Grounding Systems

Contents:

1. General grounding systems

2. Electrical properties of the earthing system

3. Earthing resistance and potential distribution

4. Earthing voltage and earth surface potential distribution

5. System grounding

6. Grounding system types

7. Grounding system design for 220/66/20 kV substation

8- Transmission line tower grounding

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1. General Grounding Systems

The earthing system is an essential part of power networks at both high- and
low-voltage levels. A good earthing system is required for:
• protection of buildings and installations against lightning
• safety of human and animal life by limiting touch and step voltages to
safe values
• Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) i.e. limitation of electromagnetic
disturbances
• Correct operation of the electricity supply network and to ensure good
power quality.

Electrical properties of the ground

The electrical properties of the ground are characterized by the earth resistivity
ρ. In spite of the relatively simple definition of ρ given above, the determination
of its value is often a complicated task for two main reasons:
• The ground does not have a homogenous structure, but is formed of
layers of different materials
• The resistivity of a given type of ground varies widely (Table 1) and is
very dependent on moisture content.
The calculation of the earthing resistance requires a good knowledge of the soil
properties, particularly of its resistivity ρ. Thus, the large variation in the value
of ρ is a problem. In many practical situations, a homogenous ground structure
will be assumed with an average value of ρ, which must be estimated on the
basis of soil analysis or by measurement. There are established techniques for
measuring earth resistivity.

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Where no information is available about the value of ρ it is usually assumed ρ =
100 Ω.m. However, as Table 1 indicates, the real value can be very different, so
acceptance testing of the final installation, together with an assessment of likely
variations due to weather conditions and over lifetime, must be undertaken.

Table 1 - Ground resistivity ρ for various kinds of the soil and concrete.

The other problem in determining soil resistivity is the moisture content, which
can change over a wide range, depending on geographical location and weather
conditions, from a low percentage for desert regions up to about 80% for
swampy regions. The earth resistivity depends significantly on this parameter.
Figure 1 illustrates the relationship between resistivity and humidity for clay.
One can see here that, for humidity values higher than 30%, changes of ρ are
very slow and not significant. However, when the ground is dry, i.e. values of h
lower than 20%, the resistivity increases very rapidly.

Figure 1 -Earth resistivity ρ of clay as function of soil humidity h.

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It must be remembered that the effect of freezing is similar to that of drying –
the resistivity increases significantly.
For these reasons the calculations of earth resistance and the planning of
electrodes can be performed up to a limited level of accuracy.

2. Electrical properties of the earthing system

The electrical properties of earthing depend essentially on two parameters:
• Earthing resistance
• Configuration of the earth electrode.

Earthing resistance determines the relation between earth voltage VE and the
earth current value. The configuration of the earth electrode determines the
potential distribution on the earth surface, which occurs as a result of current
flow in the earth. The potential distribution on the earth surface is an important
consideration in assessing the degree of protection against electric shock
because it determines the touch and step potentials. These questions are
discussed briefly below.
The earthing resistance has two components:

• Dissipation resistance RD, which is the resistance of the earth between

the earth electrode and the reference earth
• Resistance RL of the metal parts of the earth electrode and of the earthing
conductor.
The resistance RL is usually much smaller than the dissipation resistance RD.
Thus, usually the earthing resistance is estimated to be equal to the dissipation
resistance RD.

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3. Earthing resistance and potential distribution
A basic model of the earth electrode configuration, used for illustrating the
fundamental electrical properties, is a hemisphere embedded in the ground
surface (Figure 2). The earth current flowing to such an electrode is assumed to
flow radially to the earth. The surface of the hemisphere, as well as all
hemispherical cross-sections dx of the ground, is assumed to be equipotential,
and the current lines are therefore perpendicular to these surfaces. Under these
conditions the resistance of the hemispherical element of thickness dx and the
radius x is expressed as follows (with ρ assumed constant):

The resistance of the hemisphere-earth electrode is given by:

The earth resistance depends significantly on how deep the electrode is sunk in
the ground. This is because the moisture content is higher and more stable for
deeper ground layers than for shallow layers. Layers near the surface are
influenced more by seasonal and short-term weather variations and are subject
to freezing. This problem is illustrated in figure 3, for a rod earth electrode,
where one can see the considerable reduction of earthing resistance as the depth
of a rod electrode increases. However, it is not always possible to place
electrodes at the preferred depth for geological reasons, for example, where
there are rocks or obstructions close to the surface or where the electrode
system covers a large area.

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Figure 2 - Illustration of a notional hemispherical earth electrode, showing
parameters required to calculate the earthing resistance and potential
distribution on the ground surface (with ρ= const)
r : Electrode radius
x : Destination from the centre of the electrode
aT, aS : Touch and step distances respectively
V* : Relative value of the potential distribution
∆V*T, ∆V*S: Touch and step voltages respectively

Figure 3 - Example of dissipation resistance of a progressively longer rod

earth electrode R as a function of the depth d
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One can distinguish several types of earth electrodes including:
• simple surface earth electrodes in the form of horizontally placed strip or
wire, either as a single ended strip or a ring
• Meshed electrodes, constructed as a grid placed horizontally at shallow
depth
• Cable with exposed metal sheath or armour which behaves similarly to a
strip-type earth electrode
• Foundation earth electrodes formed from conductive structural parts
embedded in concrete foundation providing a large area contact with the
earth.
• rod electrodes which can consist of a pipe, rod, etc. and are driven or
buried to a depth greater than 1 m and usually from 3 m to 30 m or more.

The first four arrangements are surface earth electrodes, which usually consist
of strip wire or band arranged as radial, ring or meshed electrodes, or a
combination of these embedded at shallow depths of up to about 1 m. An
important advantage of these constructions is the favorable surface potential
distribution. Rod electrodes belong to so called deep earth electrodes; the
advantage of these is that they pass through soil layers of different conductivity
and are particularly useful in places where the shallow layers have poor
conductivity.

Another advantage of rod electrodes is that they can be installed in places where
there is a limited surface area available to install the electrode. However,
surface potential distribution of rod electrodes is unfavorable, so in practice a
combination of rod and surface earth electrodes are also used, in order to obtain
both a good resistance and desirable surface potential distribution.

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4. Earthing voltage and earth surface potential distribution
Earthing voltage, as well as distribution of the earth surface potential during the
current flow in the earthing system, is important parameters for protection
against electric shock. The basic relations will be shown on the earth model
presented in Figure 2.
Figure 4 shows the voltage variation over the soil surface. Figure 5 shows the
step and touch voltage. A practical illustration of touch and step voltages is
shown in Figure 6. Persons A and B are subject to the touch potential while
person C is subject to the step potential.
The left-hand side of Figure 6 shows the situation for a rod electrode while the
right hand side shows that for a meshed electrode. The rod electrode (1) has a
low resistance but most unfavorable potential distribution while the meshed
electrode (2) has a much flatter earth potential profile. The touch potential
(person A) is considerably larger for the rod electrode (1) than for the meshed
one (2), (person B). Step potentials (person C) are also less dangerous in case of
the meshed electrode.
When a meshed earth is not possible, a ring electrode provides an intermediate
solution combining reasonable cost with reasonable safety.

Current Path

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 Voltage Rise Curve
Figure 4 voltage variations over the soil surface

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 Basic Shock Situations

Step and Touch Voltages

Figure 5 Step and touch voltage

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Figure 6 - Comparison of earth surface potential distribution (SPD) during
the current flow in the earthing system, for two earth electrode
constructions

Meshed electrodes increase the surface area that experiences a voltage rise as
the result of current flow to the earth electrode. Over the area of the mesh an
‘equipotential’ exists, but at the periphery of the electrode there is a potential
gradient as shown in Figure 7.
Although there is no touch potential because the mesh extends beyond any
metal structure by more than one meter – dangerous step voltages can occur.
This situation can arise, for example, in the earthing system of a substation. In
order to avoid this phenomenon, the outer elements of the meshed earth
electrode should be placed at greater depth than the rest of the grid (Figure 7).

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 Figure 7 - The phenomenon of potential carryover. Earth surface
Potential distribution for two meshed earth electrodes

Protection against step and touch voltages may be accomplished in three ways
(see figure 8):
a) Equipotential is obtained by keeping the person and reaching activities
confined to an equipotential surface.
b) Insulation is obtained by using insulated platforms, footwear, gloves, etc.
insulated for the maximum anticipated fault or induced current at the worksite.
c) Isolation is accomplished by limiting or restricting the approach distance to
grounding systems (i.e., barricading or fencing). Barricading is the most
efficient way to protect the public from step and touch voltages at a temporary
worksite.
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 Figure 8 Methods of Personal Protection from Faults and Induced
Current

5. System grounding

5.1 Introduction

System grounding has three main purposes:

5.1.1 Overvoltage Protection

Lightning, line surges or unintentional contact with higher voltage lines can
cause dangerously high voltages to the electrical distribution system wires.
Grounding provides an alternative path around the electrical system of your
home or workplace minimizes damage from such occurrences.
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5.1.2 Voltage Stabilization

There are many sources of electricity. Every transformer can be considered a

separate source. If there were not a common reference point for all these
voltage sources it would be extremely difficult to calculate their relationships to
each other. The earth is the most omnipresent conductive surface, and so it was
adopted in the very beginnings of electrical distribution systems as a nearly
universal standard for all electric systems.

5.1.3 Current Path in order to facilitate the Operation of over current Devices

This purpose of grounding is the most important one to understand. Grounding

system provides certain level of safety to humans and property in case of
equipment damages.

5.2 Methods of Neutral Grounding

The ground fault is the most common short circuit occurring in an electrical
power system. Most three-phase electrical systems are either ungrounded,
solidly (effectively) grounded, or grounded through the impedance of, resistor
or matter Transmission systems are usually ungrounded, distribution systems
solidly grounded, while industrial systems vary throughout the world.

5.3 Ungrounded

A system is considered ungrounded if no intentional connection is made

between any part of the system and ground in reality, a system is always
capacitively grounded through the inherent shunt capacitance that exists
between the conductors and ground. In a balanced system with no loads,
connected between line and neutral, the neutral is held at
ground potential because of the presence of this shunt capacitance. Line-to-
neutral voltage is the phase voltage (Vph) and the neutral-to-ground is zero.

Under balanced conditions each phase current to displace by 120 and the
vectorial resultant is zero when a fault occurs the faulted phase assumes the
ground potential and the neutral potential is displaced from ground by amount
equal to the line-to- voltage

The voltage between each of the healthy phases and ground rises to the line-to-
line value (line-to-line voltage = √3 x Vph) the resulting increase in current
across the shunt capacitance causes the current between each of the healthy
phases and ground to increase by a factor of √3

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An ungrounded system can continue to operate with a ground fault, provided
that the ground current does not rise above a few amperes, and the phase-to-
ground voltage of the healthy phases does not rise above the line-to-line
voltage. As long as these conditions are maintained, production can continue in
spite of the fault until the end of the shift or day. The fault can then be located
and repairs made when the plant is normally shut down.

Operating experience with ungrounded systems has shown that substantial over-
voltages can develop. Capacitance and inductance in the system lead, to arcing
and intermittent sputtering-type faults. These disruptions can cause the system
voltage to escalate to dangerously high values (Up to six times, the normal
values have been produced in laboratory tests.)

Voltages of this magnitude can cause over stressing of the insulation and
failures in the system components. Transient over-voltages especially in the
medium voltage systems increase the probability of failures. The in possibility
of system failure generally outweighs any advantages an - grounded system
may offer.

Figure 9 Ungrounded systems

5.4 Solidly Grounded (Effectively Grounded)

Solidly (effectively) grounded systems have a direct connection between neutral

and ground with no intentional impedance. The solid ground connection
stabilizes the neutral voltage and prevents elevation of the phase-to- voltage. If
the neutral is available for connection, effective grounding involves no
additional equipment and is the least expensive method. However the ground
fault current is limited only by the arc and stray return path impedance. The
high fault current that may be created can often result in extensive and time-

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consuming repairs. This is especially true of installations under 600V where
effective grounding presents substantial protection problems.

Figure 10 Solidly Grounded Systems

(a) Three-wire ungrounded system
(b) Four-wire ungrounded system
(c) Three-wire multigrounded system
(d) Phasor diagram for normal operation
(e) Phasor diagram for a ground fault
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5.5 Resistive and/or reactance Grounded

Resistive or reactance grounding system show a resistor or reactor inserted as

an impedance between the neutral and ground (Figures 12 and 13). This method
of grounding offers the advantages of both the ungrounded and solidly
(effectively) grounded systems, while eliminating most of their disadvantages.
Potentially dangerous system over-voltages caused by -arcing-type ground
faults am suppressed by dissipating the energy in the resistor. This significantly
improves system stability and protects personnel.
There are two types of resistive grounding: high and low resistance. Within
each category configurations that allow system designers flexibility.

TRANSFORMER SECONDARY

NEUTRAL

SYSTEM VOLTAGE
LINE NEUTRAL
NEUTRAL VOLTAGE GROUNDING
RESISTOR

LINE TO NEUTRAL VOLTAGE EQUALS

SYSTEM VOLTAGE DIVIDED BY 1.732

Figure 11 Resistive grounding

Figure 12 Reactance grounding

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5.6 Wye-Delta Grounding

In some power systems, the neutral may not be available as in wye-connected

(star-con- transformers or generators. This is also true in many older low-
voltage systems and in existing medium-voltage systems. To ground this system
and to derive a system neutral, grounding transformers is required to create an
artificial neutral.

The zigzag (interconnected star) transformer is three-phase auto-transformer

with no secondary windings. Each limb of the transformer- has two, identical
windings wound differentially a, that under normal condition, the fowl flux in
each limb is negligible.

5.7 Transformers neutral point grounding :

• 220/66/20 kV transformer : Y/Δ/Y

The neutral point of 220 kV side is grounded through 5 Ω resistors
The neutral point of 66 kV side is grounded through 5 Ω resistors

• 66/20 kV transformer : Δ/Y

The neutral point of 20 kV side is grounded through 30 Ω resistors

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Table 2: compares the performance character- of each of the grounding
methods, discussed- above.

System Type
High
Productivity Impact Solidly Low Resistance Resistance
Ungrounded Grounded Grounded Grounded
System System System System

Overvoltages Severe None Limited Limited

Equipment
Overcurrent - Damage
Damage
at point of fault Unknown Severe Minimal None
Maintenance Costs High Reasonable Reasonable Low
Continuous Operation Possible but not
with Ground Fault recommended Not possible Not possible Ideal
Relay Co-ordination
Downtime
(Appropriate Equipment
Tripped, Ease of fault
location) Difficult Difficult Good Excellent
Personnel Safety to Personnel Poor Good Reasonable Excellent

6. Grounding system types

Basically six types of grounding systems are used. They are:
1- Static grounds,
2- Equipment grounds,
3- System grounds,
4- Lightning grounds,
5- Electronic (including computer) grounds, and
6- Maintenance safety grounds.

7. Grounding system design for 220/66/20 kV substation

A practical grounding system for a field station is to form a ‘cage’ of a number
of pipe-type or plate-type earth electrodes around it. These vertical electrodes
are joined by a horizontal run of an insulated cable. This forms a system of
parallel earth electrodes to reduce the overall earth resistance. Alternately, the
electrodes are joined together by a horizontal run of a buried bare copper wire
or strip. The earth resistance of such a cage can be estimated if the specific
resistance of the soil is known and the electrodes are sufficiently far apart from
each other.

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The 3φ, 220 kV overhead power line, after reaching the field station, is fed to a
star – delta -star transformer. The secondary of this transformer supplies 66 kV
AC power to the field station. The R, Y, B phase wires are carried separately in
an underground armored cable. The neutral of the secondary winding of the
substation transformer is connected to the same common grounding system of
the field station through metallic resistance or using single phase transformer.

7.1 Design of Grounding System

7.1.1 Principles of design of substation grounding system

The ground of a substation is very important, as it provides the ground

connection for the system neutral, the discharge path for surge arresters, and
ensures safety to operating personnel. It also provides a low-resistance path
to ground to minimize the rise in ground potential. The ground-potential rise
depends on fault-current magnitude and the resistance of the grounding system.
Low-resistance substation grounds are difficult to obtain in desert and rocky
areas. In such cases, the use of grids will provide the most convenient means of
obtaining a suitable ground connection. Many utilities add ground rods for
further reduction of the resistance. The size of the grid and the number and
length of driven rods depend on the substation size, the nature of the soil, and
the ground resistance desired.

The practical design of a grid requires inspecting the layout plan of equipment
and structures. The grid system usually extends over the entire substation yard
and sometimes several meters beyond. To equalize all ground potentials around
the station, the various ground cables or buses in the yard and in the substation
building should be bonded together by heavy multiple connections and tied into
the main station ground. It is also necessary to adjust the total length of buried
conductors, including cross connections and rods, to be at least equal to those
required to keep local potential

7.1.2 Ground Conductor Size

The ground conductor should have low impedance and should carry
prospective fault currents without fusing or getting damaged, taking into
account future expansion of the connected power system.
For equally spaced ground grids, the mesh voltage will increase along meshes
from the center to the corner of the grid. The rate of this increase will depend on
the size of the grid, number and location of ground rods, spacing of parallel con-

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ductors, diameter and depth of the conductors, and the resistivity profile of the
soil.

7.1.3 Design Criteria.

There are two main design goals to be achieved by any substation ground
system under normal as well as fault conditions. These are:
(1) to provide means to dissipate electric currents into the earth without
exceeding any operating and equipment limits, and
(2) to assure that a person in the vicinity of grounded facilities is not exposed to
the danger of critical electric shock.

The design procedures are aimed at achieving safety from dangerous step and
touch voltages within a substation. It is pointed out that it is possible for
transferred potentials to exceed the GPR of the substation during fault
conditions. Thus, the design procedure described here is based on assuring safety
from dangerous step and touch voltages within, and immediately outside, the
substation fenced area. Since the mesh voltage is the worst possible touch voltage
inside the substation (excluding transferred potentials), the mesh voltage will be
used as the basis of this design procedure. Since the mesh voltage is the worst
possible touch voltage (excluding transferred potentials), the mesh voltage will be
used as the basis of this design procedure.

7.1.4 Critical Parameters.

1- Maximum Grid Current (/c)

2- Fault Duration (ly) and Shock Duration (ts).
3 -Soil Resistivity (ρ).
4 -Resistivity of Surface Layer (ρs).
5- Grid Geometry.

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7.1.5 Index of Design Parameters
The following table contains a summary of the design parameters used in the
design procedure.

Symbol
Ic Maximum Grid Current , A
ρ Soil resistivity in Ω-m
ρs Surface layer resistivity in Ω-m
ts Surface layer thickness
t Duration of fault current for sizing ground conductor in s
h Depth of ground grid conductors in m
d Diameter of grid conductor in m
A Total area enclosed by ground grid in m2
D Spacing between parallel conductors in m
n Number of parallel conductors in one direction
L Total length of grounding system conductor, including grid and
ground rods in m
Rg Resistance of ground system in Ω
Emesh Mesh voltage at the center of the corner mesh for simplified
method in V
Etouch50 Tolerable touch voltage for human with 50 kg body weight in V
Etouch70 Tolerable touch voltage for human with 70 kg body weight in V
Estep50 Tolerable step voltage for human with 50 kg body weight in V
Estep70 Tolerable step voltage for human with 70 kg body weight in V

7.2 Design Procedures. The block diagram of Fig 25 illustrates the sequences
of steps to design the ground grid.

(1) The property map and general location plan of the substation should
provide good estimates of the area to be grounded. A soil resistivity test will
determine the soil resistivity profile and the soil model needed.

(2) Common method for obtaining a low ground resistance at high-voltage

substations is to use interconnected ground grids. A typical grid system for a
substation would comprise bare solid copper conductors buried at a depth of

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from 70 to 80 cm, spaced in a grid pattern of about 3 to 10 m. At each
junction, the conductors are securely bonded together.
The size of grid conductors required to avoid fusing under the fault current I is
estimated as

a = I √76 t / [ln {(234 + Tmc )/ (234 + Tma)}]

Where a is copper cross section (circular mils), t is the fault duration (seconds),
Tmc is maximum allowable temperature, and Tma is the ambient temperature.
Such a grid not only effectively grounds the equipment, but has the added
advantage of controlling the voltage gradients at the surface of the earth to
values safe for human contact. Ground rods may be connected to the grid for
further reduction in the ground resistance when the upper layer of soil is of
much higher resistivity than that of the soil underneath.

7.2.1 Resistance to Ground and Mesh Voltages of Grounding Grids

The resistance to ground determines the maximum potential rise of the

grounding system during a ground fault. The following equation for grid
resistance could be used:

Or R = ρ / 4rp + ρ / L

Where L is the total length of all conductors, A the total area of the grid, d the
grid conductor diameter, and K1 and K2 the factors presented graphically as
functions of length-to-width ratio of the area, rp is the radius of equivalent plate.
For practical design purposes various approximate formulas based on the
similarity of a grid and a round plate of equal area have been proposed.

The mesh voltage represents the maximum touch voltage to which a person can
be exposed at the substation. It is the potential difference between the grid
conductor and a point at the ground surface above the center of the grid mesh.
Mesh voltages of ground-grounding grids are calculated using a relation of the
form
E mesh = Km K i ρ I / L

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where I is the current flowing into the ground and Km is a coefficient that takes
into account the effect of number n of the grid conductors their spacing S,
diameter d, and depth of burial h,

K i is an irregularity correction factor, to allow for non uniformity of ground

current flow from different parts of the grid:

Ki = 0.65 + 0.1 72 n

7.2.2 Conductor Length Required for Gradient Control

The mesh voltage, E mesh, is given by the formula:

E mesh = Km K i ρ I / L

The step voltage, Estep , is given by the formula:

Estep = Ks K i ρ I / L

Where Ks s a coefficient that takes into account the effect of number, spacing
S, and depth h of burial of the ground conductors.

Ks =1/π (1/2h +1/(S+h) +1/ (2S) +1/ (3S) +---------------)

The number of terms within the parentheses is equal to the number of parallel
conductors in the basic grid, excluding cross connections.

7.2.3 Step, touch, and transferred voltages near a grounded structure.

The tolerable step voltage with duration t , E, which is the
Voltage between any two points on the ground surface that can be touched
simultaneously by the feet is,
Estep = (165 + ρs) / √t

Where ρs is the resistivity of ground beneath the feet, in ohm-meters, taking its
surface treatment into account.

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The tolerable touch voltage, E touch, which is the voltage between any point on
the ground where a person may stand and any point that can be touched
simultaneously by either hand, is,

Etouch= [165 + 0.25 ρs ] / √t

Equating the value of E mesh , to the maximum value of E touch yields

Etouch = [165 + 0.25 ρs ] / √t

= E mesh

= Km K i ρ I / L

The approximate length of buried conductor required to keep voltage within

safe limits is thus :

L = [Km K i ρ I √t] / [165 + 0.25 ρs ]

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 Figure 13 Design Procedure Block diagram

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7.3 Design calculations

-Data:

Maximum 3 phase short circuit current ( I sc) ( kA ) 21.29

Future Extension 1.25
Area of Substation (m 2) 50 * 50
Soil resistivity (ρ) (Ω . m) 100
Crush (surface) resistivity (ρs) (Ω . m) 3000
Depth of burial (m) 0.75
Maximum temperature of conductor (T cm) (C°) 450
Maximum temperature of soil (T sm) (C°) 50
Clearing time (Sec) 1
Allowable rod current (Imax) ( A) 500
Length of rod (m) 3
Maximum (SLG) Short circuit current ( I L-G) (kA) 10.545
Spacing between each conductor in mesh grid,S (m) 10
Let go current (I safe) (m. A) 9

1 mm2 = 1973.5 Circular mile (C. M)

-Requirements:

- Design grounding system for substation 220 / 66 / 20 KV, where substation

grounding resistance (Rg) must not excesses (0.5 Ω).

- Actual step and touch potential must not excesses allowable step and
touch potential value.

The design current (Id) = 1.25 * I sc

• Id = 26.6125 kA.

• A = Id *√ (76 * t) / (ln (234 + T cm) / (234 + T sm))

Where A = the cross section area of conductor grid.

A = 247458.3227 C.M

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 • A = 125.391 mm2

From standard tables:

• A = 150 mm2

A = (π / 4) * d2

Where d diameter of the conductor grid.

• d = 13.82 mm.

Let mesh dimensions = 10 * 10:

• №. of conductor in wide part = (W / S) + 1 = 6 conductor

• №. of conductor in narrow part = (L’ / S) + 1= 6 conductor

• №. of ground electrode = Id / I max ≈ 54 electrode

(But the maximum number of ground electrodes = 6*6 =36 electrode,
Rod at each joint of grid)

• The total length of conductor (l) = 6*50 + 6*50 +36*3

l = 708 m

• The radius of equivalent circular plan: rp

π * rp2 = W * L
rp = 28.21 m

• ground resistance ( Rg) = (ρ / 4* rp) + (ρ / L)

Rg = 1.02745 Ω

Due to the substation ground resistance is higher than (0.5 Ω), So, Two
alternative methods are used to reduce the grounding resistance:

• Increasing the number of meshes (mesh dimensions are 5 * 5

instead of 10 * 10 m2 .

• Soil treatment to reduce (Rg)

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• Increasing the number of meshes (5 * 5 instead of 10 * 10 m2 )

• №. of conductor in wide part = (W / S) + 1 = 11 conductor

• №. of conductor in narrow part = (L’ / S) + 1= 11 conductor

• №. of ground electrode = Id / I max ≈ 54 electrode

• The total length of conductor (l) = 11*50 + 11*50 +54*3

L = 1262 m

• ground resistance ( Rg) = (ρ / 4* rp) + (ρ / L)

Rg = 0.9654 Ω

Conclusions: From the previous results, increasing the number of

meshes increases the installation and construction costs, but the
grounding resistance still higher than the required (0.5 Ω )

• soil treatment to reduce (Rg)

Soil resistivity may be reduced anywhere from 15 to 90 %, depending upon the

kind and texture of the soil, by chemical treatment. There are a number of
chemicals suitable for this purpose, including sodium chloride, magnesium
sulfate, copper sulfate and calcium chloride. Calcium chloride and magnesium
sulfate are most commonly used.

Let mesh dimensions = 10 * 10:

• №. of conductor in wide part = (W / S) + 1 = 6 conductor

• №. of conductor in narrow part = (L’ / S) + 1= 6 conductor

• №. of ground electrode = Id / I max ≈ 54 electrode

(But the maximum number of ground electrodes = 6*6 =36 electrode)

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 • The total length of conductor (l) = 6*50 + 6*50 +36*3

L= 708m

After soil treatment, the soil resistivity, ρ, will be 30 Ω. m

∴ Rg = 0.308 Ω

Note:
Taking into consideration the variation of soil resistivity during the
various year seasons the grounding resistance, Rg , will be ≤ 0.5 Ω
if soil resistivity , ρ , is ≤ 49.14 Ω . m

For touch potential calculation:

• Allowable Etouch = (165 + 0.25 ρs) / √t

• Allowable Etouch = 915 volts

• Actual Etouch = Km Ki ρ I L-G / L

Where:

Km = is coefficient that takes into account the effect of number (n) of the
grid conductor their spacing (S), diameter (d) and depth of burial (h).

Ki = is irregularity correction factor to allow for non uniformity of

ground current flow from different parts of grid.

I L-G = single line to ground fault =10.5 kAmp

Km = ((1/2π) ln (S2/16hd)) + ((1/π) ln (Πj=3 (2j-3) / (2j-2)))

• Km = 0.793

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Grounding systems page (30/34)
 Ki = 0.65 + 0.172*n , n=6

• Ki = 1.682

∴ Actual Etouch = 593.44 Volt

∴ Allowable Etouch > Actual Etouch

• For minimum length required (L):

Actual Etouch = Allowable Etouch

Km Ki ρ I L-G / Lmin = (165 + 0.25ρs) / √t

Lmin = 504.77 m

For step potential calculation:

Actual Estep = Ks Ki ρ I L-G / L

Ks = coefficient that takes into account the effect of number (n), spacing
(S), and depth of burial of the ground conductors.

Ks = (1/π) (1/2h + 1/(S+h) + 1/2S + 1/3S + 1/4S + 1/5S)

Ks = 0.283

∴ Actual Estep = 211.78 volt

• Allowable Estep = (165 + ρs) / √t

∴ Allowable Estep = 3165 volt

∴ Allowable Estep > Actual Estep

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 Maximum earth relay pick up current at:

Actual touch voltage = Allowable touch voltage for 24 hour.

• Allowable touch voltage for 24 hour = (Rb + Rf /2) Isafe

= 49.5 volt

• Actual touch voltage = Km Ki ρ le / L

Where: Ie = earth leakage current

= 875.826 A

8- Transmission line tower grounding

-Minimum requirements

1- Foundation earthing shall be made for each tower regardless of the

earthing resistance requirements
2- It consists at least of two galvanized steel rods ( 3 m long , 16 mm
diameter), or equivalent , buried under the foundation to ensure the
effectiveness of the earthing system at all times, including the reduction
of touch voltages at lightning and short circuit conditions.

3- In places where people often stay or move (roads, school yards etc.)
potential equalizing rings reducing touch voltages shall be buried around
the tower foundations and possible guy anchors. The inner ring is buried
at the depth and distance of 20 cm and the outer ring at the depth of: 50
cm and at the distance of 1 m around the foundation. However,
equalizing rings are not needed if the average tower resistance value of
the line is less than 10Ω.

-Design steps:

1- Soil resistivity (Ω.m) has to be measured every 2 km of the line route

and especially for tension towers.
2- The line route is divided into zones according to the soil resistivity.
3- The maximum value of tower resistance must be 10 Ω and 30 Ω for soil
resistivity equal to or lower than 300 Ω.m and higher than 300 Ω.m
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Grounding systems page (32/34)
 respectively.
Table: 3 shows the required earthing resistance values for different type of soil

The earthing resistance of the nearest ten towers to any transformer station
should not exceed 5Ω.

The measurements of the foundation earthing resistance at each tower shall be

performed after the foundation construction stage with its designed earthing
system. If the value of the resistance is equal or less than the required value
given above, there is no need for additional earth electrodes. If the value of the
resistance is still higher than the required value, additional earthing mesh has to
be fitted to reach the required value.

Table 3: Estimated soil resistivity for different soil types

Type of soil Soil Resistivity Earthing resistance

(Ω.m) (Ω)
Moon land 30 10

Foam clay & Arable land 100 10

Wet sand 200 10

Wet gravel 500 30

Dry sand or gravel 1000 30

Stony ground 3000 30

Design calculations

Given data:

1-Tower base dimensions are = 3 * 3 m2

2-Soil resistivity,ρ = 100Ω. m
3-The total length of conductor (l) = 2*3 + 2*3 +2*3
= 18 m

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Grounding systems page (33/34)
 4-The radius of equivalent circular plan:

π * req2 = 3 * 3

req = 2.866 m
∴ Tower foot resistance = (ρ / 4* req) + (ρ / l)
= 14.27 Ω > 10 Ω (target value)

Then very small treatment of soil will reduce the soil resistivity to 70Ω. m

∴ Tower foot resistance = 10 Ω (target value)

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