's
dissatisfaction with their contribution. The other option is to quietly complete Jordan's portion of the project to ensure a
higher grade without addressing the issue.

Analysis:

1. Object:

 Analysis: The primary action or object in this scenario is Alex's decision regarding how to handle Jordan's
lack of contribution to the group project.

2. Intention:

 Analysis: Alex's intention may vary depending on the chosen course of action. If Alex confronts Jordan,
the intention may be to address the issue and seek a more equitable contribution. If Alex completes
Jordan's portion silently, the intention may be to ensure a higher project grade without causing conflict.

3. Circumstances:

 Analysis: The circumstances involve the group's frustration with Jordan's lack of contribution, which
poses a risk to the project's overall quality. The decision must consider the impact on the group
dynamics and the project's success.

3.Case Scenario:

Scenario: Sarah is a manager in a company that is facing financial difficulties. The company is considering laying off a
significant number of employees to cut costs and stay afloat. Sarah has the responsibility of deciding which employees
will be laid off.

Sarah's Dilemma: Sarah is torn between two options. One option is to lay off employees based solely on their recent
performance, which may include those who have not been contributing effectively. The other option is to consider
factors like employees' years of service, personal circumstances, and potential impacts on their lives outside of work.

Analysis:

1. Object:

 Analysis: The primary action or object in this scenario is Sarah's decision on how to select employees for
layoff during a financially challenging period.

2. Intention:

 Analysis: Sarah's intention may vary depending on the chosen criteria for layoffs. If based on recent
performance alone, the intention may be to prioritize the company's immediate efficiency. If considering
various factors, the intention may be to balance the company's needs with empathy for employees.

3. Circumstances:

 Analysis: The circumstances involve the company's financial difficulties and the necessity of downsizing.
Additionally, considering the potential impact on employees' lives is a crucial circumstance that needs
careful consideration.
- Analyzing this scenario involves recognizing the ethical dimensions of Sarah's decision during a challenging period for
the company. The chosen action should consider the well-being of employees while also addressing the company's
financial needs. Striking a balance between efficiency and empathy is crucial to align with ethical standards in the
business community.

Lesson 2 Moral ang Non-moral standards

What are standards?

- A level of quality of attainment

- An idea or thing used as measure, norm or model in comparative evaluation.

Why do we need to distinguish Moral Standard from Non-Moral ones?

- Some values DO have moral implications while other’s DON’T.

How we address this cultural conundrum?

- People have to understand the difference between moral standards and non-moral ones, to identify
fundamental ethical values that may guide our actions.

Moral Standards- Force other to act accordingly.

Non-Moral standards- We have no right to impose on others.

Moral Standards Non-Moral standards

-are norms that individual or groups have about the kinds - Refer to standards by which we judge what is
of action believed to be morally right or wrong, as well good or bad and right or wrong in a non-moral
as the values places on what we believed to be morally way.
good or morally bad.
- Refers to rules that affect the choice of a person
- Normally promote “the good” that is, the welfare but are not linked to moral or ethical
and well-being of humans as well as animals and considerations, similar to with ethics people use
the environment. value judgement in dealing with these aspects.
- It may differ from society to society and culture
to culture. - What falls outside the scope
- Norms (general rules about actions or behaviors) - Any violations that does not pose a serious
+ Values (enduring beliefs about what is good threat to human well-being.
and desirable, or not)= Moral Standards - Examples: standards of etiquette, the law,
standard of aesthetics
Characteristics of Moral Standards
- Welfare of beings - Etiquette- is asset of rules on how an individual
- Relies on sound and reasoning should responsibly behave in the society. Table
- Overriding Hegemony manners such as the proper use of utensils and
- Impartial, fair and Just the proper manner of eating are examples of
- Emotions and vocabulary etiquette.

Different cultures have different moral standards Characteristics of Non-moral Standards

- What is matter of moral indifference is, a matter - Welfare of non-beings
of taste in one culture may be a matter of moral - Relies on Authority law
significance in another. - Religion, tradition
- Limits Hegemony
- Self-interest
- X emotions and vocabulary

Examples of Non-moral standards

- Standards of etiquette by which we judge
manners as good or bad
- Standards we call the Law by which we judge
legal right and wrong
- Standards of aesthetics- good or bad art
- The athletic standards- how well a game is being
played.
Kohlberg’s stages of Moral development
Lawrence Kohlberg

-(October 25, 1927-January 19, 1987)

Was a Jewish American Psychologist born in Bronxville, New York who served as a professor at the University of
Chicago, as well as Harvard University.

- Having specialized in research on moral education and reasoning, he is best known for his theory of stages of
moral development.
- A close follower of Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
- kohlberg work reflected and extended his predecessor’s ideas, at the same time creating a new field within
psychology: “moral development”

The Stages

- In a 1958 dissertation, Kohlberg wrote what are now known as Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.
- These stages explain the development of moral reasoning.
- Created while studying psychology at the University of Chicago, the theory was inspired by the work of Jean
Piaget and a fascination with children’s reactions to moral dilemmas.

Kohlberg’s theory holds that moral reasoning, which is the basis for ethical behavior, has six identifiable developmental
constructive stages- each more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas.

He determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice and that its development
continued throughout the life span.

Level 1 (Pre-conventional) 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation

(How can I avoid Punishment)
- Childs level. (however, some adults act out of this 2. Instrumental Orientation
level) (What’s in it for me)
- People at this level judge the morality of an (Paying for a benefit)
action by its direct consequences.
- Solely concerned with the self in egocentric
manner
- Person has not yet adopted or internalized
society’s conventions regarding what is right or
wrong, but instead focuses largely on external
consequences that certain actions bring.
Level 2 (conventional) 3. Good boy/ Good girl: Interpersonal accord and
- Typical of adolescents and adults conformity
- Those who reason in a conventional way to judge (social Norms)
the morality of actions by comparing them to (the good boy/ good girl attitude)
society's views and expectations 4. Law & order: Authority and social-order
- At this level an individual obeys rules and follows maintaining orientation
society’s norms even when there are no (law and order morality
consequences for obedience or dis obedience.
- Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat
rigid, however.

Level 3 ( Post-conventional) 5. Social Contract orientation

- There is a growing realization that individuals are 6. Universal Ehtical Principles
separate entities from society, and that the
individual’s own perspective may take
precedence over society’s view; they may
disobey rules inconsistent with their own
principles.
- These people live by their own abstract principles
about right and wrong- principles that typically
include such basic human rights as life, liberty,
and justice. Because of this level’s “nature of self
before others”, the behavior of post-conventional
individuals, especially those at stage six, can be
confused with that of those at the pre-
conventional.
Pre-Moral Stage 1: Punishment/ Obedience Orientation
Obedience and Punishment Behavior is determined by consequences. The individual will obey in
- Young children-rules are absolute order to avoid punishment.
- Mr. Heinz is wrong as stealing is
wrong
Individualism and Exchange Stage 2: Instrumental purpose orientation
- Rules are not necessary rigid and Behavior is determined again by consequences. The individual focuses
always right of receiving rewards or satisfying needs.
- Druggist was unfair and Mr. Heinz
was correct
Conventional Stage 3: Good boy/Nice girl orientation
Good interpersonal relationship Behavior is determined by social approval. The individual wants to
- People/ young adults maintain or win the affection and approval of others by being a “good
- Family, community, trust and person”
compassion
- Mr. Heinz was correct
Maintaining Social order Stage 4: law and order orientation
- Emphasis on the social order and Social rules and laws determine behavior.
social system The individual now takes into consideration a larger perspective, that
- Not following laws would mean of societal laws. Moral decision making becomes more than
chaos consideration of close ties to others. The individual beliefs that rules
- Mr. Heinz was wrong and laws maintain social order that is worth preserving.
Post conventional Stage 5: Social contract orientation
Social contract and individual rights Individual rights determine behavior. The individual views laws and
- People can understand there can be rules as flexible tools for improving human purposes. That is given the
multiple perspectives and multiple right situation, there are exception to rules. When laws are not
types of society consistent with individual rights and interest of the majority, it does
- No simple definition of good society not bring about good for people and alternatives should be
- Human rights and laws are different considered.
aspects
- Mr. Heinz is right because he saved a
life
Universal principle(discarded) Stage 6: Universal Principles
- People may have their own moral People at this stage develop their own set of moral guidelines which
guideline which may not tie in the may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone.
society
- Act accordingly and defend
principles

Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation

 Description: At this stage, individuals focus on avoiding punishment. They follow rules to avoid negative
consequences.

 Moral Dilemma: Is it okay to steal a book if you can't afford to buy it?

 Example in School: A student refrains from cheating on a test because they fear the consequences of getting
caught.
2. Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange

 Description: Individuals follow rules to serve their own interests. They recognize that there is not just one right
view.

 Moral Dilemma: Is it okay to cheat on a test if you can be sure you won't get caught?

 Example in School: A student might justify copying homework from a friend, thinking it benefits them without
harming others.

Conventional Level:

3. Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships

 Description: Individuals value interpersonal relationships and conform to social expectations.

 Moral Dilemma: Should you share your notes with a classmate who missed a lecture?

 Example in School: A student helps a classmate who is struggling with a subject because they believe in
fostering good relationships.

4. Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order

 Description: Individuals conform to societal norms and laws to maintain social order.

 Moral Dilemma: Is it acceptable to break the law to protect a loved one?

 Example in School: A student follows school rules because they believe in maintaining order and discipline in the
learning environment.

Post-conventional Level:

5. Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights

 Description: Individuals recognize the importance of societal rules but also understand the need for flexibility to
ensure the greater good.

 Moral Dilemma: Should a person break the law if they believe it is unjust?

 Example in School: A student might participate in a peaceful protest against a school policy they view as unfair.

6. Stage 6: Universal Principles

 Description: Individuals adhere to their own set of ethical principles, even if they conflict with societal norms.

 Moral Dilemma: Is it acceptable to violate the law if it goes against one's deeply held principles?

 Example in School: A student might refuse to participate in an activity they see as unethical, even if it's a
common practice in the school.

The Filipino Character

•WEAKNESSES of the Filipino Character

Extreme family centeredness

-Excessive concern for family means using one's office and power to promote family interests and thus factionalism
patronage, political dynasties and the protection of erring family members.

Extreme personalism

"Take things personally," cannot separate objective task from emotional involvement.

Lack of discipline

a casual attitude toward time and space, manifested in lack of precision and compulsiveness, in poor time management
and procrastination.

Passivity and lack of initiative

Waiting to he told what to do, reliance on others, complacence, lack of a sense of urgency.

Colonial mentality

Lack of patriotism, or of an active awareness, appreciation and love of the Philippines and an actual preference for
things foreign.

Kanya-kanya syndrome, talangka mentality

It is evident in the personal ambition that is completely insensitive to the common good (ex. Lack of a sense of service
among people in the government bureaucracy)

Lack of self-analysis and self-reflection

The tendency to be superficial and somewhat flighty. In the face of serious personal and social problems, there is lack of
analysis or reflection and instead satisfaction with superficial explanations and solutions.

Emphasis on porma rather than substance

This lack of analysis and emphasis on form is reinforced by an educational system that is more form than substance.

-To help every Filipine child grow morally and ethically, he/she must be helped acquire the strengths of the Filipino
character. At the same time he/she must be made to realize his/her strengths which also become his/her source of
weakness

Gawi and Gawa Habituation

• Filipinos distinguish between thoughtless, instinctive mannerism and reflexes from

gawa (action) and gawi (inclination).

-Freedom means not only the ability to act free from outside influences or the independence from the impediments to
ones wishes.

-Freedom is the wilful act and decision that give form and shape to the actions and inclinations of people.

Action (Gawa)

-Refers to the free action that is oriented toward particular end.

Habit (Gawi)

Refers to the kind of acts that people are used to accomplishing. It does not only refer to particular acts of a person, but
also a person’s kagawian or habitual action reveals truth about himself/herself.

ETHICS AND ETHOS

-Ethics comes from the Greek word ethos, which means custom, a characteristic, or habitual way of doing things, or
action that is properly derived from one;s character.

-The Latin word mor or moris from which the adjective moral is derived is equivalent to ethos.

-It seems that ethics need not be normative in guiding human action of neutrality that excludes all judgements of value.

Explanation: It means that ethics doesn't always have to tell people what's right or wrong in a strict way. Instead, it
can be more about being neutral and not making judgments about what's good or bad

-Human action has to do with human movements that are ruled by one freedom.

Exp: It means that what people do is connected to their choices, and these choices are guided by their freedom to
decide

- Aristotle differentiates between human actions that are “praxis” and “to poien”

-Ehtics, as concerned with “praxis” for Aristotle, properly focuses on the human agent that is revealed through his/her
actions.

Exp: Ethics, according to Aristotle, is all about looking at how people behave and what they do. It's about
understanding a person through their actions."
- Ethics proposes guidelines, considerations, and norms to provide advice and rules so that the way of right living and
practice are clarified.

Exp: Ethics gives us rules and advice to help us understand the right way to live and act.

- For Filipinos, ethics is a way for them to find happiness

-Ethics, not only serves as a path to happiness but also reaches out in fullness of reflection for the action which is an
obligation for a human being.

Exp: Ethics is not just a way to find happiness; it also encourages us to think deeply about our actions, which are
things we must do as humans."

-The gravity of such an ethical consideration is given voice in the Filipino saying, “madaling pagpakatao; maging tao,
mahirap

PLATOS INSIGHT INTO THE GOOD

-The context of the time of Plato is not totally unfamiliar with the students of today.

-Plato and the students of today share global; challenge; it leads to questions of truth and inquiry into what is good.

-A serious claim faced by Plato was given voice by a thinker named Protagoras, who said that “ man is the measure of all
things.”

-Socrates, on the other hand, taught Plato about the difficulty of coming to a knowledge of the truth.

-Plato continues to address us today and his voice builds confidence in our own ability to know the good and act
ethically.

Virtue Ethics: Aristotle

• People are often most remembered by their most significant character traits.

• We build our characters through how we make choices in different situations we face in our lives.

• Through the constant interaction of thought and action as prompted by various situations that call for one’s decision, a
person comes to know himself/herself as a certain type of character or personality.

Exp: Through the constant interaction of thought and action as prompted by various situations that call for one’s
decision, a person comes to know himself/herself as a certain type of character or personality

Example: Consider a situation where a friend is in need, and you decide to help without expecting anything in return.
This action reflects your character as someone who values kindness and generosity.

• Personality or character is an approach or a way of reckoning the different situations that one faces in his/her life – a
way of navigating ones way towards his/her flourishing as a human person.

Exp: "Personality or character is how we handle different situations in our lives, guiding us toward becoming the best
version of ourselves."

Example: Imagine you face a challenging situation at school where someone is being bullied. If you choose to stand up
for the person and help them, it reflects your character as someone who values kindness and standing up against
injustice.

• Character is not merely a theoretical construct but a product of action in the world – a constant doing or way of being
that is made apparent by the possession and actualization of particular virtues or vices.

Exp: Character isn't just an idea; it's shaped by how we act in the world – the things we consistently do, whether good
or bad, which reveal our virtues or vices."

Example: If someone consistently helps others without expecting anything in return, it reflects a virtuous character.
On the other hand, consistently being dishonest reveals a tendency towards a vice.

• In our journey towards self-realization and self- flourishing, there is an implied necessity to understand what we
actually aiming for in life.

Exp: As we try to become the best version of ourselves, it's important to figure out what we want to achieve in life."

Example: Think about setting a goal for the future, like wanting to become a good musician. This goal helps guide your
actions and decisions toward self-realization in the field of music.
• Self- actualization is not attained through theory but by practice.

• Aristotle and Plato believe that the ultimate purpose cannot be fully understood without understanding the place of
reason in ordering one’s life.

Exp: Aristotle and Plato think that to understand life's ultimate purpose, we need to consider the role of reason in
organizing our lives."

Example: Consider deciding to study regularly for exams. Aristotle and Plato would argue that using reason to
organize your study habits aligns with the ultimate purpose of achieving academic success.

-Plato firmly believes that ignorance is solely responsible for committing immoral acts.

• Aristotle considers that morality is not merely a matter of knowing the good but actually doing or practicing the good
habitually.

Exp: Aristotle thinks that being moral isn't just about knowing what's good; it's about making a habit of doing good
things."

Example: If you consistently help your classmates with their studies without expecting anything in return, Aristotle
would say you are practicing morality by habitually doing good.

-Aristotle believes we can only fully actualize our potential as human being once we understand what being human
essentially aims to and do the necessary things to fulfil our function in the most excellent way possible.

Exp: Aristotle believes that to reach our full potential as humans, we must understand our essential aims and strive to
fulfill our function in the best way possible."

Example: If someone recognizes their passion for teaching and actively pursues a career in education, Aristotle would
see this as fulfilling their human function in an excellent way.

• Aristotle ethics is grounded in the formation of one’s character a way of being and living in harmony with the human
persons proper end.

Exp: Aristotle's ethics is about shaping your character to live in harmony with your true human purpose."

Example: If someone consistently practices kindness and honesty in their interactions with others, Aristotle would see
this as forming a good character aligned with the proper end of human life.

• To fulfil this function in the most excellent way possible is to live ethically, that is, to achieve a way of flourishing suited
to us.

Ethics as the Art of Living Well

Aristotle assumes that any activity, practical or theoretical, aims towards some end or good.

• But almost all ends are not ends in themselves but mere channel for a deeper or further end.

- Aristotle is not simply interested in finding out the different ends or purposes for human life. He wants to find out what
our chief end is.

Exp: Aristotle isn't just curious about the various goals of human life. He's trying to discover our main purpose."

Example: Imagine someone exploring different hobbies. Aristotle would be more focused on understanding the
central purpose or passion that brings true fulfillment to that person's life.

• The chief good for the human person must not be something one aims at for the sake of something else.

Exp: The most important thing for a person shouldn't be something pursued only for the sake of something else."

Example: If someone believes that kindness is the chief good, they should practice kindness for its own sake, not just
to gain something in return.

Eudaimonia

• Aristotle names the chief good for the human person as happiness or eudaimonia.

-Happiness is the self-sufficient, final, and attainable goal of human life.

• It sought for its own sake.

• For Aristotle, our chief good is not something we merely possess but something that we continually actualize (in
practice).

Exp: According to Aristotle, our main good isn't just something we have; it's something we consistently put into
action."

Example: If someone believes that knowledge is their chief good, they continually seek to learn and apply their
knowledge in different situations.

• Eudaimonia is an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue.

-HAPPINESS is a lifelong activity and it is something we decide to do for ourselves.

The Soul

• Aristotle believes that the soul is the part of the human being that animates the body.

• The soul is composed of both rational and irrational elements.

• The rational part of the soul is divided into two parts - the speculative (responsible for knowledge) and the practical
(responsible for choice and action).

Exp: The thinking part of our mind is split into two - one part for knowledge and the other for making choices and
taking action."

Example: When deciding whether to study for an exam (practical) or learn about a new topic out of curiosity
(speculative), both aspects of the rational soul are at play.

Speculative part is concerned with pure thought and is essentially the base of contemplation.

Practical part – is in charge of action and - the practical determination of the proper means to attain a specific end.

The irrational part of the soul has two parts – the vegetative and the appetitive.

Vegetative part – is in charge of the nutrition and growth of the human being.

Appetitive part element in the soul Shares in the rational in the element of the soul

Exp: The irrational part of the mind has two parts - one for the body's nutrition and growth (vegetative), and the other
for desires and emotions (appetitive). The appetitive part shares some elements with the rational part of the soul."

Example: When you feel hungry and eat to nourish your body (vegetative), and when you experience an appetitive part
of the soul involves desires and emotions related to food. Imagine someone feeling hungry (a bodily sensation) and then
experiencing the desire for a particular type of food, such as pizza. The appetitive part of the soul is responsible for these
desires and emotions associated with seeking pleasure or satisfaction, like the craving for a favorite meal.

• Giving in to raw and unchecked appetites is oftentimes the reason a person commits immoral acts.

Exp: Doing things without control due to strong desires can often lead a person to do things that are considered
wrong."

Example: Imagine someone who, because of a strong craving for a certain type of snack, steals it from a store without
paying. Giving in to the unchecked appetite for the snack can be a reason for committing an immoral act like stealing.

• For Aristotle, moral virtue is necessary in making sure that desires do not control the behavior.

Virtue, the Mean, and Practical Wisdom

• Virtue (arete) – which means excellence.

-the Greeks thought of how a thing fulfills its function (ergon) in accordance with its nature.

• To be virtuous, is to exhibits capacity to fulfil ones essence or purpose in such a way that one’s potentiality will be
actualized in the most excellent way

Exp: To be virtuous means showing the ability to fulfill your true purpose in a way that brings out your potential in the
best possible way."

Example: If someone believes that kindness is a virtue, consistently practicing kindness towards others showcases
their capacity to fulfill the essence of being a good and compassionate person.
- there are two (2) kinds of virtues: moral and intellectual.

Moral virtue has to do with excellence in the performance of decisions relating to moral and practical activity

Exp: "Moral virtue is about making excellent decisions in moral and practical situations."

Example: If someone consistently chooses to help others in need, even when it's challenging, they are demonstrating
moral virtue in their actions.

Intellectual virtue – has to do with one;s capacity to harness reasons contemplative capacity for arriving at knowledge

Intellectual virtue is about using our ability to think deeply and contemplate to gain knowledge."

Example: If someone spends time reading books, researching, and thinking critically to understand complex topics,
they are demonstrating intellectual virtue by harnessing their contemplative capacity for knowledge.

- Aristotle emphasizes the role of practice and habit in the formation of moral virtue.

• It is only in practice that we come to know that we truly know how to do something.

-We become morally virtuous by doing morally virtuous acts. We become just by doing just acts.

-Virtue is a state of character which makes a person good and capable of fulfilling his/her end (telos) as a human person.

Aristotle emphasizes a certain consistency or constancy in one’s character in facing different situation.

-Consistency is not stagnancy. It is precisely the person's capacity to read situations that makes him/her virtuous.

-In reading situations, the virtuous person is able to arrive at a decision or perform an action that may be considered as
an intermediate between deficiency and excess, which he calls the mean or mesotes.

Exp: "The virtuous person, in various situations, makes decisions or takes actions that balance between doing too little
and doing too much. This balance is called the 'mean' or 'mesotes.'"

Example: If courage is considered a virtue, a person finding the right balance (the mean) might courageously face
challenges without being reckless or avoiding them entirely.

-It is a mean that is relative to the person facing a moral choice.

-By relative, Aristotle means that depending on the particular circumstances of a person, the mean would correspond to
the most appropriate response given the demands of the situation.

Aristotle says the 'mean'—the balanced response—depends on the situation and what's right for that person."

Example: For someone who loves sports, the mean in a competitive situation might involve playing with enthusiasm
and skill without being overly aggressive or too passive.

-The mean is not a fixed point but rather a moving target.

- Virtue is developed in practice.

-Virtue is a characteristic marked by choice, residing in the mean relative to us, a characteristic defined by reason and as
the prudent person would define it.

Virtue is about making good choices that make sense for us. It's being reasonable, just like a wise person would be."

Example: If being helpful is considered a virtue, a person with this virtue would choose to help others in a way that
feels right, not too much or too little, finding the right balance in being supportive.

- Virtue is also a mean with respect to two vices, the one related to excess, the other to deficiency.

-For Aristotle, virtue is a state of one;s character that is the result of choice.

This choice is governed by prudence or practical wisdom (prognosis).

-Phronesis is the human person’s instrument in dealing with moral choices.

- Practical wisdom is comprised both of knowledge and action.

-Ones capacity for choice and action must be guided by the intellectual virtue of practical wisdom or phronesis in pursuit
of the mean or the mesotes for one to be able to call himself/herself morally virtuous.
Exp: To be morally virtuous, you need practical wisdom to guide your choices and actions towards a balanced
approach, the mean or mesotes."

Example: If generosity is considered a moral virtue, practical wisdom would guide a person to give to others in a way
that is thoughtful and balanced, neither too extravagant nor too stingy.

-Practical wisdom guides the human person in choosing the mean between the extremes of excess and deficiency.

Exp: Practical wisdom helps us choose the right balance between doing too much and doing too little."

Example: Imagine someone deciding how much time to spend on homework. Practical wisdom would guide them to
find the right amount of time that allows for a thorough understanding without overworking or procrastinating.

-Aristotle is somehow saying that for one to attain chief good, the person must continually bring himself/herself to
situations where his/her mettle and skills may be tested.

Exp:"Aristotle suggests that to achieve the best life, a person should regularly face challenges to test their abilities
and character."

Example: If someone values achieving excellence in their studies, regularly taking on challenging assignments or
projects would align with Aristotle's idea of continually testing and improving oneself.