SPH 315/401 : ELECTRODYNAMICS

INTRODUCTION

What is “electrodynamics (ED)” is all about ?

Study of phenomena associated with moving charged bodies/particles in a

varying electric and magnetic fields, based on the Maxwell’s equations (ME),
i.e., electric and magnetic fields and their interactions with matter.

Since a moving charge produces a magnetic field, ED is also concerned with

effects such as magnetism, electromagnetics (em) radiation and em induction

Importance of ED
Has created a great revolution in the area of engineering applications, leading
to huge impact on the various fields such as medical, industrial, space, energy,
transportation, telecommunication, information, research, etc.

For instance, in telecommunication, the transmission of energy over long

distance is carried out through em waves at high frequencies (also referred to
as microwaves or radio waves).

Electromagnetic waves produced by time-varying sources are propagated

through waveguides or transmission lines.

Electromagnetic wave radiation is formed when em fields are propagated away

from the sources without any connection or conducting media from the source

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we will adopt the following symbols, notations and relations
E  electric field strength, (V/m)
D  electric flux density, (C/m2) [also referred to as “current displacement vector”] D = 0E
0  electric permittivity of free space 0 = 8.85  10-12 (F/m)
𝐃
𝐉  displacement electric current density (A/m2), i.e., the partial time-derivative of
electric flux density
J  conduction current density, (A/m2)
J = E
  electrical conductivity
H  magnetic field strength, (A/m)
B  magnetic flux density (magnetic induction) (wb/m2 or Tesla) B = 0H
0  magnetic permeability of free space , 0 = 4  10-7 (N/A2)
q  total charge (C)
  volume-charge density (C/m3)  charge, q, per unit volume V, i.e.,  = q/V  q = V
  surface-charge density (C/m2)  charge, q, per unit area A, i.e.,  = q/A  q = A
  linear-charge density (C/m)  charge, q, per unit length L, i.e.,  = q/L  q = L
c  speed of light in vacuum, c  3.0  108 (m/s)

WHAT ARE MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS (ME) ?

ME - a set of 4 complicated & differential relations that describes the world

of electromagnetics, i.e., are equations that describe how electric (E) and
magnetic (B) fields propagate, interact, and are influenced by objects/media
ME are laws, just like the law of gravity. These equations are rules the
universe uses to govern the behavior of E and B fields.
A flow of electric current will produce a magnetic field. If the current flow
varies with time (as in any wave or periodic signal), the magnetic field will
also give rise to an electric field.
ME shows that separated charge (positive and negative) gives rise to an
electric field - and if this is varying in time as well will give rise to a
propagating electric field, further giving rise to a propagating magnetic field

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DIFFERENTIAL FORMS OF MAXWELL EQUATIONS (ME) IN FREE SPACE
The time-varying ME in free space, prior to modification of the Ampere’s law, and in
the absence of magnetic or polarizable media, are :

𝛻·E (Gauss’s law (electrostatic)) (1a)

𝛻·B 0 (Gauss’s law (magnetostatic)) (1b) (magnetic monopoles)
𝛻 E (Faraday’s law) (1c)
𝛻 B 𝜇 J (Ampere's law) (1d)
where  is the del-operator
(in cartesian coordinates) ∇ 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧̂ (x,y,z)
(in cylindrical coordinates) ∇ 𝑟̂ θ 𝑧̂ (r,,z)
(in spherical coordinates) ∇ 𝑟̂   (r,,)


GAUSS’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (deriving ME 1a)

When charges are distributed uniformly over a volume element dv with
volume-charge density “” then the total charge “q” inside the gaussian
surface enclosing the volume will be 𝑞 𝑑𝑣
According to the Gauss’s law, the total electric flux E emanating from a
closed surface equals “1/0 multiplied by the total charge q” enclosed by the
surface 𝜙 𝑑𝑣
Electric flux E linked with the surface area element dA enclosing this volume,
based on the Gauss’s law (theorem) is
𝑬𝑑𝑨 𝜙
 𝑬𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑣  (2) [Gauss’s law]

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GAUSS’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (deriving ME 1a), Cont…
But according to the “Gauss’s divergence theorem”, the vol. integral of the div. of
electric field E is equal to the surface integral of E over the surface area element dA that
encloses the given volume, i.e.,
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑬 𝑑𝑣 𝑬𝑑𝑨
 𝑬𝑑𝑨 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑬 𝑑𝑣  (3)

Comparing eqn (2) and (3)

𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑬 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣

𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑬 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣

GAUSS’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (deriving ME 1a), Cont…

Since this is valid for any arbitrary volume, at any point, the volume integrals
on the two sides must be equal

𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑬

 𝑬  (4)
 𝜀 𝑬  
Eqn. (4) is the 1st ME (Gauss’s law) in its differential (point)form, and is the
fundamental equation on electrostatic.
It states that “the divergence of electric field E at any point is inversely proportional to
volume-charge density  at that point ”.
the proportionality parameter being electric permittivity of free space,
0 = 8.85  10-12 F/m

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GAUSS’S LAW (magnetostatics) IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (deriving ME 1b)

• Magnetism exists as dipoles, i.e., a north pole

always comes with a south pole.
• Implies that magnetic field lines must be
continuous, just like electric field lines.
• Choosing a gaussian space, the number of
magnetic field lines entering this region equal
the number of magnetic field lines leaving the
space.
• Therefore, the net magnetic flux B is zero.

 𝑩𝑑𝑨 0 (5)

GAUSS’S LAW (magnetic) IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (deriving ME 1b), cont…

Using divergence theorem, i.e., “the volume-integral of the divergence of magnetic

field B is equal to the surface-integral of the field B over the surface area S which encloses
the given volume ”
i.e., 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑩 𝑑𝑣 𝑩𝑑𝑨 (6)

Comparing eqn. (5) and (6), i.e., 𝑩𝑑𝑨 0

𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑩 𝑑𝑣 0

 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑩 𝑑𝑣 0
 𝐁 0  (7)
Eqn. (7) is the 2nd ME that states “ the divergence of B is always zero ”

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 FARADAY’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (deriving ME 1c),
Faraday discovered that the induced emf 𝑉 in any closed circuit is equal to
the –ve time-rate of change of the magnetic flux B linked to the electric circuit
This is called the Faraday’s law, and it can be expressed as (note that B = n)
𝑉 𝑛 (8)

 “n” is the number of turns in the circuit and  is the flux through each turn.
 The –ve sign indicates that induced voltage Vemf acts in such a way as to
oppose the flux producing it.
 This is known as the “Lenz’s law”, and it emphasizes concept that the
direction of the electric current flow in the circuit is such that the induced
magnetic field produced by induced current will oppose the original
magnetic field

FARADAY’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (deriving ME 1c), cont…

From the relationship between induced voltage Vemf and the electric field E,
we can relate E with B. For a single circuit, n = 1, eqn (8) becomes
𝑉 (9)

In terms of E and B, LHS of eqn. (8) can be written as (since V = EL)

𝑉 𝑬𝑑𝑳
 𝑬𝑑𝑳 (note that 𝝓 𝑩. 𝑑𝑨)
𝑬𝑑𝑳 𝑩𝑑𝑨 (10)

where magnetic flux B has been replaced by 𝑩𝑑𝑨 and S is the surface
area of the circuit bounded by the closed path L

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FARADAY’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (deriving ME 1b), cont…

from eqn (10)

 it is clear that in a time-varying situation, both E and B are present
and interrelated.
 both dL and dA vector elements are in accordance with the right-hand
rule as well as the Stokes’s theorem.
The variation of flux with time as in eqn (9) or (10) may be achieved in
three ways, i.e., by having a :
1. stationary loop in a time-varying B
2. time-varying loop in a static B
3. time-varying loop area in a time-varying B

FARADAY’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL (POINT) FORM (deriving ME 1c), cont…

eqn (10) can be re-arranged as ;
𝑬𝑑𝑳 𝑩𝑑𝑨
𝑩
 𝑬𝑑𝑳 𝑑𝑨
𝑩
 𝑑𝑨 𝑬𝑑𝑳  (11)

According to the Stokes’s theorem,  the surface integral of the curl of a vector E
over a surface boundary bounded by closed surface is equal to the line integral of the vector
E around that surface ”
i.e., 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑬 𝑑𝑨 𝑬𝑑𝑳
 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑬 𝑑𝑨 𝑬𝑑𝑳 (12)

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FARADAY’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (deriving ME 1c), cont…
𝑩
Comparing eqn. (11) and (12), we have, thus, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑬 𝑑𝑨 𝑑𝑨
𝑩
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑬  𝑑𝑨  𝑑𝑨
𝑩
 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑬
𝑩
 ∇ 𝑬  (13)
Eqn. (13) is the 3rd ME, which states “the curl of E is equal and in opposite to the
𝑩
time-rate of change of B , i.e., 𝐸 ”

It shows that the time-varying field E is a non-conservative, since, 𝑬 0.

This doesn’t imply that the principle of energy conservation is violated. The
work done in taking a charge around a closed path in a time-varying E is due
to the energy from the time-varying B

AMPERE’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL (POINT) FORM (deriving ME 1d)

Right-hand thumb rule
Thumb points in the current I direction and
fingers curl around the current indicating the
direction of the magnetic field B
𝑰
𝑱  𝑰 𝑱𝑨 ,
𝑨
I  electric current (Amperes (A))
A  cross-section area (m2 )
J  electric current density (A/m2 )
By Biot-Savart’s law, magnetic field B
𝐵 (note 2π𝑟 𝐿)
Since B and dL vector element are in the same direction

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AMPERE’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (deriving ME 1d), cont...

By Biot-Savart’s law, magnetic field B

𝜇 𝐼
𝐵
2π𝑟
Since B and dL are parallel, i.e., in the same direction
𝑩𝑑𝑳 𝐵 cos 0 𝑑𝐿 𝐵𝑑𝐿
Hence
𝑩𝑑𝑳 𝑑𝐿 𝐿 2π𝑟 𝜇 𝐼

But, 𝐼 𝜇 𝑱𝑑𝑨

𝑩𝑑𝑳 𝜇 𝑱𝑑𝑨 𝜇 𝑱 𝑑𝑨 (14)

AMPERE’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (deriving ME 1d), cont…

By Stokes’s theorem “ the surface-integral of the curl of a vector B over a surface
boundary bounded by closed surface is equal to the line-integral of the vector B around
that surface ” i.e., 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑩 𝑑𝑨 𝑩𝑑𝑳 (15)
from eqn. (14) and (15), we have, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑩 𝑑𝑨 𝑩𝒅𝑳 𝜇 𝑱𝑑𝑨

 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑩 𝑑𝑨 𝜇 𝑱𝑑𝐴

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑩  𝑑𝑨 𝜇 𝐽 𝑑𝑨
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑩 𝜇 𝑱
 𝑩 𝜇 𝑱  (16)
Eqn. (16) is the 4th ME, which states “ the curl of B is directly proportional to the current
density J ” the proportionality parameter being the “magnetic permeability” of
free space, 0 = 4  10-7 N/A2 = 12.58  10-7 N/A2