Intervention

Activities Guide
Kindergarten • Grade 1 • Grade 2 • Grade 3
2010-2014

These materials are copyrighted© by and are the property of the Texas Education Agency and the University of Texas System and may not be
reproduced without their written permission, except by Texas public school educators in Texas under the following conditions:
1) any portion reproduced will be used exclusively for nonprofit educational purposes;
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© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

Contents
Differentiated Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Graphophonemic Knowledge (continued)
What is Differentiated Instruction? .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Vowel Sounds
Model for Reading Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Short Vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Classroom Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Long Vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Small Group Instruction Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Diphthongs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Managing Student Engagement r-Controlled Vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
During Workstations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Consonant Digraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Common Syllable Types
Book and Print Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 and Multisyllable Words
Guidelines for Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Syllable Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Multisyllable Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Consonant Doubling
Phonemic Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 and Inflectional Endings
Word Play Consonant Doubling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Listening To and Producing Oral Language . . . . . 14 Inflectional Endings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Rhyming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Morphemes
Alliteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Prefixes and Suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Sentence Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Compound Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Syllable Play Contractions, High-Frequency
Syllable Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Words and Homonyms
Syllable Elision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Contractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Phoneme Play High-Frequency Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Phoneme Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Homonyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Initial Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Final Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Medial Vowel Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Fluency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Blending Word Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Guidelines for Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Onset-Rime Blending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Phoneme Blending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Phoneme Elision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Phoneme Segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Guidelines for Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Graphophonemic Knowledge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Letter Names and Sounds Comprehension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Letter Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Guidelines for Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Letter to Sound Linking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Read-Alouds and Retells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Reading Comprehension Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Blending Story Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Introduction to Blending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Initial Consonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Final Consonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Guidelines for Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Letter Substitution Teaching Foundational Writing Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Initial Consonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Teaching the Writing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Final Consonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Developing Writing Assessment Tools . . . . . . . . . . 181
Middle Vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Initial and Final Blends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Bibliography/Glossary
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Word List Index
Note: Many TPRI IAG activities provide example word
lists, which are often interchangeable among various
games. Below is a convenient compilation of the word lists.
Rhyming Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 19, 20
Alliterative Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 21, 23
One- to Four-Syllable Words . . . . . 26, 27, 29, 83, 85
Compound Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 97
Long Vowel Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34, 73
Short Vowel Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35, 70, 71, 72
Onset-Rimes and Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37, 38
Two- to Five-Phoneme Words . . . . . . . 39, 41, 45, 58
Initial and Final Blend Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
CVC Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Diphthong Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74, 75
r-Controlled Vowel Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Digraph Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Open and Closed Syllable Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Chunked Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86, 87
Consonant Doubling Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Inflectional Ending Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
y to i Plural Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Past Tense Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Drop Final e Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Comparative Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93, 94
Prefixes and Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94, 132, 133, 134
Suffixes and Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95, 133, 134
Homonym Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105, 106
Greek/Latin Root Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134, 135

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Differentiated Instruction

Differentiated
Instruction
Learning experiences designed specifically for individual students,
tailored to their needs and abilities.

Because the range of reading abilities in a typical classroom is about

five years, the idea of teaching students only in whole group has
faced increasing criticism. A struggling reader may require hundreds
of repetitions of the same skill, while another student requires
significantly fewer. A struggling reader may depend on explicit
instruction to make connections and develop, while a more skilled
reader makes strong and steady progress with less instructional
support. Guiding student progress through differentiated instruction,
therefore, becomes essential. Providing differentiated instruction helps
ensure that every student makes good reading progress.
What is Differentiated Instruction?
The purpose of differentiated instruction is to provide students with
learning experiences designed specifically for them and tailored to their
individual needs and abilities. Students require differentiated instruction
regardless of their ability, because reading progress accelerates when
reading instruction is matched to their needs. The following are central
characteristics of effective differentiated instruction:
••Forming small, flexible groups of students with similar
instructional needs.
••Making instructional decisions based on assessment
data (as opposed to using a plan-and-teach model
without distinct data concerning student needs).
••Targeting specific student instructional needs to help
students move forward from their current performance level.
••Moving students to another group as they master skills.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 1

Differentiated Instruction

Whole Group
Instruction:
Teacher-Led

Model for Reading Time

Teachers who get the best results
use multiple grouping patterns to
accommodate academic differences.
Small Group Collaborative The goal of the Model for Reading
Instruction: Groups:
Rotating Pairs/Partners, Time is to provide a plan for
Teacher-Led, Student Groups Workstations, differentiated instruction. Each
Similar Needs
Peer-Assisted component of the model is further
Reading
defined below. This is just one model
for organizing multiple groups during
a reading period.

Whole Group
Review:
Teacher-Led,
Closure

Whole Group Instruction

••Instruction is teacher-directed.
••Teacher works with all students to introduce or review concepts.
••Lessons focus on a particular topic, strategy or classroom routine.
Small Group Instruction
••Teacher typically meets with groups of three to six students.
••Teacher meets with lowest-performing students first, keeping that group as small as possible.
••Assessment data indicates students have similar instructional needs.
••Members of the group change as students progress at different rates. Teacher moves students
to groups where instruction will best match their needs.
Collaborative Groups
••Student-directed work with concepts and skills previously taught.
••Students work together in collaborative groups, pairs or alone at workstations to reinforce
skills already taught.
••Activities have an academic focus and relate to reading and writing.
••Students are held accountable for the work completed at each workstation.
Whole Group Review
••Teacher pulls all students back together.
••Reviews skills presented earlier.
••Provides students with the opportunity to consolidate their learning.
••May also include sharing and/or discussions of work completed during workstations,
peer-assisted reading, pairs/partner reading or fluency practice.

2 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Differentiated Instruction

Classroom Arrangement
The arrangement of the classroom is another important consideration for differentiated instruction. The graphic
below demonstrates how a classroom could be organized to facilitate instruction. There are some key features
to keep in mind when arranging a classroom for effective workstations and small group instruction:
••Ensure the teacher can see all students in the room.
••Teaching materials should be within arms’ length of the teacher.
••Students should be seated so they face the teacher and the board, making them less likely to be
distracted by students in workstations.
The bottom of the graphic shows where the teacher provides whole group instruction. Materials are organized
on a desk or table at the front of the room, so instruction is not interrupted as the teacher stops to collect or
locate materials.
The top left of the graphic depicts an area for small group instruction. The teacher and student materials
needed for small group instruction are in place at the table. Students face the teacher, away from the rest of
the classroom.
Work areas are circularly spaced around the periphery of the room, far enough apart so students don’t
disturb one another. In all, there are four spaces for students to work: Two project tables, a class library
and computer stations. The
“Planning Board” shown at Planning Board Project Table
Class Library

the top of the graphic is easily

Cabinets
seen by both teacher and
up
ro

students. It displays the small

lG
al
Sm

group or workstation to which

each student is assigned
during the small group
instruction period.
Student desks are arranged Project
Table
to support whole group Conference
Chair
instruction times. Students can
see the teacher and the board,
and can work collaboratively Teacher’s
Desk

Materials
with other students in their
desk groups. Chalkboard Computers

Differentiated Classroom
for 24 Students

Small Group Instruction Scheduling

A carefully planned classroom schedule is critical for delivering effective differentiated instruction in small groups.
When creating a schedule for small group instruction and workstations, consider issues such as:
••How many groups you will have.
••How many students will be in different groups.
••How often and when you will meet with each group.
••The duration of each group.
••How many workstations will be offered.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 3

Differentiated Instruction

Below are two samples of a possible schedule for providing small group differentiated instruction. These
samples demonstrate a 90-minute reading block that includes an additional intervention period. Each sample
shows four groups, though in some classrooms, it may be necessary or beneficial to have fewer or more
groups. These particular schedules will not work for all teachers or in all settings, and only serve as models of
how instructional time might be divided. Both samples allow for 60 minutes of small group instruction within
a 90+ minute reading block.
In the first sample schedule, Group 1 represents students with the most significant instructional needs. The
teacher will meet first and every day with Group 1. Group 2, consisting of students who are slightly more
developed as readers than Group 1, meets four times a week. Students in Groups 3 and 4 are even more
developed and meet with the teacher only three times a week. In addition to the differentiated instruction
students in Group 1 receive during the reading period, these students also receive differentiated instruction
multiple times a week during an intervention period.
The second sample schedule could be used to address the needs of two groups with more significant
instructional needs. This schedule allows the teacher to meet daily with the students in both Groups 1 and
2, alternating which group meets first with the teacher. Groups 3 and 4 are more developed as readers and
meet with the teacher only two or three times a week.
In addition to the differentiated instruction students in Groups 1 and 2 receive during the reading period,
these students also receive differentiated instruction multiple times a week during an intervention period.

Sample Reading Block Schedules

with Small Group Differentiated Instruction and Intervention
Core Reading Instruction Block Intervention
90+ min. 20 min.
Whole Group Instruction Teacher-Led Small Group Instruction/Workstations Small Group
30-45 min. 60 min. 20 min.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 1
Mon. 20 min. 20 min. 20 min. 20 min.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 4
Tues. 15 min. 20 min. 25 min.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 1
Wed. 15 min. 15 min. 15 min. 15 min. 20 min.
Thurs. Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
25 min. 20 min. 15 min.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 4 Group 1
Fri. 20 min. 20 min. 20 min. 20 min.

Core Reading Instruction Block Intervention

90+ min. 20 min.
Whole Group Teacher-Led Small Group Instruction/Workstations Whole Small Group
Instruction 60 min. Group 20 min.
25-35 min. Review/
Group 1 Group 2 Group 4 Closure Group 1
Mon. 20 min. 20 min. 20 min. 5-15 min. 20 min.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 4 Group 2
Tues. 20 min. 20 min. 20 min. 20 min.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 1
Wed. 20 min. 20 min. 20 min. 20 min.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 4 Group 2
Thurs. 20 min. 20 min. 20 min. 20 min.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 1
Fri. 20 min. 20 min. 20 min. 20 min.

4 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Differentiated Instruction

Managing Student Engagement During Workstations

Management of students during small group instruction is crucial when implementing the Model for Reading
Time. Important issues to consider when planning for workstations include establishing routines, choosing
appropriate activities, introducing workstations gradually and workstation logistics.
Establish Workstation Routines
Before beginning small group workstations, teach students routines and expectations for behavior. Practice
reading the planning board with students. Then develop a plan to transition into workstations and have
students practice moving through the classroom. Establish a time to clean each station before switching to
another one. It’s also important to set up a signal for switching stations and to practice quietly changing from
one station to another. Time invested in practicing workstations at the beginning of the school year will pay
off all year long.
Determine a way for students to ask for help during station time. Teach students not to interrupt small
group instruction. Be sure students know how to get a question answered by designating helpers to answer
questions. Or, establish a time, such as between stations, when students can ask you questions. Role play
how to ask for help. Examples of how to ask for help include “Ask Three Before Me” (students ask at least
three other students before coming to you for help), assign group leaders every week and/or use help flags at
each station.
Hold students accountable for activities they complete. The use of an exit slip is one way for students to track their
progress at each station. Students record the name of the station and write a description of the work completed
there. Another strategy is a self-evaluation rubric students complete at the end of the workstation.
Choose Appropriate Activities
Activities should review previously taught skills. They should provide students the opportunity to practice
and fully understand reading and writing concepts. When students practice review items, their level of
independence increases and management of the classroom becomes easier for you.
Introduce Workstations Gradually
Too often, teachers introduce all of the workstations at one time when beginning workstation rotations. Both
you and the students need time to become accustomed to the change. Introduce and teach one workstation
at a time. When you and the students feel comfortable managing one station, introduce another.
Workstation Logistics
All workstations don’t require a special location; some can be completed at the student’s desk. For example,
students can work on writing projects or read with a partner at their desks.
Over time and for convenience, the names of workstations can remain the same. Only the activities and/or
content change as students need reinforcement of new skills.
It’s not necessary to have more than three workstations. These stations should become an important part
of learning each day, not something to do when an assignment is completed. The workstations you choose
depend on the grade level and needs of students.

Facilitate Classroom Learning

Managing student behavior requires advance planning. After assessing and grouping students according
to instructional needs, consider the following to facilitate learning in the classroom:
••Make a schedule for small group reading instruction.
••Arrange the classroom to facilitate both whole group and small group instruction.
••Incorporate techniques that increase student engagement.
••Plan workstations where students can practice skills previously taught.
••Practice on workstations before you begin using them. Students should practice how to move from
one station to another prior to incorporating activities into the workstation.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 5

Differentiated Instruction

More Student Engagement = Greater Achievement

Classroom instructional time is limited, making the optimum use of available time critical. When time is well
spent, students are actively engaged in reading and writing, or practicing reading and writing skills and
strategies. When students are only listening and watching, academic engagement and student achievement
tend to decrease.
Increase Student Engagement and Attention During Teacher-Directed Time
••Increase students’ opportunities to respond to you.
••Use techniques other than calling on one student at a time.
••Have frequent, positive interactions with students.
••Use students’ names when giving examples.
••Frequently check for understanding.
Question Techniques to Increase Student Engagement
••Everybody Questions: Questions all students must answer.
••Turn and Talk: Students turn to face a partner or partners and talk about
a question or issue the teacher provides.
••Think, Pair, Share: Students think briefly and independently about a question
raised by the teacher, then pair with another student and discuss their thoughts.
••White Boards: Students write the answer to questions on a small white board.
••Response Cards: Small cards with predetermined answers on them
(e.g., yes or no, complete or incomplete sentence, main idea or detail, etc.).
••Cooperative Groups: A group of students discuss the question
and provide a group answer.

References
Carnine, D.W., Silbert, J., & Kame’enui, E.J. (1997). Direct instruction reading (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Merrill.

Greenwood, C.R. (1991). Classwide peer tutoring: Longitudinal effects on the reading, language, and
mathematics achievement of at-risk students. Journal of Reading, Writing, and Learning Disabilities
International, 7(2), 105-123.

Heward, W.L., Gardner, R., Cavanaugh, R.A., Courson, F.H., Grossi, T.A., & Barbetta, P.M. (1996). Everyone
participates in this class: Using response cards to increase active student response. Teaching
Exceptional Children, 28(2), 4-10.

Rosenshine, B.V. (1981). How time is spent in elementary classrooms. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 17(1),
16-25.

Shanker, J.L., & Ekwall, E.E. (1998). Locating and correcting reading difficulties (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.

Vaughn, S., Hughes, M.T., Moody, S.W., & Elbaum, B. (2001). Instructional grouping for reading for students
with LD: Implications for practice. Interventions in School and Clinic, 36(3), 131-137.

6 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Book and Print Awareness

Book and Print Awareness

Understanding the purpose of print and the basic characteristics
of books and other print materials.

Long before students are able to independently make meaning from

written words, they know a lot about books and print. Even some
Blackline Master available
children who haven’t learned to speak, for example, can distinguish
between the front and back of a book, between its first page and
its last. Knowing the basic conventions of print and generally www.tpri.org
understanding how books work is critical for developing readers.
Blackline Masters
There’s a range of skills and knowledge important for children who are www.tpri.org
just starting to understand the written word. Some activities have associated
Blackline Masters available as PDF
We want students to know: files to download, print out and use
••That written language conveys meaning. in your lessons. Go to www.tpri.org.

••The connection between written language (letters) and spoken

language (sounds).
••Different forms and functions of print.
••There is a difference between a letter, a word and a sentence.
••That we read print on a page from left to right and top to bottom.
••That each letter can be written as a capital letter or a lowercase
letter and it matters which version we use.
••That books are used to tell stories and provide information.
••That books have parts, like the title, author, illustrator, front cover,
back cover and pages.
Print is everywhere in our world: On signs, clothing and cars, on
television and cereal boxes, in magazines and catalogs. Print is used
to tell us things and sell us things; to teach, entertain and inspire us.
Teachers want students to be excited about print and to understand its
meaning. Well-developed book and print awareness is a sign students
are tuned in to print and growing into independent readers.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 7

Book and Print Awareness

Guidelines for Instruction

Children who grow up handling books and being read to often have more advanced book and print awareness.
One way to develop book and print awareness is by creating print-rich, engaging and literary classrooms that
inspire children to read. Curious children can learn a lot about the print in their environment, particularly when
adults explain it to them.
Activities for promoting book and print awareness are provided in this section. Below are ideas to guide your
classroom setup and routine.
Create a Reading Environment
••Provide an area in your classroom for students to handle and
explore books freely. Teach them to treat books with care.
••Read to your class every day! Read and reread favorite books
and stories aloud to your students.
••Read predictable texts with repeating patterns and familiar
words and plot lines.
••Read a variety of genres (e.g., fictional and true stories, poems, etc.)
on a wide range of topics.
••Label materials and areas in your classroom and draw attention
to environmental print, demonstrating for students how the words
in our world inform and guide us.
Read Actively with Students
••Read to children frequently from big books and books with large,
easy-to-read print.
••Show how to read a book from front to back, top to bottom and page
by page. Repeatedly talk through the steps you take as you read.
••Draw attention to important book features like the cover, title,
author and illustrator.
••As you read, point to the words with a finger or pointer. Explain
why your finger moves as it does, where it starts and stops, and why.
••Identify basic punctuation, helping students learn to distinguish
between the form and function of commas, periods, question marks,
exclamation points and quotation marks.

Book and Print Awareness

BPA-1 Oral Reading

Read to a group of students and discuss and teach basic concepts about books and print.
materials: Attractive text (picture book, big book, song book, etc.)

1 Read the book aloud to the class or a small 3 While reading, sweep your finger or a pointer
group. Hold the book so students can see the under the text either in one smooth stroke from left
pages and print. to right for students learning the direction of print, or
word-by-word for those learning to read words.
2 While reading, discuss with students concepts
such as cover, title page, author and illustrator. 4 Repeat the procedure at least once a day.

8 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Book and Print Awareness

Book and Print Awareness

BPA-2 Find the Front

Prompt students to identify components of the books they’re holding.
Materials: Short book (five to 10 pages, one line of print per page)

1 Provide a book for each student and one 4 Prompt students to do things like:
for yourself. Point to the author’s name.
Turn to the title page.
2 Sit with students in a circle. Ask students to Show me where the story starts.
show the front of the book. Turn to the last page.
3 Have students point to the title of the book. 5 Continue with similar prompts and clarify
Ask them what the book is titled, providing help confusion if students have problems.
as needed.
6 If time allows, have students switch books
with a partner and repeat Steps 2-5.

Book and Print Awareness

BPA-3 Show Me Where to Start

As you read a book, a student uses a pointer to show where to begin reading on each page.
Materials: Big book, pointer

1 Introduce the book and call on a student to 3 Begin reading the book as guided by the student.
guide you through reading the text.
4 After a few pages, call on a new student to use
2 Explain that on each page, the student must the pointer.
use the pointer to show you where to start reading.

Extension: If students understand well what a word is, the activity can shift to “Show Me What to
Read,” with the student pointing word by word as you read the text.

Book and Print Awareness

BPA-4 Pick a Letter, Pick a Word

Students roll a “Word/Letter” die and then pick up a card with either a word or letter on it.
Materials: Index cards, large die/small cube, stickers/labels, marker

1 Using stickers, label three sides of a die or 4 In the center of the circle, place the cards
cube Letter and three sides Word. face up in rows so the letter and word cards are
randomly distributed.
2 Create an equal number of letter and word index
cards. On one set, write one letter per card (do not 5 One student at a time rolls the die. If the
use A or I). On the other set, write one three- or student rolls Letter, the student finds and picks
four-letter word per card. up a card with a letter on it. If the student rolls
Word, the student finds and picks up a card with
3 Students sit in a circle. a word on it.

Extension: With students who are starting to know more letters, a requirement for getting to pick up a
card could be identifying the letter on a letter card or identifying the first letter on a word card.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 9

Book and Print Awareness

Book and Print Awareness

BPA-5 Counting Words

Students move one counter forward for each word in a sentence you read aloud.
Materials: Familiar text, chips/counters, sentence strips, marker

1 Write a short sentence on each sentence strip. For each word students speak, they move one of
Give each student four to five chips. their chips forward.
2 Students sit in front of you with their chips on 6 Turn the sentence strip over. One student
a table. places their chips on the words on the sentence
strip while reading it aloud.
3 Read aloud the sentence on one strip without
showing it to students. Place the sentence face 7 Confirm with other students that there is one chip
down in front of the students. on every word. Clear up any confusion in the group.
4 Students repeat the sentence aloud in unison. 8 Continue with other sentences.
5 Students repeat the sentence aloud individually.

Book and Print Awareness

BPA-6 Standing Sentences

Students repeat a sentence one word at a time while holding word cards.
Materials: Familiar text, sentence strips, scissors, marker

1 Write a short sentence on each sentence strip. group holding up their card.
Read aloud a sentence on one strip. Confirm the student knows
the word on the card.
2 Students repeat the sentence aloud in unison.
5 Other students are called
3 With help from students, cut the words in the forward to hold up the remaining
sentence apart, reminding students to look for words in the sentence.
the spaces between words.
6 The sentence is read word by word as each
4 Place the words in order on a table. Call one student says just their word.
student forward to pick up the first word in the
sentence. The student stands in front of the 7 Continue the process with several sentences.

Extension: After completing a sentence, you also may take out a word or change the order of words to
see what happens to the sentence.

10 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Book and Print Awareness

Book and Print Awareness

BPA-7 Cut the Word

Students cut sentences on strips into individual words.
Materials: Sentence strips, scissors, marker

1 Write a short, three- to five-word sentence on look for the spaces between words.
each sentence strip. Give each student scissors and
one sentence strip. 4 Students cut their sentence strips into words.
This step can be done student-by-student with
2 Read each student their sentence. groups that may have trouble with the task, or
simultaneously by all students in the group if the
3 Using your own sentence strip, model cutting task is less challenging for them.
the sentence into pieces, emphasizing how to

Extension: Students can be asked to identify the first word in the sentence by finding the word with
a capital letter, and the last word in the sentence by finding the card with punctuation. Students who
know some of their letters and letter sounds also may be able to put the cards in order after you read
them the sentence.

Book and Print Awareness

BPA-8 Spotting Sentences

Students identify sentences in a book you read to them.
Materials: Short and familiar big book

1 Define what a sentence is: 3 Read the first page of the story and have a
A sentence names a who or what and tells student point to where the first sentence begins
what the who or what is doing. and ends. Discuss how capital letters, periods,
question marks and exclamation points help us
2 Provide several examples of find the beginning and end of sentences.
both complete and incomplete
sentences (e.g., The dog ran 4 Continue reading the book, stopping so
away vs. The dog away). students can spot individual sentences.
5 Draw comparisons between sentences of
different lengths.

Book and Print Awareness

BPA-9 Punctuation Hunt

Students search through books to find periods, question marks and exclamation points.
Materials: Variety of short (five to 10 pages, one line of text per page), simple childrens’ books with periods and
at least one question mark and/or exclamation point, sticky notes, pencils

1 Provide each student with five sticky notes write the punctuation mark on the sticky note.
and allow them to select a book. Students must find at least one question mark or
exclamation point.
2 Students search through their books hunting for
periods, question marks and exclamation points. 4 If some students finish quickly, they may trade
books to find the punctuation on pages marked
3 When students find one of the punctuation by another student.
marks, they place a sticky note on the page and

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 11

Book and Print Awareness

Book and Print Awareness

BPA-10 Make a Book

Students make a book using their own writing and drawing.
Materials: Student writing and drawing, stapler, pencils/markers/crayons

1 Students collect writing and/or drawing they 3 Staple the book materials together to bind them.
produced previously to make a book.
4 Students share and read their books with each
2 Students create cover pages for their book. other, either as partners or during a whole group
Remember to have them include a title page with sharing time.
their name as the author and illustrator.

References
Adams, M.L., Foorman, B.R., Lundberg, I., & Beeler, T. (1998). Phonemic awareness in young children:
A classroom curriculum. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing.

Clay, M.M. (1993). An observation survey of early literacy achievement. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

12 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic Awareness
The ability to identify or manipulate the individual sounds
(phonemes) in words.

Before students can read print, they need to know how sounds in
words work. They must understand words are comprised of speech
Blackline Master available
sounds or phonemes. While phonemic awareness (PA) is independent
of intelligence, research supports a strong link between it and success
in early reading and spelling. Students may not benefit from phonics www.tpri.org
instruction until they‘ve developed basic PA.
Blackline Masters
What’s the Difference Between Phonics Instruction www.tpri.org
and Phonemic Awareness? Some activities have associated
Phonics instruction teaches students how to use letter-sound Blackline Masters available as PDF
relationships to read or spell words. Phonics focuses on print, and files to download, print out and use
incorporates phonological and morphological information into the in your lessons. Go to www.tpri.org.
decoding and encoding of written words.
Phonemic awareness is an oral language skill requiring the auditory
processing of sounds in the speech stream. PA focuses on the
processing and manipulation of phonemes in spoken syllables and
words, and is the most advanced component of the broader category,
phonological awareness.
Phonological awareness concentrates on understanding how spoken
sounds are combined and manipulated to form words and speech.
The skills that comprise phonological awareness are shown on the
Phonological Awareness Continuum graphic on the following page.

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Phonemic Awareness

Phonological Awareness Continuum

Phonological awareness is the ability to discriminate and manipulate various units of sound, including
words, syllables and phonemes. Mastering these abilities can be achieved through playful manipulation or
comparison of words, syllables or sounds. Good instruction encompasses many varieties of “sound play,”
including blending, segmentation, comparison and elision of sounds.
As students’ abilities mature, they’re able to manipulate smaller units of sound. Students move from
producing words to manipulating syllables to manipulating phonemes.
Instruction should follow the same general progression: Teaching and working on various word-level
manipulations, followed by increasingly complex work with syllables and, finally, with phonemes.
Phoneme Play

Phoneme Phoneme
Elision Segmentation

Syllable Play
Word Play Blending
Syllable Phoneme Word
Elision Comparison Parts
Syllable
Segmentation
Alliteration Sentence
Segmentation

Oral Rhyming
Language

Teaching Phonemic Awareness

When providing instruction in PA, consider these findings from the National Reading Panel (2000):
••Emphasize and teach to mastery only one or two phonological skills at a time.
••It’s often beneficial to provide letters when teaching phonemic manipulation tasks.
••Provide instruction in small groups.
Phoneme blending, segmentation and elision are the most advanced PA skills. The majority of instructional
time should be spent with phoneme blending and segmentation activities, the latter taught in the context of
letters. Linking letters to these skills is essential for building understanding of the sound-symbol relationship.
To read and write, students must be able to segment sounds and blend them back together. Once students
have developed strong phonemic awareness, PA instruction is no longer necessary.

Word Play: Listening To and Producing Oral Language

Before students learn to identify and manipulate sounds within words, they must be able to attend
to and produce oral language.

Guidelines for Instruction

Experience listening to and producing oral language helps students develop their phonological awareness,
and ultimately their phonemic awareness (PA) — the most advanced component of phonological awareness.
To promote PA, teachers can use a variety of interactive and game-like classroom activities, beginning with
activities focused on working with different oral and environmental sounds. These are the types of activities
included in this section. The goal of these activities is to draw student attention to the sounds of spoken
language and increase their ability to analyze speech sounds. These activities, and oral language activities in
general, often include elements like singing, rhyming, clapping and movement.

14 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Listening To and Producing Oral Language

PA-1 Listening to Different Sounds

Students listen to and identify sounds.
MATERIALS: Tape player, sound recordings

1 With eyes closed, students listen carefully as stapler, crumbling paper, tapping a pencil).
you play some sounds (e.g., telephone, alarm clock,
doorbell, footsteps, water dripping, cars, dogs, cats, 2 Students raise their hands when they know
birds). Or you can make sounds (e.g., clapping, the sound.
closing the door, using the pencil sharpener or 3 Call on a student to identify the sound.

EXTENSION:
1 Make three or four sounds in sequence, allowing 3 Students raise their hands when they know
students to hear the sequence one or two times. which sound was left out.
2 Repeat the sounds, omitting one. Ask students 4 Call on a student to identify the sound.
to listen for and identify the missing sound.

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Listening To and Producing Oral Language

PA-2 Whisper to Me
Students whisper a word or phrase around a circle.
MATERIALS: Word or phrase list

1 Sit in a circle with students. 3 That student whispers the same word to the
student on their right.
2 Whisper a word to the student on your right.
(Start with words, then move to short phrases 4 The message continues to be passed from
or sentences.) student to student around the circle.
5 The last student says what was heard.

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Listening To and Producing Oral Language

PA-3 It Doesn’t Make Sense

Students listen to well-known text and determine which part changed.
MATERIALS: Short and familiar text

1 Review with students a very familiar poem, by reversing, substituting or swapping words.
song or nursery rhyme.
3 Students listen carefully and identify the
2 As the text is read, sung or spoken, modify it changed part.

EXAMPLE:
Twinkle, twinkle little car, Wittle Miss Buffet, Jack and Jill went up the freeway,
How I wonder where you were. Sat on her ruffet, To fetch a pail of gasoline.
Up above the world so high, Eating some lurds and whey. Jack fell down and broke his leg,
Like a pizza in the sky. A little clown spider, And Jill came tumbling after.
Sat gown beside her,
Humpty, Dumpty wall on a sat, And frightened Miss Buffet away. Jack nimble be, Jack quick be.
Humpty, Dumpty fall a great had. Jack over the candlestick jumped.
All horses and the king’s men,
Couldn’t get Humpty together again.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 15

Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Listening To and Producing Oral Language

PA-4 Simon Says

Students follow directions by playing a Simon Says game.
MATERIALS: Simple directions

1 Write a set of simple directions for students 2 Use words like behind, under, right, left,
to follow: middle, before, after, numbers, etc.
Simon says touch your elbow two times.
3 Include directions that allow students to move
around and participate actively.

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Listening To and Producing Oral Language

PA-5 Describe a Picture

Students describe different pictures to foster oral language development.
MATERIALS: Magazines, ads and/or other print materials, scissors

1 Cut out colorful pictures from magazines or Who or what is in the picture?
other sources and pass out to students. What’s happening in the picture?
2 Model how to describe a picture using When and where does the picture take place?
different prompts. Tell me about the shapes in the picture.
3 Prompt students to elaborate on their picture Tell me more about the background.
descriptions by asking questions:
4 Students practice describing pictures with you.
5 When proficient, describe the picture based
on what students told you.

EXTENSION: Working in groups or pairs, students make up a story based on a picture. Students show
the picture and tell their stories.

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Listening To and Producing Oral Language

PA-6 Dramatize a Story

Students listen to and retell a story by acting it out.
MATERIALS: Goldilocks and the Three Bears, utensils and plates, table and chairs

1 Read the story to students. 4 Set the table with utensils and plates.
2 Distribute props referenced in the story. 5 Model how to dramatize what’s been read.
3 Designate a space with a table and chairs as 6 Encourage students to use their own words,
the bears’ house. along with the book’s dialogue, to elaborate on or
extend the story.

EXTENSION: Repeat the process with other stories. Again, encourage students to dramatize what was
read using their own words, along with the book’s dialogue, to elaborate on or extend the story.

16 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Phonemic Awareness

Word Play: Rhyming

The ability to produce words that end with the same sounds.

Guidelines for Instruction

The skill of rhyming involves making comparisons between the ending sounds in words. The activities in this
section provide students opportunities to both identify rhyming words when they hear them and to produce
words that rhyme. In addition to activities like these, students learn about rhyming through literature that
plays with language sounds, and through texts that emphasize rhyming patterns, such as Dr. Seuss books.
These types of books help increase student awareness of the phonological structure of language.

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Rhyming

PA-7 Rhyming Poem

After chorally reading a poem, students find the rhyming words and provide additional words that rhyme.
MATERIALS: Poem, chart paper, crayons/markers

1 Write a popular poem on chart paper and read 4 Have students think of other rhyming words to
it to the class. add to the chart.
2 After students have chorally read it aloud multiple 5 Students can draw pictures on the chart
times, help students identify the rhyming words. beside the rhymes.
3 Write the words on chart paper to be left up in
the room.

EXTENSIONs:
• Read the poem again, but have students say words that rhyme in a softer or louder voice.
• Arrange students in a circle and repeat the poem with each student saying a line.

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Rhyming

Blackline Master available
PA-8 Rhyme Concentration www.tpri.org

Students look for pairs of pictures depicting words that rhyme.

MATERIALS: Picture cards

1 Arrange pairs of rhyming picture cards face 3 Play continues with each student taking a turn
down on a table. until all pictures are matched.
2 Students take turns turning over a picture 4 At the end of the game, students count their
card, saying the name, and then turning over pairs and say each pair of rhyming words.
a second picture and saying its name. If the
pictures rhyme, it makes a pair and the student
keeps the cards.

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Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Rhyming

PA-9 Make a Rhyming Big Book

Students make a big book by adding a page a day with pictures of rhyming words.
MATERIALS: Word list, pictures, construction paper, glue stick, stapler, crayons/markers

1 Select a new word each day to make a 4 Glue pictures that rhyme with hat on the page.
rhyming page. Below each picture, write the word.
2 At the top of the page, glue a picture of the 5 Students also can draw pictures of words
word (e.g., hat). that rhyme.
3 Show students a variety of pictures cut out of 6 When complete, staple the pages into a big
magazines or coloring books and ask, book to be reread as a class or by students during
Which pictures rhyme with hat? workstations or literacy centers.

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Rhyming

PA-10 Do These Words Rhyme?

Students determine whether word pairs rhyme.
MATERIALS: Word list

1 Have students practice recognizing rhyming

vs. non-rhyming word pairs. Say, EXAMPLE:
Do sat and mat rhyme? Rhyming Pair Non-Rhyming Pair
2 If students respond incorrectly say, lamp, camp cat, cake
The two words sat and mat rhyme, because back, rack safe, sox
they have the same ending sound /at/.
frog, log bat, box
3 Provide additional examples as needed.
book, look book, bat
4 Say the word pairs, mixing up rhyming and rug, bug dog, doll
non-rhyming pairs. Ask students individually or
as a group to tell whether or not they rhyme. bat, sat goose, gas
fox, lox rain, red
moon, spoon foot, fast
dog, hog paint, pail
bags, rags hot, help
cat, rat let, like
rain, pain Jack, Jill
past, fast me, my

EXTENSION: Students hear three words and tell which two rhyme and which one doesn’t.

18 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Rhyming

PA-11 Can You Rhyme?

After hearing two words that rhyme, students produce a third rhyming word.
MATERIALS: Word list

1 Say two rhyming words and ask students to believe words are acceptable.
provide a third word that rhymes. Remind them
rhymes end with the same sound. 3 For monitoring purposes, request some
individual responses.
2 Students think of a third rhyming word. Make-

EXAMPLE:
Rhyming Pair Possible Third Rhymes Rhyming Pair Possible Third Rhymes
key, bee sea, me, pea fan, man tan, Ann, van
pan, ran fan, can, Dan goat, boat coat, moat, float
sock, rock block, lock, dock big, dig wig, rig, pig
mouse, house douse, louse, zouse chain, rain gain, Jane, lane
bug, rug dug, lug, pug bed, red led, fed, said
fan, can tan, man, pan peg, leg Meg, beg, egg
train, plane cane, rain, vane truck, luck buck, duck, puck
fox, box lox, pox, ox book, took look, nook, crook
pail, sail mail, rail, whale hat, rat fat, cat, mat

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Rhyming

PA-12 Have You Ever Seen…?

Students produce a rhyming word to finish a silly rhyming sentence.
MATERIALS: Rhyming sentence starters

1 Tell students you need their help to finish

some silly sentences. EXAMPLE:
Rhyming Sentence Starters
2 Read a sentence, pausing at the end. Ask Have you ever seen…
students for a rhyming word to finish the sentence.
Model a few sentences as a group for practice. a cat wearing a _______ (hat)?
a goose with a tooth that is _______ (loose)?
3 Students work with a partner to think of a
rhyming word. a pig wearing a _______ (wig)?
kittens wearing _______ (mittens)?
4 Call on a pair of students to share their answer.
a fox in a _______ (box)?
a dog eating a _______ (log)?
a mouse in a _______(house)?
a cake by a _______(lake)?
a bee stuck in a _______(tree)?
ants wearing _______ (pants)?
a moose chasing a _______(goose)?
a bug vacuuming a _______ (rug)?

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 19

Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Rhyming

PA-13 The Ship Is Loaded with…

Students generate words that rhyme with the word at the end of a sentence.
MATERIALS: Sentence starters, beanbag (or other tossable item)

1 Arrange students in a circle.

EXAMPLE:
2 To begin say, Sentence Starters
The ship is loaded with cheese. The ship is loaded with…
3 Toss the beanbag to a student in the circle. peas (fleas, trees, bees, keys, knees, teas)
The student makes a rhyme with the last word in logs (dogs, hogs, frogs, bogs, togs)
the sentence (e.g., cheese). cats (rats, hats, mats, gnats, bats, vats)
4 The student with the beanbag tosses it to The car is loaded with…
another student who says a different word that rags (bags, flags, hags, gags, tags)
rhymes with cheese. bells (wells, shells, smells, yells, cells)
5 Continue tossing the beanbag for several chairs (hairs, stairs, air, fairs, mares, pairs)
rounds or until students run out of rhymes. The house is loaded with…
The basket is loaded with…
The backpack is loaded with…
The wagon is loaded with…
The trunk is loaded with…

Word Play: Alliteration

The ability to produce words that begin with the same sound.

Guidelines for Instruction

When working with alliteration, students focus on the beginning sounds of words. As students’ phonemic
awareness develops, they should learn to recognize sentences and phrases that use alliteration and be able to
produce sets of alliterative words. The activities in this section allow students to play with words focusing on
their beginning sounds.

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Alliteration

PA-14 Slippery Snakes and Wild Wolves

Students help make pairs of words beginning with the same sound (alliterative words).
MATERIALS: Word list

1 Say a word (e.g., slippery). 3 Call on other students to think of words to go

with yours.
2 Call on a student to say a word that starts with
the same sound as your word. The student says 4 Offer support and examples until students
your word and then adds a word (e.g., slippery understand what to do.
snakes). Responses can be nonsensical, but
should begin with the same sound. 5 Say additional words and call on each student
multiple times.
(continued next page)

20 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Phonemic Awareness

Slippery Snakes and Wild Wolves (continued)

EXAMPLE:
Prompt Possible Responses
big boys, bus, balloon
dirty dog, doll, dish
cold cows, cat, cave
mad man, mail, minute
pretty ponies, penny, pumpkin
great game, grape, goats
happy home, horses, heart
red ribbons, raindrops, raspberry
slippery snakes, sandwich, sofa
kind kids, captain, cat
terrible toads, tooth, tiger
little lambs, leaf, light
wild wolves, winter, wind

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Alliteration

PA-15 Alliteration Sentences

Students hear two sentences and identify the one with the most alliteration.
MATERIALS: Alliterative sentence pairs

1 Read a pair of sentences. For example, 3 Read both sentences again, placing emphasis
Bears love biting berries. on the repeating beginning sounds.
Bears love biting fish.
4 Students repeat the alliterative sentence.
2 Ask students,
Which sentence has the most words that 5 As you provide additional sentences,
begin with the same sound? gradually offer less support so students can
perform the task more independently.

EXAMPLE:
Alliterative Sentence Pairs
Bears love biting berries. Bears love biting fish.
Fat frogs find bugs. Fat frogs find food.
Dusty dogs dig in dirt. Dusty dogs dig in mud.
Smooth snakes can slither. Smooth snakes can hiss.
Tasty treats taste terrific. Tasty treats taste great.
Climbing cats use paws. Climbing cats use claws.
Goofy goats love to gallop. Goofy goats love to run.
The crazy kids ate candy. The crazy kids ate pizza.
The grass grows green. The grass grows high.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 21

Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Alliteration

PA-16 Make a Same-Sound Book

Students draw items that start with the same sound and put them together as a big book.
MATERIALS: Pictures, construction paper, glue stick, stapler, crayons/markers

1 Create book pages by gluing pictures starting 3 Collect the pages and staple them together
with different sounds onto paper. with a cover to make a book.
2 Pass out one page to each student. Students 4 Share the book with students during several
draw things that begin with the same sound as reading times. Allow students to review it during
the picture. For example, if the picture shows a workstations or literacy centers.
hat, the student could draw a house, hair and
happy face. If they’re able to, students also can
write words that begin with the same sound.

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Alliteration

Blackline Master available
PA-17 Alliteration Sort www.tpri.org

Students sort pictures into groups with the same sound.

MATERIALS: Picture cards

1 Select a set of picture cards with at least two 3 Working in teams, students sort the cards into
pictures for each beginning sound. word sets beginning with the same sound.
2 Arrange the cards face up on a table. 4 Students check their sets by saying each word
in the set.

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Alliteration

Blackline Master available
PA-18 Alliteration Concentration www.tpri.org

Students look for pairs of pictures with the same starting sound.
MATERIALS: Picture cards

1 Arrange pairs of alliterative picture cards face pair and the student keeps the cards.
down on a table.
3 Play continues with each student taking a turn
2 Students take turns turning over a picture until all pictures are matched.
card, saying the name, and then turning over
a second picture and saying its name. If the 4 At the end of the game, students count their
pictures begin with the same sound, it makes a pairs and say each pair of alliterative words.

22 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Alliteration

PA-19 What Makes Henry Hippo Happy?

Students tell whether pairs of words start with the same sound.
MATERIALS: Henry Hippo questions

1 Tell students Henry Hippo loves animals that 4 Students repeat what makes Henry Hippo
start with the same sound. You need their help happy (e.g., cute kittens).
to figure out which animals make Henry Hippo
happy. 5 Ask the remaining questions, mixing up
thumbs up and thumbs down questions. If
2 Read the first item. For example, students are confused, continue to provide
cute kittens: Do cute kittens make support and explanations.
Henry Hippo happy?
3 Students give a thumbs up if they think cute
kittens make Henry Hippo happy or a thumbs
down if they don't. Explain why they do or don't.

EXAMPLE:
Thumbs Up
cute kittens Do cute kittens make Henry Hippo happy?
heavy horses Do heavy horses make Henry Hippo happy?
shy sheep Do shy sheep make Henry Hippo happy?
dancing deer Do dancing deer make Henry Hippo happy?
tiny turtles Do tiny turtles make Henry Hippo happy?
funny fish Do funny fish make Henry Hippo happy?
slithery snakes Do slithery snakes make Henry Hippo happy?

Thumbs Down
furry bunnies Do furry bunnies make Henry Hippo happy?
racing zebras Do racing zebras make Henry Hippo happy?
tall giraffes Do tall giraffes make Henry Hippo happy?
creeping turtles Do creeping turtles make Henry Hippo happy?
flying birds Do flying birds make Henry Hippo happy?

Word Play: Sentence Segmentation

The ability to identify words in a sentence.

Guidelines for Instruction

Recognizing and being able to distinguish between spoken words is an early and important phonemic
awareness skill necessary for recognizing words in printed text. During sentence segmentation instruction,
students look at and work with written words. Students don’t require the ability to read words to recognize
the divisions between words.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 23

Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Sentence Segmentation

PA-20 Understanding a Sentence

Students learn that a sentence is made up of individual words.
MATERIALS: Sentence strips, scissors, pocket chart, marker

1 With their assistance, write a few short word ends. Put the words in order in a pocket chart.
sentences about students in the class (e.g., Lisa
loves to run) on sentence strips. 3 Reread the sentence orally, pointing to each
word as you say it.
2 While cutting the words in a sentence apart,
explain to students you are cutting the big spaces 4 Students come up and point to each word as
between words because they indicate where a they say the sentence.

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Sentence Segmentation

PA-21 Count the Words

Students count the number of words in a sentence.
MATERIALS: Short sentences, counters

1 Say a short sentence aloud. Repeat it. Repeat per word in the sentence. To make the activity
the sentence a third time and place a counter harder, provide more counters than words in the
on the table as you say each word. Make sure sentence.
students see how you place the counters moving
from their left to their right. 4 Read the sentence and have the student
repeat it.
2 Practice counting words in additional
sentences with student help. 5 Have the student repeat the sentence again
while placing the counters.
3 When ready to work independently, provide
one student at a time counters. To make the 6 The class observes and checks the student’s
activity easier, give the student one counter work.

Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Sentence Segmentation

PA-22 Cover the Words

Using counters, students cover the words in a sentence as they repeat it.
MATERIALS: Short sentences, sentence strips, counters, marker

1 Write short sentences on sentence strips. 4 When ready to work independently, provide
one student at a time counters and a sentence.
2 Say a short sentence aloud. Repeat it. Every Read the sentence and have the student repeat it.
time you say a word, model how to cover it with
a counter. Make sure students see how you cover 5 Have the student repeat the sentence again
the words moving from their left to their right. while covering each word with a counter.
3 Practice covering words in additional 6 The class observes and checks the student’s work.
sentences with student help.

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Phonemic Awareness | Word Play: Sentence Segmentation

PA-23 Stepping Sentences

Students step forward for each word read in a sentence.
MATERIALS: Short sentences

1 Call on a group of students to stand at the 4 Repeat the sentence by having students step
front of the room. forward in order and say their word.
2 Say a sentence aloud. One at a time, ask a 5 Repeat the process several times to allow
student to step forward for a particular word. students to become more fluid and confident.
3 Repeat the sentence. Students step forward
when you say their word.

Syllable Play: Syllable Segmentation

The ability to separate syllables in a word.

Guidelines for Instruction

Students with strong phonemic awareness are able to hear and isolate the individual sounds (phonemes) in
words. To develop this ability, students begin by working with word syllables. Understanding how to break
a word into syllables is a foundational skill for students learning phonics. Working with syllables, students
move from segmenting a word into deleting (eliding) a syllable from a word.

Phonemic Awareness | Syllable Play: Syllable Segmentation

PA-24 Clapping Names

Students clap the number of syllables in their names and the names of classmates.
MATERIALS: Name list

1 Model how to clap the number of syllables in a 3 Students clap the number of syllables in the
student’s name. name, then blend the sounds together to say the
name again.
2 Say a student’s name.
4 Continue clapping other names.

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Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic Awareness | Syllable Play: Syllable Segmentation

PA-25 Pass the Pail

Students segment and blend syllables in a secret object’s name.
MATERIALS: Objects or picture cards, pail

1 Fill a pail with various objects or pictures of 4 Other students blend the spoken syllables to
objects. come up with the object’s name.
2 Students sit in a circle. Pass the pail to the 5 The student shows the object.
first student. The student picks an object without
showing it to other students. 6 All students clap the syllables in the name
and say the blended word again.
3 The student segments the syllables in the
object’s name.

EXAMPLE: One Syllable Two Syllables Three Syllables Four Syllables

dog thunder banana television
pen pencil dinosaur watermelon
desk paper octopus constellation
fruit dinner peppermint alligator
red bottle basketball dandelion
plate motor bicycle convertible
goat baseball acrobat binoculars
knee balloon coconut arithmetic

Phonemic Awareness | Syllable Play: Syllable Segmentation

Blackline Master available
PA-26 Count the Syllables www.tpri.org

Students use chips to determine the number of syllables in words.

MATERIALS: Word list, chips/counters, counting mats, marker

1 Create a counting mat with five connected 3 Either to individual students or to the group,
boxes. Give each student a mat and five chips. say a word. Students repeat the word and
segment it into syllables, moving a chip into a box
2 Students arrange their chips in a line below for each syllable.
each box on the mat.

Phonemic Awareness | Syllable Play: Syllable Segmentation

Blackline Master available
PA-27 Segmenting Syllables with Pictures www.tpri.org

Students use picture pieces to practice blending syllables.

MATERIALS: Pictures, scissors

1 Cut pictures of two-, three- or four-syllable 3 One at a time, a student says the word for
words into vertical pieces. The number of pieces the picture syllable by syllable, moving down a
should match the number of syllables in the word. picture piece for each syllable spoken. Be sure the
student starts with the piece on the left and then
2 Place the pieces of one picture face up on moves from left to right.
a table.

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Phonemic Awareness | Syllable Play: Syllable Segmentation

Blackline Master available
PA-28 Syllable Swap www.tpri.org

Students clap the number of syllables in different words.

MATERIALS: Picture cards, pencil

1 Select picture cards of one- to four-syllable in the center holding the stack of picture cards.
words. Write the number of syllables in the word
on the back of each card. 6 The center student faces a seated student and
shows a picture card. The seated student says the
2 Show a picture and ask students to say what word, claps the number of syllables in the word
it depicts. and tells the number of syllables.
3 Students clap out the number of syllables in 7 The center student determines if the answer
the word. is correct or incorrect by checking the number
written on the back of the card. If correct, the
4 Repeat Steps 2-3 for each picture. seated student gets the card and the center
5 Tell students they’re going to play a Syllable Swap student calls on another student. If incorrect, the
game. Pick an odd number of students and have all students trade places.
but one sit in a circle. The remaining student stands
EXAMPLE: One Syllable Two Syllables Three Syllables Four Syllables
book ladder hamburger macaroni
cart pizza tornado thermometer
bag pencil alphabet helicopter
soup fountain tomato caterpillar
dog ticket spaghetti automobile
cat giraffe telephone gymnasium
rain bonnet dinosaur enchilada
fork peanut holiday reservation

Phonemic Awareness | Syllable Play: Syllable Segmentation

PA-29 Break the Syllables

Students break apart interlocking cubes as they segment words into syllables.
MATERIALS: Word list, interlocking cubes

1 Give each student a set of four interlocking cubes. 4 Students repeat it while breaking apart a cube
for each syllable.
2 Choose a one- to four-syllable word. Tell
students to put together the same number of 5 Provide more words, passing out additional
interlocking cubes as the word’s syllables. cubes as needed.
3 Say the word.
EXAMPLE: One Syllable Two Syllables Three Syllables Four Syllables
run funny bicycle hilarious
pen doughnut library avocado
chair marker computer believable
fish water banana celebrated
car paper exercise interested
plane monkey favorite introduction
bus basket important aquarium

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Phonemic Awareness

Syllable Play: Syllable Elision

The ability to delete (elide) syllables from words and say the remaining syllables or words.

Guidelines for Instruction

Syllable elision is another phonological awareness skill that helps students develop the phonics abilities to
decode words successfully. When students can effectively segment words into syllables, they’re ready to
work with eliding (deleting) syllables from words. Learning syllable elision helps prepare students for more
advanced phonemic awareness work.
When learning to elide sounds, students begin by deleting one part of a compound word and then move to
deleting syllables from other multisyllable words. When ready to move on to elision of individual phonemes,
students begin by eliding the first and then the last phoneme from words (Rosner, 1979).

Phonemic Awareness | Syllable Play: Syllable Elision

PA-30 Deleting Compound Word Parts

Students delete part of a compound word.
MATERIALS: Word list

1 Say a compound word (e.g., cowboy) and ask EXAMPLE:

students to repeat it.
2 Ask students to say the word again, omitting Compound Words
part of the word (e.g., Now say cowboy without moonlight anyone grandmother
saying cow; students respond, boy). cannot baseball railroad
3 Continue with different words until students basketball anybody skateboard
are proficient. everything butterfly somewhere
grasshopper inside afternoon
4 When students can successfully delete the nobody touchdown toothpaste
first part of a compound word, ask them to delete popcorn airplane gingerbread
the second part (e.g., Now say cowboy without
saying boy; students respond, cow).

Phonemic Awareness | Syllable Play: Syllable Elision

Blackline Master available
PA-31 Syllable EIision with Pictures www.tpri.org

Students practice saying one syllable of a two-syllable word.

MATERIALS: Pictures, scissors

1 Select pictures of two-syllable words and cut 4 One at a time, call on students to complete
each in half vertically. the same steps with the remaining pictures.
2 Place the two pieces of one picture face up on 5 If the student correctly says only the first
a table. syllable, they keep the picture.
3 Say the word (e.g., tiger), then pick up the 6 Once all pictures are picked up, students
picture’s left piece while saying only the first count how many they collected.
syllable (e.g., tie).

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Phonemic Awareness | Syllable Play: Syllable Elision

PA-32 Deleting Syllables

Students delete one syllable of a multisyllable word.
MATERIALS: Word list

1 Say a multisyllable word (e.g., person) and 3 Continue with different words until students
ask students to repeat it. are proficient.
2 Ask students to say the word again, omitting 4 When students can successfully delete
part of the word (e.g., Now say person without the word’s first syllable, ask them to delete
saying per; students respond, son). the remaining syllables (e.g., Now say person
without saying son; students respond, per).

EXAMPLE:
Two Syllables Three Syllables
person thunder baseball family elephant envelope
pencil paper dinner radio energy battery
balloon motor ladder volcano celery exercise
pizza rocket chicken position compliment magician
bottle happy super ladybug vitamin lemonade

Phonemic Awareness | Syllable Play: Syllable Elision

PA-33 Syllable Take Away

Using clapping and chips as aids, students delete one syllable of a multisyllable word.
MATERIALS: Word list, colored chips/counters

1 Say a word and ask students to repeat it. 6 Tell students you will remove the last chip and
say the word again, this time omitting the last
2 With students, clap the number of syllables in syllable. Model the process once, with students
the word. repeating after you.
3 Place different colored chips in a row on a 7 Continue with different words, gradually
table, one chip per syllable in the word. providing less help and support.
4 Say the word again syllable by syllable, 8 When students can consistently remove a
moving your finger from chip to chip from the word’s final syllable, repeat the activity. This
students’ left to right. time, remove the chip representing the word’s
5 Ask a student to touch the chips while saying first syllable and omit saying the first syllable.
the word syllable by syllable. Provide support to
ensure they move from chip to chip, touching one
chip per syllable.

EXAMPLE:
Two Syllables Three Syllables
bubble flower fountain thunder terrific cinnamon potato delicious
doctor tender getting funny remember wonderful banana apartment
purple picnic nicely teacher attention protection envelope company
garden because believe fifteen vacation certainly furniture Saturday
traffic concrete hammer tiger beautiful surprising jellyfish character

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Phonemic Awareness

Phoneme Play: Phoneme Comparison

The ability to compare differences between beginning, ending and middle sounds in words.

Guidelines for Instruction

The most advanced phonological awareness activities allow students to work with individual phonemes in
words. In the Phoneme Play sections, students develop their phonemic awareness through work with four
foundational skills: phoneme comparison, blending word parts, phoneme elision and phoneme segmentation.
Although the activities for each of these skills are presented separately, integrating instruction for these
skills — going back and forth between comparison, blending, elision and segmenting tasks — will result in the
greatest benefits for reading and spelling acquisition.
One sign of early phonemic awareness is the ability to recognize when words begin or end with the same
sound. As students begin to compare the phonemes in different words, they compare only two words and
progress to comparing three or more words. To help students develop the ability to compare differences
between beginning, ending and middle sounds, teachers can work with students on the following types of
activities:
••Use pictures to compare the beginning sounds of words.
••Pronounce pairs of words that differ in only one phoneme (e.g., cold, hold) and identify what sound is
different in the two words and its position. Start by comparing two to three words with like sounds and
then add one sound that doesn’t belong. Repeat for ending sounds.
••Ask students to listen for and tell you the medial vowel sound in words. Start with long vowel sounds
(e.g., comb, bean) as they are the easiest to hear within words. Have students say only the vowel sound
and then pronounce the whole word.
Phoneme Comparison activities are divided into three sections, moving students from making the least to
most challenging comparisons: Initial Sound, Final Sound and Medial Vowel Sound.
Phoneme Comparison: Initial Sound

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Comparison | Initial Sound

PA-34 Comparing Beginning Sounds

Students compare words to determine if they have the same beginning sound.
MATERIALS: Word list

1 Ask students to compare two words. EXAMPLE:

2 If the words begin with the same sound, they
give a thumbs up. Thumbs Up Thumbs Down
loss, lip dip, rip
3 If the words don’t begin with the same sound, well, wall all, tall
they give a thumbs down.
bed, bet hot, cot
song, sock pay, ray
bed, band men, pen
hat, hot mouth, south
lake, lost five, dive
song, sang cap, map

ADAPTATION: Show three pictures, two that begin with the same sound and one that doesn’t. Students
tell which picture doesn’t match.

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Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Comparison | Initial Sound

Blackline Master available
PA-35 Initial Sound Picture Sort www.tpri.org

Students sort pictures to identify words with the same beginning sound.
MATERIALS: Picture cards, file folder, envelope, glue stick, marker

1 Select picture cards showing objects with two 4 Leave the third column blank for pictures
different beginning sounds. Include a few pictures without either sound.
of objects that do not begin with either of the two
sounds. 5 Students sort the remaining pictures and place
them under the correct column.
2 Draw three columns on a file folder.
6 After completing the activity, put the pictures
3 Paste pictures of two objects with different in an envelope and store them with the file folder.
beginning sounds in the first two columns. You can use the file folder with another group,
or students can work with it independently in a
workstation.

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Comparison | Initial Sound

Blackline Master available
PA-36 Beginning Sound Bingo www.tpri.org

Students play bingo by placing tokens on pictures beginning with the identified sound.
MATERIALS: Picture cards, bingo boards, chips/counters

1 Print the picture cards and bingo boards to use 4 Students place a chip on pictures that begin
with this activity from the tpri.org website. with the same sound as the picture shown.
2 Give each student or pair of students a bingo 5 The first student to cover an entire row or
board and chips or counters. column shouts “bingo” and is the winner.
3 Show a picture card and say the word shown.

EXTENSION: As students progress up the Phonological Awareness Continuum, this game can be used
for final and medial sounds, phonemes and letter/sound correspondence (e.g., you say a sound and
students cover the corresponding letter).

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Comparison | Initial Sound

Blackline Master available
PA-37 Beginning Sound Sets www.tpri.org

Students sort objects or pictures beginning with the same sound into sets.
MATERIALS: Container (pail, sack, small basket, etc.), objects or pictures

1 Put a set of small objects or picture cards 2 Working on a table or the floor, students sort
beginning with a few different sounds into the objects or pictures into sets starting with the
a container. same sound.

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Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Comparison | Initial Sound

Blackline Master available
PA-38 Beginning Sound Concentration www.tpri.org

Students match pictures that begin with the same sound.

MATERIALS: Picture cards

1 Arrange five to 10 pairs of picture cards face a second picture and saying its name. If the
down on a table. Paired cards should begin with the pictures begin with the same sound, it makes a
same sound. pair and the student keeps the cards.
2 Students take turns turning over a picture 3 Play continues with each student taking a turn
card, saying the name, and then turning over until all pictures are matched.

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Comparison | Initial Sound

PA-39 Guess What I’m Thinking?

Students guess words after hearing their starting sounds and clues.
MATERIALS: Word list and clues

1 Challenge students to guess the word you’re 3 If students can’t guess the word, provide its
thinking of. Say, second sound.
I’m thinking of something that begins with…
4 For continuous sounds, hum the sound for
2 Provide the word’s initial sound and a clue. Say, half a second. (/mmmm/)
/mmmm/. It’s an animal with a long tail.
(monkey) 5 For stop sounds, say the sound once. (/t/)

EXAMPLE:
Initial Sounds Clues and Words
I’m thinking of something
that begins with…
/mmmm/ It’s an animal with a long tail. (monkey)
/t/ It’s red and goes in a salad. (tomato)
/ffff/ It blows cool air when it’s hot. (fan)
/b/ It’s round and you use it for playing a game. (baseball or ball)
/fffff/ It’s circular and sometimes dogs like to catch it in the air. (Frisbee®)
/ch/ It’s yellow and I like to eat it on sandwiches. (cheese)
/w/ It’s clear and we drink it. (water)
/nnnnnn/ They’re crunchy and I like them in chocolate chip cookies. (nuts)
/rrrrrrr/ It’s wet and falls from the sky. (rain)
/p/ It’s white after you pop it. (popcorn)
/vvvvvv/ You put flowers in it. (vase)
/r/ It keeps your food cold. (refrigerator)
/b/ It has two wheels and you ride it. (bicycle)

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Phoneme Comparison: Final Sound

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Comparison | Final Sound
Blackline Master available
PA-40 Ending Sound Picture Sort www.tpri.org

Students sort pictures to identify words with the same ending sound.
MATERIALS: Picture cards, file folder, envelope, glue stick, marker

1 Select picture cards showing objects with two 4 Leave the third column blank for pictures
different ending sounds. Include a few pictures without either sound.
of objects that do not end with either of the two
sounds. 5 Students sort the remaining pictures and place
them under the correct column.
2 Draw three columns on a file folder.
6 After completing the activity, put the pictures in
3 Paste pictures of two objects with different an envelope and store them with the file folder. You
ending sounds in the first two columns. can use the file folder with another group, or students
can work with it independently in a workstation.

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Comparison | Final Sound

Blackline Master available
PA-41 Ending Sound Sets www.tpri.org

Students sort objects or pictures that end with the same sound into sets.
MATERIALS: Container (pail, sack, small basket, etc.), objects or pictures

1 Put a set of small objects or picture cards ending 2 Working on a table or the floor, students sort
with a few different sounds into a container. the objects or pictures into sets ending with the
same sound.

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Comparison | Final Sound

PA-42 Comparing Ending Sounds

Students compare words to determine if they have the same ending sound.
MATERIALS: Word list

1 Ask students to compare two words. EXAMPLE:

2 If the words end with the same sound, they
give a thumbs up. Thumbs Up Thumbs Down
ship, soap like, lip
3 If the words don’t end with the same sound, pass, pace hat, half
they give a thumbs down.
build, paid bug, bus
slip, rip rope, soak
itch, beach farm, barn
work, walk wash, reach
rock, cloak fan, fast
me, flea tub, rip
surf, laugh sip, sock

ADAPTATION: Show three pictures, two that end with the same sound and one that doesn’t. Students
tell which picture doesn’t match.

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Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Comparison | Final Sound

Blackline Master available
PA-43 Ending Sound Concentration www.tpri.org

Students match pictures that end with the same sound.

MATERIALS: Picture cards

1 Arrange five to 10 pairs of picture cards face a second picture and saying its name. If the
down on a table. Paired cards should end with the pictures end with the same sound, it makes a pair
same sound. and the student keeps the cards.
2 Students take turns turning over a picture 3 Play continues with each student taking a turn
card, saying the name, and then turning over until all pictures are matched.

Phoneme Comparison: Medial Vowel Sound

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Comparison | Medial Vowel Sound
Blackline Master available
PA-44 Comparing Middle Long Vowel Sounds www.tpri.org

Students compare the long vowel sounds in words.

MATERIALS: Word list, vowel card sets

1 Provide each student a set of vowel cards and 3 Students respond by holding up the correct
review the long vowel sounds. vowel card.
2 Say a word and ask, 4 Continue to another word.
What vowel sound do you hear?

EXAMPLE:
Long a Long e Long i Long o Long u
pale beat hike home fume
fame steam slice note cute
pain kneel quite boat hue
cage street bite toast cue
stay speech right tow cube
snail she wild snow huge
grace please try go fuse
chain keep mine fold mute
maid neat tribe foam use
stray sneaker light goat mule

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Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Comparison | Medial Vowel Sound

Blackline Master available
PA-45 Comparing Middle Short Vowel Sounds www.tpri.org

Students compare the short vowel sounds in words.

MATERIALS: Word list, vowel card sets

1 Provide each student a set of vowel cards and 3 Students respond by holding up the correct
review the short vowel sounds. vowel card.
2 Say a word and ask, 4 Continue to another word.
What vowel sound do you hear?

EXAMPLE:
Short a Short e Short i Short o Short u
slam bet bit hot club
wag fell fish shop judge
catch pet swift rock junk
patch bench wig mop sum
lap bell crib lock jump
snap kept dish cot bus
sack left gift box drum
glad less quit flock sun
drag pest stick shock stung
bat bread crisp sock gum

Phoneme Play: Blending Word Parts

The ability to blend word parts or individual sounds (phonemes) into words.

Guidelines for Instruction

Sound blending is a crucial step in learning to read fluently. Explicitly instructing students in blending provides
a tool to use when decoding words. Awareness of onsets and rimes usually develops earlier than awareness of
phonemes. Consequently, onset-rime blending instruction precedes blending phoneme instruction.
To become competent at blending, students often need ample practice. The activities in this section allow
students to play different games that provide practice in blending together parts of words.
Introducing Initial Blending
••When introducing the concept of blending, start with blending two words into a compound word, then
syllables into words and, finally, individual sounds into one-syllable words.
••When teaching sound blending, start with letters that make continuous sounds, such as /s/ and /f/, rather
than those that make stop sounds, such as /p/ and /k/. Continuous sounds are easier to glide together.

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Phonemic Awareness

Model for Teaching Blending

Provide explicit and systematic instruction in sound blending using the following steps:
••Provide directions.
••Model the blending technique.
••Students and teacher blend together.
••Students blend alone.
Instructional Sequence for Teaching Blending
If students have difficulty learning to blend sounds, use the following sequence of sound combinations.
Develop understanding at each step before moving on to the next:
••Vowel + Consonant (VC, as in it)
••Consonant + Vowel + Consonant (CVC, as in cat)
••Vowel + Consonant + final Consonant (VCC, as in ask)
Difficulty of Sounds When Blending
Easiest sounds to pronounce (elongated): /m/ /n/ /f/ /v/ /sh/ /zh/ /s/ /z/ /th/ (voiced, as in this)
/th/ (unvoiced, as in thing)
Slightly more difficult sounds to pronounce: /t/ /p/ /k/ /ng/ /l/ /ch/ /w/ /wh/ /h/
Most difficult sounds to pronounce in isolation for blending: /d/ /b/ /g/ /r/ /j/

Blending Word Parts: Onset-Rime Blending

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Blending Word Parts | Onset-Rime Blending
Blackline Master available
PA-46 Blending Onset-Rime Pictures www.tpri.org

Students hear a segmented word, blend the onset-rime and find the picture for the word.
MATERIALS: Pictures

1 Select pictures of one- or two-syllable words 3 Ask the student to say the word. If the answer
and place them face up on a table. is correct, the student picks up the picture.
2 Call on a student to listen as you segment the 4 Continue with other students until all pictures
onset-rime for a picture (e.g., /f/ /ish/; /c/ /at/). are picked up.

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Blending Word Parts | Onset-Rime Blending

Blackline Master available
PA-47 Onset-Rime Sort www.tpri.org

Students sort pictures into columns of words with the same rime.
MATERIALS: Picture cards, chart paper, tape, marker

1 Find sets of three or four picture cards with 4 A student draws from the stack, says the
matching rimes. word (e.g., ship) and places the card under the
matching rime column.
2 Draw several columns on a piece of chart
paper. Tape a picture with a different onset-rime 5 Confirm with other students that the rime
at the top of each column. matches.
3 Place the remaining picture cards in a stack.

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Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Blending Word Parts | Onset-Rime Blending

PA-48 Onset-Rimes Puppet

Students work with a puppet to blend onsets and rimes into words.
MATERIALS: Puppet, word list

1 Introduce the puppet and explain he wants to You say,

play a word game. Look the puppet in the eye /g/ /o/.
and say, Students say, go.
/b/ /one/. You say,
2 Have the puppet say the whole word, bone. /k/ /ey/.
After a few more demonstrations, ask students Students say, key.
to respond for the puppet. You say, 3 Continue with the example and similar words.
/b/ /one/.
Students say, bone.

EXAMPLE:
Onset-Rimes and Words
/s/ /ay/ (say) /s/ /ame/ (same) /m/ /oon/ (moon) /p/ /eel/ (peel)
/s/ /eat/ (seat) /c/ /one/ (cone) /c/ /ow/ (cow) /b/ /ay/ (bay)
/b/ /ake/ (bake) /k/ /ite/ (kite) /t/ /ea/ (tea) /t/ /ie/ (tie)
/t/ /oe/ (toe) /t/ /oad/ (toad) /t/ /oast/ (toast) /n/ /ow/ (now)
/kn/ /eel/ (kneel) /m/ /eat/ (meat) /n/ /ight/ (night) /n/ /ice/ (nice)
/p/ /itch/ (pitch) /m/ /atch/ (match) /r/ /ain/ (rain) /h/ /igh/ (high)
/g/ /ain/ (gain) /j/ /ump/ (jump) /f/ /og/ (fog) /ch/ /op/ (chop)
/th/ /ick/ (thick) /l/ /amp/ (lamp) /ph/ /one/ (phone) /l/ /ake/ (lake)

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Blending Word Parts | Onset-Rime Blending

Blackline Master available
PA-49 Critter Sitter www.tpri.org

Students blend segmented word parts to form words.

MATERIALS: Pictures or plastic models of animals with one-syllable names (e.g., bat, bear, bird, deer, fox, skunk,
pig, shark, cat, mouse), picture of a large cage, chalkboard/chalk or chart paper/marker

1 Draw a large cage on the board or chart animal’s name. For example,
paper and display the animal pictures. To ensure We need to catch the /b/ /ear/. What
students can name the animals, have students animal are we trying to catch? (bear)
identify them with you.
4 Set a picture of a bear under the cage. Proceed
2 Introduce students to an imaginary character with other animals. For example,
called the Critter Sitter, who works at the zoo. We need to catch the /f/ /ox/. What animal
are we trying to catch? (fox)
3 Tell students the Critter Sitter is very worried
because some of the animals have escaped! To 5 Set a picture of a fox under the cage. Continue
return them, you need their help in saying each until all of the animals have been rescued.

VARIATION: Gather pictures or plastic models of kitchen items with one-syllable names (e.g., spoon,
fork, knife, cup, plate, pot, pan). Tell students the Critter Sitter’s cousin is a chef who also likes to play
word games. When the chef asks the kitchen helper for a /c/ /up/, the helper says, “Here is the cup.”
Pass out kitchen items to pairs of students who take turns being the chef and kitchen helper.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 37

Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Blending Word Parts | Onset-Rime Blending

PA-50 Blending Onset-Rimes and Word Parts

Students blend onset-rimes or word parts to form a word.
MATERIALS: Word list

1 Say to students, 3 Ask students to blend the word parts to form

/ch/ /in/. (chin) the word, chin.
2 Ask the group to repeat, /ch/ /in/. 4 Repeat with other words.

EXAMPLE:
Onset-Rimes, Word Parts and Words
/f/ /air/ (fair) /sh/ /ow/ (show) /r/ /anch/ (ranch)
/m/ /ask/ (mask) /w/ /eigh/ (weigh) /h/ /ouse/ (house)
/l/ /and/ (land) /b/ /eat/ (beat) /g/ /r/ /een/ (green)
/s/ /eat/ (seat) /p/ /aw/ (paw) /s/ /t/ /op/ (stop)
/r/ /ice/ (rice) /c/ /atch/ (catch) /c/ /r/ /ush/ (crush)
/s/ /igh/ (sigh) /l/ /ay/ (lay) /p/ /each/ (peach)
/l/ /ow/ (low) /m/ /e/ (me) /t/ /r/ /ail/ (trail)
/p/ /ie/ (pie) /p/ /ay/ (pay) /g/ /r/ /ow/ (grow)
/f/ /arm/ (farm) /c/ /r/ /ash/ (crash) /s/ /l/ /ap/ (slap)
/l/ /ake/ (lake) /r/ /ace/ (race) /p/ /l/ /ace/ (place)
/c/ /r/ /ow/ (crow) /wh/ /eel/ (wheel) /th/ /ink/ (think)

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Blending Word Parts | Onset-Rime Blending

PA-51 What Do Jack and Jill Like?

Students blend onset–rimes into words to understand a sentence.
MATERIALS: Sentence list

1 Read a sentence to the class about things Jack 2 Then ask,

or Jill like, segmenting the last word. For example, What does Jack like to do?
Jack likes to /r/ /un/. (run)
3 Students answer, run.

EXAMPLE:
Jack Likes to… Jill Likes to…
/c/ /ook/ (cook) /pl/ /ay/ (play)
/j/ /ump/ (jump) /s/ /ing/ (sing)
/d/ /ance/ (dance) /wr/ /ite/ (write)
/r/ /run/ (run) /h/ /op/ (hop)
/r/ /ead/ (read) /dr/ /aw/ (draw)
/p/ /aint/ (paint) /l/ /augh/ (laugh)
/t/ /alk/ (talk) /th/ /row/ (throw)
/sh/ /out/ (shout) /s/ /k/ /ate/ (skate)

38 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Phonemic Awareness

Blending Word Parts: Phoneme Blending

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Blending Word Parts | Phoneme Blending

PA-52 Blending Phonemes Puppet

Students blend phonemes into words.
MATERIALS: Puppet, word list

1 Introduce the puppet and explain he wants 3 You say,

to play a word game. Look the puppet in the eye /g/ /o/.
and say, Students say, go.
/s/ /a/ /t/. (sat) You say,
/sh/ /e/.
2 Have the puppet say the whole word, sat. Students say, she.
After a few more demonstrations, ask students
to respond for the puppet. 4 Continue with the example words and then
create your own word list.
EXAMPLE:
Two Phonemes Three Phonemes Four Phonemes
/p/ /ie/ (pie) /f/ /oo/ /t/ (foot) /j/ /u/ /m/ /p/ (jump)
/t/ /ea/ (tea) /m/ /oo/ /n/ (moon) /s/ /n/ /ai/ /l/ (snail)
/t/ /ie/ (tie) /ch/ /o/ /p/ (chop) /t/ /e/ /n/ /t/ (tent)
/n/ /o/ (no) /s/ /ea/ /t/ (seat) /s/ /p/ /oo/ /n/ (spoon)
/m/ /e/ (me) /th/ /i/ /ck/ (thick) /f/ /r/ /o/ /g/ (frog)
/s/ /ay/ (say) /t/ /a/ /p/ (tap) /c/ /l/ /o/ /ck/ (clock)
/p/ /ay/ (pay) /t/ /oa/ /d/ (toad) /b/ /a/ /b/ /y/ (baby)

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Blending Word Parts | Phoneme Blending

Blackline Master available
PA-53 Blending Bee www.tpri.org

Students practice blending phonemes by playing a spelling bee-type game.

MATERIALS: Picture cards

1 Create a stack of picture cards. correct, the student keeps the card. If incorrect,
provide support and clarification.
2 Students form a line and take turns drawing a
picture card from the stack and saying the word 4 The student goes to the end of the line and the
phoneme by phoneme. next student takes a turn.
3 The first student in line blends the word. If 5 Continue playing until no picture cards remain.

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Blending Word Parts | Phoneme Blending

PA-54 Pass the Apple

Students blend a word after hearing it said phoneme by phoneme.
MATERIALS: Word list, apple (or other object), music

1 Students sit in a circle on the floor. 4 Say a word phoneme by phoneme. Then ask,
What word did I say?
2 When the music starts, students pass an
apple around the circle. 5 The student with the apple responds and the
game continues.
3 When the music stops, whoever has the apple
takes a turn.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 39

Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Blending Word Parts | Phoneme Blending

PA-55 Story in Phonemes

Students blend phonemes into words to understand a story.
MATERIALS: Familiar short story

1 Read a story to the class. 2 Segment some of the words into phonemes. Call
on students to blend them back into a whole word.

EXTENSION: Students take turns telling or reading a story and segmenting some of the words.

Phoneme Play: Phoneme Elision

The ability to delete (elide) sounds from words and blend the remaining sounds together.

Guidelines for Instruction

As students develop proficiency in blending phonemes, they’re ready to move to the more difficult skill of
deleting, or eliding, sounds from words. In the Syllable Play section (page 25), the syllable elision activities
offer students opportunities to remove syllables from words. With the phoneme elision activities, students
take the same kind of practice from the syllable level to the level of individual sounds (phonemes).
When teaching students how to manipulate and delete phonemes, a suggested sequence follows (Rosner,
1979). The first two skills were introduced in the syllable elision activities:
••Delete one part of a compound word.
••Delete one syllable from a word.
••Delete the initial consonant from a word.
••Delete the final consonant from a word.
••Delete the initial phoneme in a blend.
••Delete the final phoneme in a blend at the end of a word.
••Delete the second consonant in an initial blend.
Blending, elision and segmentation activities target the phonemic awareness skills most related to actual reading.

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Elision

Blackline Master available
PA-56 Initial Sound Elision with Pictures www.tpri.org

Students use pictures to help them practice removing the initial phoneme from words.
MATERIALS: Pictures, scissors

1 Collect pictures of three- to five-phoneme words. students understand the activity.

Cut each picture vertically into two pieces between
the first phoneme and the rest of the word. 4 One at a time, call on students to complete
the same steps with the remaining pictures.
2 Spread the pieces of one picture face up on
a table. 5 If the word is correctly said without the first
phoneme, the student keeps the picture pieces.
3 Say the word (e.g., bike), then pick up the first
picture piece without saying the initial sound 6 Once all pictures are picked up, students
(e.g., /ike/). Model with additional pictures until count how many pictures they collected.

40 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Elision

PA-57 Deleting Initial Sounds

Students delete the initial sounds from words.
MATERIALS: Word list

1 Say a word (e.g., bat) and ask students without the /b/; students respond, at).
to repeat it.
3 Continue with different words until students
2 Ask students to say the word again, are proficient.
omitting the initial sound (e.g., Now say bat

EXAMPLE:
jam /am/ land /and/ pan /an/ cat /at/ red /ed/ best /est/
mend /end/ peg /egg/ did /id/ lip /ip/ sit /it/ chin /in/
nod /odd/ hot /ot/ sock /ock/ sing /ing/ fun /un/ car /are/

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Elision

Blackline Master available
PA-58 Final Sound Elision with Pictures www.tpri.org

Students use pictures to help them practice removing the final phoneme from words.
MATERIALS: Pictures, scissors

1 Collect pictures of three- to five-phoneme students understand the activity.

words. Cut each picture vertically into two pieces
between the first phoneme and the rest of the word. 4 One at a time, call on students to complete
the same steps with the remaining pictures.
2 Spread the pieces of one picture face up on a table.
5 If the word is correctly said without the final
3 Say the word (e.g., bike), then pick up the phoneme, the student keeps the picture pieces.
last picture piece without saying the final sound
(e.g., /by/). Model with additional pictures until 6 Once all pictures are picked up, students
count how many pictures they collected.

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Elision

PA-59 Deleting Final Sounds

Students delete the final sound from words.
MATERIALS: Word list

1 Say a word (e.g., boot) and ask students without the /t/; students respond, boo).
to repeat it.
3 Continue with different words until students
2 Ask students to say the word again, are proficient.
omitting the final sound (e.g., Now say boot

EXAMPLE:
team /tea/ feet /fee/ heed /he/ tense /ten/ night /nigh/
time /tie/ might /my/ tide /tie/ soap /so/ sight /sigh/
past /pass/ wait /way/ guest /guess/ week /we/ seem /see/
mail /may/ sheep /she/ great /gray/ fork /for/ lawn /law/

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 41

Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Elision

PA-60 Deleting Initial or Final Phonemes in a Blend

Students practice deleting the initial or final phoneme in words that begin or end with
a consonant blend.
MATERIALS: Word list

1 Say a word (e.g., claw) and ask students to 3 Continue with different words until students
repeat it. are proficient.
2 Ask students to say the word again, omitting 4 Once they’re successful deleting a sound from
the initial sound in the word (e.g., Now say claw an initial blend, repeat the activity on another
without the /c/; students respond, law). day with students deleting the final phoneme in a
blend at the end of a word.

EXAMPLE:
Initial Blends
clean plane slip play tread praise
great clam grain broom bring glow
street drain fly froze close stare
snout creek state tweed smoke blaze

Final Blends
past ramp tuft bald mild mold
wild lamp self wolf milk film
gulp belt bolt colt bunt band
tent pant cart dance harp paint

Phoneme Play: Phoneme Segmentation

The ability to break words into their sounds.

Guidelines for Instruction

The ability to break words into their sounds is called phoneme segmentation. When segmenting words into
phonemes, students identify and isolate the individual sounds that comprise a word. Consider the following
guidelines when planning segmentation instruction:
••Start with dividing sentences into words, then words into syllables, then one-syllable words into individual
sounds.
••When teaching segmentation of words into individual sounds, teach students first to identify and say the
initial sound in words (sound isolation).
••When initial sound isolation is fully understood, proceed to final sounds and, finally, to medial sounds in
three-phoneme words.
••Because long vowel sounds are easier to perceive than short vowel sounds, begin teaching segmentation
of words into individual sounds with two-phoneme words composed of a consonant and a long vowel
sound (e.g., go, see, my, day, cue).
••Particularly in early segmenting instruction, choose consonants with continuous sounds or sounds that
can be elongated, such as /m/ and /s/. These are easier to articulate in isolation.

42 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Segmentation

Blackline Master available
PA-61 Onset-Rime Segmenting with Pictures www.tpri.org

Students use pictures to segment the onset-rime and find a matching rime.
MATERIALS: Pairs of pictures with matching rimes

1 Create pairs of pictures with matching rimes. 4 The student searches the arranged pictures for
Make two stacks by putting one picture from one with a matching rime (e.g., chip). If correct, it
each pair into a pile. makes a pair and the student keeps the cards.
2 Arrange one set of pictures face up on a table. 5 Play continues with each student taking a turn
Leave the other set in a stack. until all pictures are matched.
3 A student draws a card from the stack, says
the word and then segments the onset and rime
(e.g., ship, /sh/ /ip/).

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Segmentation

Blackline Master available
PA-62 Segmenting Phonemes with Counters www.tpri.org

Students touch counters as they segment picture names.

MATERIALS: Pictures, counters

1 Give each student a picture of a two- or three- 3 With a sample picture, model how to say the
phoneme word. Provide two counters for two- first sound in a picture’s name while touching the
phoneme words and three for three-phoneme words. first counter. Then make the next sound while
touching the second counter.
2 Students lay their pictures on the table with
the counters below them. 4 One at a time, students segment the name of
their picture following your model. Provide help
and support as needed.

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Segmentation

Blackline Master available
PA-63 Segmenting Phonemes with Pictures www.tpri.org

Students segment picture parts into phonemes and then blend the sounds together to form a word.
MATERIALS: Pictures, scissors

1 Cut pictures of three- and four-phoneme words 4 The student pulls down the second piece
into vertical pieces. The number of pieces should while saying the next phoneme, then continues
match the number of phonemes in the word. with the remaining pieces.
2 One at a time, students put the picture pieces 5 The student puts all the picture parts together
together on a table. again and says the word.
3 Starting on the left, the student says the first 6 Continue the process with all students taking
phoneme in the word while pulling down the a turn.
first piece.
Note: If students struggle, cut words into two pieces
and have them blend the onset-rime (e.g., /d/ /og/).

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 43

Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Segmentation

Blackline Master available
PA-64 Segmenting Memory www.tpri.org

Students segment words they see on picture cards.

MATERIALS: Five to 10 pairs of identical picture cards

1 Create pairs of identical picture cards. Make then turns over an arranged card and segments
two stacks by putting one picture from each pair its sounds.
into a pile.
4 If the pictures match and the word is segmented
2 Arrange one set of pictures face up on a table. correctly, the student keeps the cards.
Leave the other set in a stack.
5 Play continues with each student taking a turn
3 A student draws a card from the stack and until all pictures are matched.
segments the picture’s sounds. The student

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Segmentation

PA-65 Arm Segmenting

Students use their arms to segment and then blend phonemes.
MATERIALS: Word list

1 Model for students how to count phonemes on third. The number of areas touched depends on
your arm. With one arm outstretched, use your the number of phonemes in the word.
other hand to count phonemes in a word as you
say the word slowly. 3 Next, slide your hand along your arm from
wrist to shoulder, blending the sounds to say the
2 Say a word and start counting its phonemes. word. Practice with several words.
Touch your wrist for the first phoneme, your
elbow for the second and your shoulder for the 4 Students can use this strategy for counting
and segmenting phonemes.

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Segmentation

PA-66 Tell Me the Sounds

Students identify the different phonemes in a word.
MATERIALS: Word list

1 Ask students to tell you each sound they hear 3 Continue with the remaining sounds in the word.
in a word (e.g., Tell me the first sound you hear
in hat; students respond, /h/). 4 Ask students to count the number of phonemes
in the word using a finger to represent each sound.
2 Ask for the next sound in the word (e.g., Tell
me the second sound you hear in hat; students 5 Students blend the sounds and repeat the word.
respond, /a/).

44 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Segmentation

PA-67 Move the Sounds

As you say a word, students move a chip for each of its sounds.
MATERIALS: Chips/counters

1 Provide each student with three or four chips. 4 Switch between two or more sounds to vary
the number of phonemes students provide.
2 Say a word.
Note: Remember, this is an auditory activity.
3 Ask students to move a chip for each sound Don’t write the words.
they hear in the word.

VARIATION: Blackline Master available

MATERIALS: Word list, paper, chips/counters, marker www.tpri.org

1 Draw a row of four squares on paper. Provide 4 Students then say each phoneme in the word
each student a copy and three or four chips. separately while moving a chip into a box. Start
with two- and three-phoneme words, then mix in
2 Say a word. words with up to four sounds.
3 Ask students to repeat the word.

Phonemic Awareness | Phoneme Play: Phoneme Segmentation

PA-68 Finger Segmenting

Students segment a word and then blend the sounds together again.
MATERIALS: Word list

1 Say a word to a student. 3 The student blends the phonemes back into
the word.
2 The student repeats the word slowly and
holds up a finger for each phoneme spoken.

EXAMPLE:
Two Phonemes Three Phonemes Four Phonemes
/o/ /dd/ (odd) /s/ /i/ /ze/ (size) /s/ /l/ /ee/ /p/ (sleep)
/ea/ /ch/ (each) /sh/ /o/ /p/ (shop) /r/ /i/ /s/ /k/ (risk)
/oa/ /t/ (oat) /sh/ /a/ /ve/ (shave) /b/ /e/ /s/ /t/ (best)
/d/ /ay/ (day) /ch/ /oo/ /se/ (choose) /p/ /u/ /m/ /p/ (pump)
/g/ /o/ (go) /m/ /i/ /ss/ (miss) /t/ /r/ /ai/ /l/ (trail)
/i/ /ce/ (ice) /s/ /k/ /i/ (ski) /b/ /r/ /oo/ /m/ (broom)
/b/ /ee/ (bee) /n/ /igh/ /t/ (night) /s/ /e/ /n/ /t/ (sent)
/r/ /ow/ (row) /n/ /i/ /ce/ (nice) /c/ /l/ /o/ /g/ (clog)

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 45

Phonemic Awareness

References
Adams, M.J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

Adams, M.L., Foorman, B.R., Lundberg, I., & Beeler, T. (1998). Phonemic awareness in young children:
A classroom curriculum. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing.

Bear, D.R., Templeton, S., Invernizzi, M., & Johnston, F. (1996). Words their way: Word study for phonics,
vocabulary, and spelling. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Blachman, B.A., Ball, W.B., Black, R., & Tangel, D.M. (2000). Road to the code. Baltimore, MD:
Paul H. Brookes Publishing.

Catts, H. (1993). Sounds abound. East Moline, IL: LinguiSystems.

CIRCLE – Target II Teacher Training, Center for Improving the Readiness of Children for Learning and
Education. Houston, TX: University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Summer 2001.

Honig, B., Diamond, L., Gutlohn, L., & Mahler, J. (2000). Teaching reading sourcebook: For kindergarten through
eighth grade. Emeryville, CA: CORE.

Mather, N., & Jaffe, L.E. (2002). Woodcock-Johnson III: Reports, recommendations, and strategies. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.

National Reading Panel (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific
research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Bethesda, MD: National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health.

Rosner, J. (1979). Helping children overcome learning disabilities (2nd ed.). New York: Walker.

Schatschneider, C., Francis, D.J., Foorman, B.R., Fletcher, J.M., & Metha, P. (1999). The dimensionality of
phonological awareness: An application of item response theory. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91,
439-449.

Shanker, J.L., & Ekwall, E.E. (1998). Locating and correcting reading difficulties (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.

Snow, C.E., Burns, M.S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.) (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington,
DC: National Academy Press.

Yopp, H.A. (1988). The validity and reliability of phonemic awareness tests. Reading Research Quarterly,
23(2), 159-177.

46 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge
The recognition of the letters in the alphabet and the understanding
of sound-symbol relationships and spelling patterns.

Graphophonemic Knowledge (GK) instruction includes work with letter

names and sounds, phonics and spelling. As students develop GK,
Blackline Master available
they become increasingly aware of the sounds of spoken language and
their relationship to the letters of written language. GK is developed
through explicit and systematic instruction in working with sounds, www.tpri.org
letters and words. Students should be explicitly taught sound-symbol
correspondences, and they need instruction and daily practice in using Blackline Masters
www.tpri.org
sound-symbol relationships to read and write words. Some activities have associated
There are a range of important habits, skills and knowledge for children Blackline Masters available as PDF
who are developing GK: files to download, print out and use
in your lessons. Go to www.tpri.org.
••Students should understand what a syllable is before they
study meaningful units in words (e.g., phonemes, morphemes).
••Students should be taught letter sounds first and then
connect them to letter names.
••Students should link letters and their sounds to blend
them into words.
••Sight reading should be taught after students can
blend sounds into words.
••Words should be actively explored, not merely looked
at or memorized for spelling.
••New learning of word structure should be connected
to previously learned content.
••Reading for accuracy should be considered before
reading for fluency.
••Oral reading should be encouraged before students
transition to silent reading.
••Students should read as widely as possible at their
Independent or Instructional Level to learn new words.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 47

Graphophonemic Knowledge

Letter Names and Sounds: Letter Identification

Before learning to read words, students learn to recognize and name letters, and identify the sounds they make.

Guidelines for Instruction

Many letter identification activities are provided in this section. Following is a list of more general principles
and ideas to guide your instruction of letters and sounds.
Teaching Similar Letters and Sounds
Teaching letters that sound alike or look alike at the same time often can cause confusion when students are
just learning to read.
••Letters that sound alike should not be taught together. Several
other letters should be taught between letters that sound alike.
f and v t and d b and p k and g
m and n i and e o and u
••Lowercase letters that look alike should not be taught together.
b and p q and p n and m
h and n v and w n and r
Many short vowels sound similar, so it’s important that students know a vowel sound well before introducing
a new vowel sound.
The Order for Teaching Letters
Introduce letters used more often in words before introducing letters used less often. Doing so enables
students to begin reading sooner. For example, introducing m a t s r allows students to make the words am at
sat mat rat. Knowing the letters j q z is not as helpful in making simple words.
Use the order for presenting letters and sounds determined by your school. Below is a suggested order if one
is not available to you.

a m t s i f d r o g h c l e n b w p ing ch u er j
k v y x q z ck ee ea sh aw ed ur ir th ou ow ar

Gradually Introduce New Letters and Sounds

Introduce one letter-sound correspondence at a time. Introduce a new sound only after students demonstrate
automatic recall of the first sound. This usually means teaching two or three letter-sounds per week. Teach
a single and frequent way of representing the sounds (see Common Sound Pronunciations Chart on the
following page).
When teaching letter identification, start with lowercase letters. These are easiest for young students to discriminate
and learn to write, and most of the words they learn to read are written in lowercase letters. An exception is when the
uppercase and lowercase letters look alike. In those instances, they can be introduced together.

48 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Common Sound Pronunciations

The chart below includes a majority of the common sounds used in spoken English. This is not a
comprehensive list; there are a few additional sounds linguists recognize and some phonics programs teach.
This also is not a sound/spelling chart; many of the sounds are spelled in a variety of ways in different words.

Common Sound Pronunciations Chart

/b/ as in tab /v/as in vat /ă/as in tap
/c/ as in tack /w/as in wagon /ĕ/as in ten
/d/ as in tad /y/as in yet /˘/as in tin
/f/ as in tough /z/as in zip /ŏ/as in tot
/g/ as in tag /ch/as in chat /ŭ/as in tub
/h/ as in hat /th/as in bath /uh/as in the
/j/ as in jet /sh/as in ship /air/as in tear
/l/ as in let /ng/as in tang /ir/as in bird
/m/ as in Tim /zh/as in treasure /ar/as in tar
/n/ as in tan /ā/as in take /oy/as in toy
/p/ as in tap /ē/as in teeth /aw/as in saw
/r/ as in rat /¯/as in tie /ow/as in cow
/s/ as in sat /¯ō/as in toe /oo/as in moon
/t/ as in ten /ū/as in cue /oo/as in took

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Names and Sounds: Letter Identification

Blackline Master available
GK-1 Mixed-Up Names www.tpri.org

Students mix up the letters in their names and put them back in order.
MATERIALS: Index cards, marker

1 For each student, prepare a set of index cards 4 Students spell their name with the set of letters,
with one letter of their name per card. Also write using the card with their full name as a guide.
their full name on a card.
5 Students turn the card with their full name
2 Place the card with the student’s full name face down and try to spell their name with only
face up in front of them. the set of letters.
3 Give students the set of letters that spell 6 Students check their spelling and make
their name. corrections if necessary.

EXTENSION: Students can trade name cards and letter sets with each other, then repeat the activity.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 49

Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Names and Sounds: Letter Identification

GK-2 Which Letters Go Together?

Students circle the matching letters in a row of letters.
MATERIALS: Chalkboard, white and brightly colored chalk

1 Write one letter on the board using colored chalk. 3 One at a time, students take turns circling the
white letters that match the colored letter. Each
2 Below the letter, write a row of eight or nine time the letter is circled, the student says its
letters using white chalk. Include the letter name and the group repeats it.
written in color several times.
4 Erase the letters and repeat the process using
a different letter.

EXTENSION: This activity is easiest when only uppercase letters are used. To make it more challenging,
include both lowercase and uppercase letters. Even more challenging is “Which Words Go Together.”
In that activity, write a set of words (e.g., dog, drum, hat, dad, mom) on the board and have students
circle words that start with the same letter.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Names and Sounds: Letter Identification

Blackline Master available
GK-3 Match the Letter www.tpri.org

Students match letters they hold with letters on a pocket chart.

MATERIALS: Pocket chart, index cards, marker

1 Write the same letters on two different sets of 5 Turn over another card and place it in the
index cards. pocket chart.
2 Give each student one letter card from a set. 6 Students continue to match letters and say
Put the remaining set face down in a stack. their names until all cards are used.
3 Turn over a letter and place it in the pocket chart. 7 Redistribute the letter cards and repeat
the process.
4 The student with the matching letter places it in
the pocket below and says the name of the letter.

EXTENSION: Give each student multiple letter cards to match, or have students match uppercase and
lowercase letters.

50 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Names and Sounds: Letter Identification

GK-4 Letter Sort

Students sort letters based on what they look like.
MATERIALS: Complete set of letters

1 Arrange letters on a table in front of students. and uppercase and lowercase letters. Be sure
students know which categories you want them
2 Students sort letters based on a few of the to use.
following categories: tall letters, short letters,
fat letters, skinny letters, letters with curves, 3 After sorting, students say the name of
letters with lines, letters with curves and lines, each letter.

ADAPTATION:
1 Put sets of different letters out for students 2 Students sort the letters and put the various
(e.g., plastic, magnetic, paper, capitals, small sets together by letter.
letters, etc.).
3 After sorting, students say the name of
each letter.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Names and Sounds: Letter Identification

GK-5 Letter Hunt

Students circle a letter they’re learning when they locate it in a familiar text.
MATERIALS: Short and familiar text, chalkboard/chalk, pencils

1 Provide copies of text for each student. 3 Students circle the letter each time it appears.
2 On the board, write one letter. Explain to 4 Read the text to the group, calling attention to
students they will hunt for the letter and circle it the circled letters.
each time they find it in the text.

ADAPTATION: Before students search independently for the letter, work as a group to find the letter in
text. Repeat the activity on subsequent days using the same book, with students looking for the same letter.

EXTENSION: Have students search the text for multiple letters instead of one.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Names and Sounds: Letter Identification

GK-6 Hunt the Headlines

Students highlight selected letters in newspaper headlines and other printed materials.
MATERIALS: Large-letter print materials (e.g., newspaper headlines, articles, ads), index cards, highlighters

1 Hand out print materials, highlighters and 2 Students scan the materials and highlight the
index cards with selected letters written on them letters written on the index card.
to each student or group.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 51

Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Names and Sounds: Letter Identification

GK-7 Alphabet Sticks

Students arrange the letters of the alphabet in order using Popsicle® sticks.
MATERIALS: Popsicle sticks, marker

1 Write one alphabet letter on each stick, for a which is placed to the right of the letter A. The
total of 26 sticks. student says the name of the letter.
2 Give each student several sticks, with letters 5 Students continue laying down a letter stick
chosen randomly. and saying its name until all letters are laid down
alphabetically.
3 The student with the letter A stick places it on
the left of the table and says its name. 6 Individually and/or chorally, the group checks
to make sure the sticks are in the right order.
4 Students search their sticks to find the letter B,

ADAPTATION: Make a set of letter sticks for each student and give them just the first three letters of the
alphabet. Once students can order and name them consistently, introduce new letters one at a time.

EXTENSION: After the letter sticks are laid down, students close their eyes while one student removes
one or more sticks. The other students open their eyes and guess which letters are missing. Students
also can receive an individual set of alphabet sticks to put in order independently.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Names and Sounds: Letter Identification

Blackline Master available
GK-8 Alphabet Memory www.tpri.org

Students play a Memory-style card game, attempting to find and name pairs of matching letters.
MATERIALS: Index cards, markers

1 Select five to 10 letters and write each in second card and saying the name of the letter. If
uppercase on two index cards. the same two letters are turned, it makes a pair
and the student keeps the cards.
2 Shuffle and arrange the cards face down on
a table. 4 Play continues with each student taking one
turn at a time until all cards are picked up.
3 Students take turns turning over a card, saying
the name of the letter, and then turning over a

ADAPTATION: If students know only a few letter names, use fewer letters and write each letter on four
cards. This makes it easier to make pairs and provides more practice with each letter.

EXTENSION: To make the activity more challenging, include more letters and have students match
lowercase letters or an uppercase and lowercase letter.

52 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Names and Sounds: Letter Identification

Blackline Master available
GK-9 Order Up! www.tpri.org

Students identify letters on cards and arrange them in order.

MATERIALS: Complete set of letter cards

1 Hand out letter cards to students, either one 3 Students with one of the letters called
or two per student. come forward, hold up their card and arrange
themselves in alphabetical order.
2 Call out a series of three to five consecutive
letters, not necessarily starting with the letter A. 4 Seated students see if they agree the cards are
in correct order.
5 Students return to their seats and repeat
Steps 2-4.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Names and Sounds: Letter Identification

GK-10 Find the Letter

Students identify a letter in words.
MATERIALS: Word list, index cards, marker

1 Select a letter to teach. Write different words …a t in the middle? (e.g., little, sitting,
that include the letter on index cards, one word wanted, tractor)
per card. …two t’s? (e.g., sitting, tractor, turtle)
2 Give each student a word card. …a t with an h after it? (e.g., three, they,
something, then, the)
3 For the letter t, ask questions like:
Whose word has… …a t with an r after it? (e.g., truck, tractor, train)
… a t for the first letter? (e.g., ten, two, three, 4 If their card corresponds to the question,
they, to, then, truck, tire, train, the) students come forward and show their word.
… a t for the last letter? (e.g., eight, at, went, 5 Affirm and correct as needed.
fast, sailboat, jet, eat)
6 Continue with a new letter and set of words.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 53

Graphophonemic Knowledge

Letter Names and Sounds: Letter to Sound Linking

The ability to identify the letters of the alphabet and understand the sound-symbol relationship of each.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Names and Sounds: Letter to Sound Linking

GK-11 Early Sound Introduction: /m/ Spelled m

Using the /m/ sound as an example, this activity provides a model for introducing any new letter
sound.
MATERIALS: Chalkboard/chalk

1 Write the letter m on the board. 5 Students give a thumbs up when they hear
the /m/ sound at the beginning of a word or a
2 Point to the m and tell students: thumbs down when they don’t.
The letter m stands for the /m/ sound in the
word mouse. 6 Ask students to think of and share other
words that begin with the /m/ sound.
3 Ask students to say the sound each time you
point to the letter. Practice this several times. 7 Write a CVC word that starts with the letter m
using previously taught sounds and spellings.
4 Clearly and quickly, say some words that begin
with the /m/ sound and some that do not. Don’t 8 Students practice blending the letters in the
use words that begin with the /n/ sound, because word, sound by sound.
/m/ and /n/ sound too similar.
9 Repeat Steps 7-8 with several words starting
with m.

ADAPTATION: When introducing vowels, use the same format (see Vowel Sounds, page 69).

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Names and Sounds: Letter to Sound Linking

GK-12 Picture-Sound Search

Students search for and cut out pictures of words that start with a particular sound.
MATERIALS: Magazines and/or newspapers, large sheets of construction paper, scissors, glue sticks

1 For each student, write a letter at the top for pictures of things that start with the sound of
of construction paper. Use letters for sounds their letter.
recently introduced.
3 When appropriate pictures are found, students
2 Students search magazines and newspapers cut them out and glue them to the paper.

EXTENSION: Students hunt for pictures with the same ending sound as the letter on their paper.

54 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Names and Sounds: Letter to Sound Linking

Blackline Master available
GK-13 Which Letter Makes This Sound? www.tpri.org

Students hear a sound and select the letter that makes the sound.
MATERIALS: Magnetic/plastic letters or letter cards

1 Place three letters on a table and ask a student: 2 The student selects a letter. If chosen correctly,
Which letter am I thinking of? the student keeps the letter; if incorrect, the letter
It makes this sound. is put back.
Make the sound for one of the letters. 3 Pick up the letters and repeat Steps 1-2 with
each student in the group.
4 The student with the most letters at the end wins.

EXTENSIONS:
• Put out four or five different letters and make two sounds, with students determining both letters.
Students also can play each other, taking turns playing the teacher and student role.
To allow students to work on distinguishing between uppercase and lowercase letters, you might say,
Pick up the capital letter that makes this sound.
• This activity also can be played with CVC words, with students picking up the letters in the word
you say, articulating the sounds in the word slowly and clearly.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Names and Sounds: Letter to Sound Linking

Blackline Master available
GK-14 Letter-Sound Bingo www.tpri.org

Students play bingo using picture cards and letters.

MATERIALS: Chalkboard/chalk, picture cards, bingo boards, chips/counters, pencils/markers

1 Select five to 10 letters and write them on the order, writing one letter per square, with each
chalkboard large enough for students to view. letter written in at least two squares. (If you play
with fewer than 10 different letters, some will be
2 Find picture cards that start with the same written more than twice.)
letter sounds as the letters selected. Have
multiple pictures for each letter. 6 One at a time, turn over a picture card and say
the word depicted. Students use a chip to cover
3 Create blank bingo boards with five columns a square with the letter that matches the starting
and four rows, for a total of 20 squares. sound of the picture.
4 Give each student a blank bingo board and 7 The first student to cover an entire row or
20 chips. column wins.
5 Using the letters on the chalkboard, students 8 Students clear their boards and play again as
fill in the squares on their bingo boards in random time permits.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 55

Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Names and Sounds: Letter to Sound Linking

Blackline Master available
GK-15 Letter-Picture Memory www.tpri.org

Students play a Memory-style card game, attempting to match a letter with a picture that starts
with the letter.
MATERIALS: Picture cards, index cards, marker

1 Select five to 10 letters whose sounds have 3 Students take turns turning over a letter card,
been taught. Write one letter per index card and saying the name of the letter and its sound,
find a picture card that starts with the same letter. and then turning over a picture card and saying
the word depicted. If the student turns over a
2 Shuffle and arrange the cards face down on a matching letter and picture, it makes a pair and
table, letter cards on one side and picture cards the student keeps the cards.
on the other.
4 Play continues with each student taking one
turn at a time until all cards are picked up.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Names and Sounds: Letter to Sound Linking

Blackline Master available
GK-16 Letter-Picture Flash Cards www.tpri.org

Students practice identifying letter sounds that match pictures.

MATERIALS: Picture cards, marker

1 On the back of each picture card, write the saying the name of the letter for the sound the
letter for the sound the picture starts with. picture represents, and then flipping the card over
to see if they’re correct.
2 Place the cards in a stack, picture side up.
4 If working in pairs, students keep the card
3 Working individually or in pairs, students take when correct or return it to the bottom of the
turns selecting a picture from the top of the stack, stack when incorrect.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Names and Sounds: Letter to Sound Linking

Blackline Master available
GK-17 Say the Letter www.tpri.org

Students hear three words and tell the starting letter for the words.
MATERIALS: Word list, chips/counters

1 Create a list of words in groups of three, each 3 Say three words that start with the same letter.
word in the group starting with the same letter.
4 Ask one student to identify and say the letter.
2 Tell students you will say three words that
start with the same letter, and then ask them to 5 If correct, give the student a chip.
say what the letter is. 6 The first student with three chips wins.

EXTENSION: The game can be played using words with the same ending or same middle letter sound,
with students again identifying and saying the name of the letter.

56 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Blending: Introduction to Blending

The ability to blend a series of sounds together to form a word.

Guidelines for Instruction

Students progress from learning letter-sound correspondence to blending sounds into simple words. Once
students are able to blend sounds into words, the words can be put into sentences so students can read
connected text. The following activities progress from decoding and encoding single letter-sounds in initial, final
and medial positions, to working with initial and final blends, short and long vowels, diphthongs and digraphs.
Teaching students to blend sounds with ease is an important skill as they start reading words. After blending,
have students say each word again as a whole word. Be sure the sounds are blended smoothly to avoid
adding a vowel sound after the consonant.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Blending: Introduction to Blending

GK-18 Model for Blending Sound by Sound

A model for introducing students to blending letters in words.
MATERIALS: Word list, chalkboard/chalk
Note: This procedure works well for blending simple CVC words. Practice with words previously taught.

1 Say the word to be taught. Write the first 7 While you repeat the hand motion, have
letter of the word on the board. students say the blended sounds.
2 Point to the letter and ask students to say the 8 Write the third letter and ask students to say
sound. the third sound.
3 Write the second letter and ask students to 9 Students go back and blend the first two
say the sound. sounds, then add the third sound as you repeat
the sweeping hand motion.
4 Point to the first letter again and have
students say the sound. Students say the whole word again.
5 Point to the second letter again and have Follow up this lesson with reading text, so
students say the sound. there’s practice with decodable material.
6 Blend the two sounds together using a
sweeping hand motion, so your hand is below
each sound as you say it.

EXAMPLE:
1. To teach the vowel i and the consonants t and p to produce the word tip, say tip.
2. Write the letter t on the board, point to it and ask, What is the sound? /t/
3. Write the letter i on the board, point to it and ask, What is the sound? /i/
4. After students identify the sound of the vowel, sweep your finger under the t and i while saying
the sounds.
5. Then say, Blend and hold t and i. /ti/
6. Write the letter p on the board, point to it and ask, What is the sound? /p/
7. Now start at the left and blend to the end of the word.
8. Read tip.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 57

Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Blending: Introduction to Blending

GK-19 Whole Word Strategy

A model for teaching students to blend whole words.
MATERIALS: Word list, chalkboard/chalk

1 Write the word to be decoded on the board. 3 Go back to the beginning of the word and
move a finger quickly under the whole word while
2 Move a finger under each sound in the word students say the word.
while students say the sound. As you touch each
letter, have students hold that sound vocally 4 Confirm how to say the whole word.
without stopping until the next sound is touched.
5 Repeat the process with multiple words.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Blending: Introduction to Blending

Blackline Master available
GK-20 Say It, Move It www.tpri.org

Students sound out words and move letters forward as they say each sound.
MATERIALS: Word list, magnetic/plastic letters, chart paper, paper, marker

1 Draw lines on chart paper and arrange the 3 Say a word aloud and ask students to repeat
letters on a table in front of students. To make it. Start with two- and three-phoneme words,
the activity easier, only use letters for the word adding four- and five-phoneme words last.
being sounded out and have the same number Nonsense words also are appropriate.
of lines as sounds. To make the activity more
challenging, include a variety of letters and have 4 Students say each phoneme (sound) of the
students select the ones they need. Also include word separately, while dragging the corresponding
lines for five sounds, even if the words you letter or letters to the lines on their own board.
provide contain fewer than five sounds. Demonstrate the correct answer on the chart paper.

2 Create game boards by drawing two to five

lines on a piece of paper. Provide each student
with a board and letters.

EXAMPLE:
Two Sounds Three Sounds Four Sounds Five Sounds
at dad flat ticket
am sat first plant
no sad sand skunk
in seat lamp lizard
on fork hand fancy
it soap risk spend
an save best unless
do wag pump slowly
go nail train front
we dig sled candy

58 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Blending: Introduction to Blending

Blackline Master available
GK-21 Changing Letters to Build New Words www.tpri.org

Students reinforce decoding and word recognition skills by building new words.
MATERIALS: Word list, magnetic/plastic letters

1 Select a list of CVC words. Provide each 4 Using their letters, direct students to build the
student a set of letters and model how to use word fat one letter at a time and then say the word.
them to build a word (e.g., fan).
5 Either independently or with your direction,
2 Explain to students: students continue to change or add one letter at
This is the word fan. Read the word with me. a time and then read the new word. For example,
(fan) I can change one letter of the word to Put the letter s between a and t. What word
make a new word. did you make? (fast)
3 Change the letter n to t and ask students,
What is the new word? (fat)

EXAMPLE: fan -> fat can -> cat sam -> sad
fat -> fast cat -> cap sad -> sod
fast -> last cap -> cup sod -> sop
last -> past cup -> sup sop -> sip
past -> pest sup -> sun sip -> dip
pest -> west sun -> run dip -> rip
west -> test run -> ran rip -> drip

Blending: Initial Consonants

Two or three consonants blended together at the beginning of a word.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Blending: Initial Consonants

Blackline Master available
GK-22 Initial Blend Word Puzzles www.tpri.org

Students practice recognizing blends and blending sounds into words.

MATERIALS: Word list, index cards, scissors, envelopes, marker

1 Write words containing an initial blend

previously taught on index cards, one word EXAMPLE:
per card. The Blackline Master for this activity Initial Blends
provides words and word cards you can use.
br– dr– pl– sm– thr–
2 Cut each word card into two pieces between
the blend and the remainder of the word. tr– bl– sl– sn– spr–
3 Place eight to 10 pieces in each envelope, gr– cl– sc– st– spl–
making sure both parts of a word are included. fr– fl– sk– scr– sch–
Pass out to students.
cr– gl– sp– str– tw–
4 Students assemble the blends and word parts
to make real words.
5 After you check their work, students exchange
envelopes until they’ve assembled words from all
envelopes.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 59

Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Blending: Initial Consonants

GK-23 Tongue Twisters Using Initial Blends

Students practice creating and saying tongue twisters with initial consonant blends.
MATERIALS: Tongue twisters, chart paper, marker

1 Write a tongue twister on chart paper. 4 Practice saying the tongue twisters daily,
encouraging students to create new ones to add
2 Practice saying it with students. to the chart.
3 As a group, create tongue twisters using
people in the classroom or school.

EXAMPLE: Blind Blanche’s blueberries bloomed and blossomed.

Brenda’s brother Brad brought Brenda bread for breakfast.
Claire’s class clapped for the clumsy clown.
Craig Crocodile crawled ‘cross crooked crawling creepies.

EXTENSIONS:
• Students can collect the tongue twisters into a book, make illustrations for them and then practice
reading the book to each other.
• In addition to consonant blends (e.g., Chief Charlie cheerfully chomped chili cheeseburgers), you can
use digraphs for tongue twisters. Be sure to underline the two letters of each digraph. Help students
realize the two letters together have a special sound that’s different from the sound they make alone.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Blending: Initial Consonants

Blackline Master available
GK-24 Initial Blend Memory www.tpri.org

Students play a Memory-style card game, attempting to match initial blends with a picture of a word
that starts with that blend.
MATERIALS: Picture cards, index cards, marker

1 Select five to 10 initial consonant blends 3 Students take turns turning over a blend card,
previously taught. Write one initial blend per pronouncing the blend, and then turning over a
index card and find a picture card that starts with picture card and saying the word depicted. If the
the same initial blend. student turns over a matching blend and picture,
it makes a pair and the student keeps the cards.
2 Shuffle and arrange the cards face down on a
table, blend cards on one side and picture cards 4 Play continues with each student taking one
on the other. turn at a time until all cards are picked up.

60 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Blending: Initial Consonants

Blackline Master available
GK-25 Initial Blend Bingo www.tpri.org

Students play bingo using picture cards and initial blends.

MATERIALS: Chalkboard/chalk, picture cards, bingo boards, chips/counters, pencils /markers

1 Select five to 10 initial blends and write them on each blend written in at least two squares. (If you
the chalkboard large enough for students to view. play with fewer than 10 different blends, some
will be written more than twice.)
2 Find picture cards with the same initial blends as
those selected. Have multiple pictures for each blend. 6 One at a time, turn over a picture card and say
the word depicted. Students use a chip to cover
3 Create blank bingo boards with five columns a square with the initial blend that matches the
and four rows, for a total of 20 squares. sound of the picture.
4 Give each student a blank bingo board and 7 The first student to cover an entire row or
20 chips. column wins.
5 Using the blends on the chalkboard, students 8 Students clear their boards and play again as
fill in the squares on their bingo boards in random time permits.
order, writing one initial blend per square, with

Blending: Final Consonants

Two or three consonants blended together at the end of a word.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Blending: Final Consonants

GK-26 Final Blend Word Puzzles

Students practice recognizing blends and blending sounds into words.
MATERIALS: Word list, index cards, scissors, envelopes, marker

1 Write words containing a final blend previously

taught on index cards, one word per card. EXAMPLE:

2 Cut each word card into two pieces between Final Blends
the blend and the remainder of the word. –ct –nk –sp
3 Place eight to 10 pieces in each envelope, –lt –pt –lch
making sure both parts of a word are included.
Pass out to students. –nd –sk –nge
4 Students assemble the blends and word parts –ft –dge –nce
to make real words. –st –nch –mp
5 After you check their work, students exchange –nt –ank -ght
envelopes until they’ve assembled words from all
envelopes.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 61

Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Blending: Final Consonants

Blackline Master available
GK-27 Final Blend Memory www.tpri.org

Students play a Memory-style card game, attempting to match final blends with a picture of a word
that ends with that blend.
MATERIALS: Picture cards, index cards, marker

1 Select five to 10 final consonant blends 3 Students take turns turning over a blend card,
previously taught. Write one final blend per index pronouncing the blend, and then turning over a
card and find a picture card that ends with the picture card and saying the word depicted. If the
same final blend. student turns over a matching blend and picture,
it makes a pair and the student keeps the cards.
2 Shuffle and arrange the cards face down on a
table, blend cards on one side and picture cards 4 Play continues with each student taking one
on the other. turn at a time until all cards are picked up.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Blending: Final Consonants

Blackline Master available
GK-28 Final Blend Bingo www.tpri.org

Students play bingo using picture cards and final blends.

MATERIALS: Chalkboard/chalk, picture cards, bingo boards, chips/counters, pencils/markers

1 Select five to 10 final blends and write them on order, writing one final blend per square, with each
the chalkboard large enough for students to view. blend written in at least two squares. (If you play
with fewer than 10 different blends, some will be
2 Find picture cards with the same final blends written more than twice.)
as those selected. Have multiple pictures for
each blend. 6 One at a time, turn over a picture card and say
the word depicted. Students use a chip to cover
3 Create blank bingo boards with five columns a square with the final blend that matches the
and four rows, for a total of 20 squares. sound of the picture.
4 Give each student a blank bingo board and 7 The first student to cover an entire row or
20 chips. column wins.
5 Using the blends on the chalkboard, students 8 Students clear their boards and play again as
fill in the squares on their bingo boards in random time permits.

Letter Substitution: Initial Consonants

Students replace consonants at the beginning of words.

62 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Substitution: Initial Consonants

Blackline Master available
GK-29 Initial Consonant Word Wheels www.tpri.org

Students use a word wheel to substitute beginning consonants and blend words within a word family.
MATERIALS: 6-inch circles of tagboard, brass fasteners, marker

1 Prepare word wheels by cutting a window wedge 3 Poke a hole in each circle and place the
from one circle at the 9 o’clock spot. Write a vowel wedged circle on top of the other. Push a brass
and ending consonant to the right of the wedge. fastener through the holes and flatten it, making
sure the top circle can spin.
4 Students spin the wheels and practice
op blending and saying the words they create.

s
b op EXAMPLE:
p

Vowel/Consonant Combinations
m

t
ad og im up
l
b
am om id ut
h
c

ag od it ud
2 On the second circle, write initial consonants al ot ig um
to form words within that family. For example, the
op family can be formed with b c h l m p s t. ar op ip atch
Space letters evenly around the outer edge, so ap on in and
only one letter at a time appears through the wedge.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Substitution: Initial Consonants

Blackline Master available
GK-30 Initial Consonant Swap www.tpri.org

Students practice substituting the initial consonant in words to make real and made-up words.
MATERIALS: Plastic/magnetic letters, index cards, marker

1 Write different sets of ending letters on letters.) Students can have their own set of
index cards, one set per card. For ending letters letters or share with a partner.
suggestions, see the example below.
3 Give each student an ending letters card.
__at 4 Students add plastic letters to the beginning
of their ending letters card to form words.
Students read their words and tell whether
2 Place the letters b c d f g h j k l m n p r s t v w z they’re real or made-up.
on a table. (To simplify the activity, use fewer
EXAMPLE:
Real Word Combinations
_at b c f h m p r s v _ud b c d m _ug bdhlmprt
_en d h m p t _ad b d f h l m p s t _aw cjlmrsp
_ig b d f g j p r w _eg b l m p _ake bcfjlmrtw
_ot c d g h j l n p r t _in b d f p t w _am bhjprs

EXTENSION: Turn the activity into a center by placing letter sets in pencil boxes or large envelopes.

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Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Substitution: Initial Consonants

GK-31 Hunt for Rimes*

Students search for selected rimes in a familiar text.
MATERIALS: Short and familiar text, chalkboard/chalk, pencils

1 Provide copies of text for each student. On 3 Students circle a word each time they find
the board, write one or two rimes (e.g., _at the rime.
_en _ig _og _ot _in).
4 Students go back and read each word circled.
2 Tell students they will hunt for words that
end with the letters on the board and circle them 5 Reread the text to the group, calling attention
each time they’re found in the text. to the circled words.
*Reminder: A rime is the vowel and any following consonants of a syllable (e.g., c-at, f-it).

ADAPTATION: Before students search independently for rimes, work as a group to find them in text.
Repeat the activity on subsequent days using the same book, with students looking for the same rime.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Substitution: Initial Consonants

Blackline Master available
GK-32 Rime Memory www.tpri.org

Students play a Memory-style card game, attempting to match words ending with the same rime.
MATERIALS: Word list, index cards, marker

1 Select previously taught rimes (e.g., _at 4 Students take turns turning over a card,
_en _ig _og _ot _in). reading the word, and then turning over a second
card and reading the word. If the student turns
2 Create rime word card pairs (e.g., dog, log), over two words with the same rime, it makes a
one word per index card. pair and the student keeps the cards.
3 Shuffle and arrange the cards face down on 5 Play continues with each student taking one
a table. turn at a time until all cards are picked up.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Substitution: Initial Consonants

Blackline Master available
GK-33 Rime Bingo www.tpri.org

Students play bingo using picture cards and rimes.

MATERIALS: Chalkboard/chalk, picture cards, bingo boards, chips/counters, pencils/markers

1 Select five to 10 rimes (e.g., _at _en _ig order, writing one rime per square, with each rime
_og _ot _in) and write them on the chalkboard written in at least two squares. (If you play with
large enough for students to view. fewer than 10 different rimes, some will be written
more than twice.)
2 Find picture cards with the same rimes as those
selected. Have multiple pictures for each rime. 6 One at a time, turn over a picture card and say
the word depicted. Students use a chip to cover a
3 Create blank bingo boards with five columns square with a rime that matches the sound of the
and four rows, for a total of 20 squares. picture.
4 Give each student a blank bingo board and 7 The first student to cover an entire row or
20 chips. column wins.
5 Using the rimes on the chalkboard, students 8 Students clear their boards and play again as
fill in the squares on their bingo boards in random time permits.

64 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Letter Substitution: Final Consonants

Students replace consonants at the end of words.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Substitution: Final Consonants

Blackline Master available
GK-34 Final Consonant Swap www.tpri.org

Students practice substituting the final consonant in words to make real and made-up words.
MATERIALS: Plastic/magnetic letters, index cards, marker

1 Write different sets of beginning letters on 2 Place the letters b c d g m n p r s t w x y on a

index cards, one set per card. For beginning table. (To simplify the activity, use fewer letters.)
letters suggestions, see the example below. Students can have their own set of letters or
share with a partner.
3 Give each student a beginning letters card.
sa__
4 Students add plastic letters to the end of their
beginning letters card to form words. Students
read their words and tell whether they’re real or
made-up.

EXAMPLE:
Real Word Combinations
sa_ cdgmptx le_ d g t ba_ dgmnt
pi_ gnpt cu_ b d p t bi_ bdgnt
ra_ gmnpt si_ n p s t x di_ dgms
ho_ gpt fa_ d n t x ha_ dgmst

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Substitution: Final Consonants

Blackline Master available
GK-35 Final Consonant Word Wheels www.tpri.org

Students use a word wheel to substitute ending consonants and blend words within a word family.
MATERIALS: 6-inch circles of tagboard, brass fasteners, marker

1 Prepare word wheels by cutting a window 2 On the second circle, write final consonants to
wedge from one circle at the 3 o’clock spot. Write form words within that family. For example, the do
an initial consonant and middle vowel to the left family can be formed with t g c ll. Space letters
of the wedge. evenly around the outer edge, so only one letter
or letter set at a time appears through the wedge.
3 Poke a hole in each circle and place the
do wedged circle on top of the other. Push a brass
fastener through the holes and flatten it, making
do t sure the top circle can spin.
4 Students spin the wheels and practice
g

t
c blending and saying the words they create.
ll

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 65

Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Substitution: Final Consonants

GK-36 Final Consonant Memory

Students play a Memory-style card game, attempting to match words that start with the same letters.
MATERIALS: Word list, index cards, marker

1 Create pairs of words with the same first card and reading the word. If the student turns
letters (e.g., cap, cat), one word per index card. over two words with the same beginning letters, it
makes a pair and the student keeps the cards.
2 Shuffle and arrange the cards face down on
a table. 4 Play continues with each student taking one
turn at a time until all cards are picked up.
3 Students take turns turning over a card,
reading the word, and then turning over a second

Letter Substitution: Middle Vowels

Students replace the middle vowels in words.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Substitution: Middle Vowels

Blackline Master available
GK-37 Which Letter for Middle Sounds? www.tpri.org

Students hear a word and select the letter that makes the vowel sound in the middle of the word.
MATERIALS: Chalkboard/chalk, vowel cards

1 Write the name of each participating student 4 When told to, each student selects a vowel
on the board. and holds it up.
2 Distribute a set of vowel cards to each student. 5 On the board, mark one point for each student
holding up the correct vowel. Review the answer
3 Ask the group, with students.
Which of your vowels makes the sound in the
middle of this word? When I tell you, hold up 6 After 10 rounds, students with the most points win.
the letter. The word is _____. Then say a CVC
word (e.g., cat, met, hid, pot, rug).

66 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

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Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Substitution: Middle Vowels

Blackline Master available
GK-38 Middle Vowel Swap www.tpri.org

Students practice substituting the middle vowel in words to make real and made-up words.
MATERIALS: Plastic/magnetic vowels, index cards, marker

1 Write different sets of beginning and ending 4 Students add vowels to the middle of their
letters on index cards, one set per card. Make card to form words. Students read their words
sure the space between letters is large enough to and tell whether they’re real or made-up.
place a plastic vowel.
EXAMPLE:

p__t Real and Made-Up Word

Combinations
pet pit put pot pat
2 Place plastic vowels on a table. Students can bet bit but bot bat
have their own set of vowels or share with a fet fit fut fot fat
partner. set sit sut sot sat
3 Give each student a beginning and ending pep pip pup pop pap
letters card.
ten tin tun ton tan
lep lip lup lop lap

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Substitution: Middle Vowels

Blackline Master available
GK-39 Middle Vowel Memory www.tpri.org

Students play a Memory-style card game, attempting to match vowel cards with a picture of a CVC
word that includes that middle vowel.
MATERIALS: Word list, picture cards, index cards, marker

1 Create at least one letter card for each vowel; 3 Students take turns turning over a vowel card,
some can be on two cards. Find a picture of a pronouncing the vowel, and then turning over a
matching CVC word for each vowel. Include picture card and saying the word depicted. If the
multiple pictures for vowels that appear more student turns over a matching vowel card and picture,
than once. it makes a pair and the student keeps the cards.
2 Shuffle and arrange the cards face down on a 4 Play continues with each student taking one
table, vowel cards on one side and picture cards turn at a time until all cards are picked up.
on the other.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 67

Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Substitution: Middle Vowels

Blackline Master available
GK-40 Middle Vowel Bingo www.tpri.org

Students play bingo using picture cards and middle vowel sounds.
MATERIALS: Picture cards, bingo boards, chips/counters, pencils/markers

1 Find picture cards of CVC words that contain 5 One at a time, turn over a picture card and say
a variety of middle vowel sounds. Have multiple the word depicted. Students use a chip to cover
pictures for each vowel. a square with the middle vowel that matches the
sound of the picture.
2 Create blank bingo boards with five columns
and four rows, for a total of 20 squares. 6 The first student to cover an entire row or
column wins.
3 Give each student a blank bingo board and 20
chips. 7 Students clear their boards and play again as
time permits.
4 Students fill in the squares on their bingo boards
in random order, writing one vowel per square, with
each vowel written in at least two squares.

Letter Substitution: Initial and Final Blends

Students replace consonants in the initial or final position of words.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Substitution: Initial and Final Blends

Blackline Master available
GK-41 Initial Blend Substitution Word Wheels www.tpri.org

Students use a word wheel to substitute initial consonant blends and then blend the new word.
MATERIALS: 6-inch circles of tagboard, brass fasteners, marker

1 Prepare word wheels by cutting a window wedge 3 Poke a hole in each circle and place the
from one circle at the 9 o’clock spot. Write a vowel wedged circle on top of the other. Push a brass
and ending consonant to the right of the wedge. fastener through the holes and flatten it, making
sure the top circle can spin.
4 Students spin the wheels and practice
op blending and saying the words they create.

st op EXAMPLE:
Initial Blends
sl
pl

cr pr
st gl
br– bl– sc–
tr– cl– sk–
dr
cl

gr– fl– sp–

2 On the second circle, write initial blends to fr– gl– sm–
form words within that family. For example, the op
family can be formed with st cl dr gl pr pl sl cr. cr– pl– sn–
Space letters evenly around the outer edge, so only dr– sl– st–
one letter set at a time appears through the wedge.

68 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

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Graphophonemic Knowledge | Letter Substitution: Initial and Final Blends

Blackline Master available
GK-42 Final Blend Substitution Word Wheels www.tpri.org

Students use a word wheel to substitute final consonant blends and then blend the new word.
MATERIALS: 6-inch circles of tagboard, brass fasteners, marker

1 Prepare word wheels by cutting a window wedge 3 Poke a hole in each circle and place the
from one circle at the 3 o’clock spot. Write a beginning wedged circle on top of the other. Push a brass
consonant and vowel to the left of the wedge. fastener through the holes and flatten it, making
sure the top circle can spin.
4 Students spin the wheels and practice
be blending and saying the words they create.

be st EXAMPLE:
Final Blends
nd
lt

nt st –ct –nt –nch

nc

–lt –nk –sp

lch
h

–nd –pt –nge

2 On the second circle, write final blends to form –ft –sk –nce
words within that family. For example, the be family
can be formed with st lt nd nt nch lch. Space –st –dge –mp
letters evenly around the outer edge, so only one
letter set at a time appears through the wedge.

Vowel Sounds: Short Vowels

Students learn the letters used to represent different short vowel sounds in words.

Guidelines for Instruction

Short vowels are the most useful letters to teach first because their sounds are regular. Most short vowels
sound very similar, particularly in certain regions of the country. The short vowel sounds for the letters
a e i are particularly difficult to discriminate between. Short vowel sounds should be taught before long
vowel sounds, but should not be taught in alphabetical order. For example, introducing the letter a with the
consonants m t s r results in students being able to make words like am at sat mat rat. Knowing the letters j q z
is not as helpful in making simple words. Short vowel sounds are usually represented with a single letter.
Any of the middle vowel substitution activities also are appropriate to use as part of short vowel instruction.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 69

Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Vowel Sounds: Short Vowels

GK-43 Teaching Short Vowel Sounds

Students identify and write words with short vowel sounds. Using short a as an example, this activity
provides a model for introducing any short vowel sound.
MATERIALS: Chalkboard/chalk, paper, pencils/markers

1 Write the letter a on the board. the letter a again and say:
The letter a also makes the short a sound in
2 Point to the a and tell students: the word cat. In cat, the short a sound is in
The letter a makes the short a sound at the the middle of the word.
beginning of the word apple.
7 Students give a thumbs up when they hear
3 Ask students to say the sound each time you the short a sound in the middle of a word or a
point to the letter. Practice this several times. thumbs down if they don’t.
4 Clearly and quickly, say some words that 8 Ask students to think of and share other
contain the short a sound at the beginning of the words that start with the short a sound or have it
word and some that don’t. in the middle.
5 Students give a thumbs up when they hear 9 Write the words on the board if they fit the
the short a sound at the beginning of a word or a sound. If they don’t, help students determine the
thumbs down if they don’t. difference between short a and the sound they used.
6 Once students have mastered working with Students practice blending CVC words that
the short a sound at the beginning of a word, include the short a sound.
begin working with the short a sound in the
middle of words. Give students examples of Finally, students practice writing the letter a on
some words that contain the short a sound in the paper and saying the short a sound each time they
middle of the word and some that don’t. Point to write it.

EXAMPLE:
Short a Vowel Sounds

Examples Non-Examples Examples Non-Examples

Short a at the beginning Short a in the middle
apple odd bad but
ant October fan dot
after under wag bit
ax up sat hop
and end map rid

(continued next page)

70 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Teaching Short Vowel Sounds (continued)

EXTENSION: Once students are confident with the short a sound, complete the activity with other vowel
sounds. Teach vowel sounds at the beginning of a word until students demonstrate mastery, then
move on to vowel sounds in the middle of words.

EXAMPLE:
Short e i o u Vowel Sounds
Examples Non-Examples Examples Non-Examples
Short e at the beginning Short e in the middle
egg ask send sat
every in pet pull
end under lend dog
enjoy odd nest hop
Short i at the beginning Short i in the middle
in odd pit pan
is after fish Ben
instead end sick doll
instant and chin glad
Short o at the beginning Short o in the middle
odd after hot hat
oxen umbrella lock sit
olive end stop pat
octopus under shot pet
Short u at the beginning Short u in the middle
up odd mud job
under ever puck dig
us instead rug led
uncle add jump tell

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Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Vowel Sounds: Short Vowels

Blackline Master available
GK-44 Short Vowel Sort www.tpri.org

Students compare short vowels by sorting words under two pictures.

MATERIALS: Word list, picture cards, index cards, marker

1 Write words containing the short vowel sounds 5 Students take turns reading their word and
a and i, and some containing long vowel a and i placing it below one of the pictures. If a word
on index cards, one word per card. doesn’t match the sound of the picture, they put
it aside.
2 Find two pictures that represent the short a
sound and short i sound to use as a model for 6 When sorting is complete, work with students
sorting (e.g., cat, pig). to check the results.
3 Discuss the two pictures with students and EXAMPLE:
place them on a table. Provide instruction and
practice on the two sounds by having students Short a Short i Other
think of other words that contain short a and
short i sounds. bat drill time
4 Pass out word cards to students. man ship place
grass trip ray
clap chin hive
track switch white
mask swim lane

Adaptation: Instead of words, have students sort short vowels using pictures.

ExtensionS:
• Provide students with more than two short vowel spelling patterns to sort. Don’t sort by short e and
short i until students are proficient at distinguishing between the two sounds.
•H ave students sort words and then label categories independently.
• Students can sort words from previously taught spelling patterns at a workstation.

Vowel Sounds: Long Vowels

Students learn the letters used to represent different long vowel sounds in words.

Guidelines for Instruction

When the sound a vowel makes in a word is the same as the name of the vowel, the sound is referred to as
a long vowel sound. Long vowel sounds are represented in a variety of ways by one or more letters in a word.
Short vowel sounds are more commonly represented with a single letter and are taught first.
Vowel digraphs, sometimes referred to as vowel teams, contain two adjacent vowels that produce one sound
(e.g., /ai/ /ay/ /ee/ /oa/ /aw/ /au/ /ou/ /ue/ /ew/ /igh/ /eigh/) or that produce two different sounds
(e.g., /ea/ as in bread and bead; /ow/ as in show and cow). Long vowel digraph spelling patterns are included in
activities in the long vowel section.

72 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Vowel Sounds: Long Vowels

Blackline Master available
GK-45 Long Vowel Sort www.tpri.org

Students sort words according to long vowel spelling patterns.

MATERIALS: Word list, index cards, spelling pattern labels, pocket chart, marker

1 On index cards, make word cards for the long 5 Explain to students,
vowel pattern of one vowel. Refer to the example Today we’re looking at words that say the
for sample words for each pattern. long ____ sound. However, we spell this
sound in different ways.
2 Make labels showing the different spelling
patterns of the long vowel sound selected. 6 Now place the labels for the spelling patterns
at the top of the pocket chart.
3 Ask students,
Can you think of words that make the long 7 Show the index cards to students, have them
____ sound? (Insert the appropriate vowel.) say the words and put them under the correct
spelling pattern.
4 When students answer correctly, write the
word on an index card and put it to the side of 8 Each time a word is read, it’s placed under a
the pocket chart. Allow students to come up with pattern and students say which letter or letters
two to three words. make the long vowel sound in the word.
9 When all words are sorted, students repeat
the various spelling patterns for the long vowel.

EXAMPLE:
Long Vowel Spelling Patterns and Words
Long a Long e
a a_e ai eigh ay e ea ee y
able make fail weight way he leaf teeth funny
apron take trail eight may she beat street sunny
ankle base pain freight day me meal need lady
ace case rain sleigh stay we dream feed city

Long i Long o Long u

i i_e igh ie y o o_e oa ow oe u_e
mild nice right dried try go home boat snow toe fume
wild twice night fried by so bone goat throw Joe cube
child hike bright cried fry no rose coast grow doe use
hi ride sight tie spy pro froze toast slow woe mule

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 73

Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Vowel Sounds: Long Vowels

Blackline Master available
GK-46 Short and Long Vowel Sort www.tpri.org

Students sort words spelled with short and long vowel sounds.
MATERIALS: Word list, picture cards, index cards, pocket chart, marker

1 Write words that target a particular vowel a third column labeled Other for words that don’t
(e.g., rip, ripe, sit, site, bit, bite, rid, ride, miss, lid, fit either category.
ring, win, line, drive, sign, mice, light, nice, dirt,
skirt) and some that don’t on index cards, one word 4 Pass out word cards to students.
per card. Use words with sounds previously taught. 5 Students take turns reading their words and
2 Find two pictures that represent the long and placing them under the correct header.
short vowel sounds of the vowel selected. 6 Provide corrective feedback as needed.
3 Discuss the two pictures with students and 7 When all words have been sorted, students
place them in the pocket chart as headers. Create read the words again.

Vowel Sounds: Diphthongs

Students learn the sounds and spellings of different diphthongs, which contain two adjacent vowels whose sounds
slide together to make one sound (e.g., /oi/ /oy/ /ou/ /ow/).

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Vowel Sounds: Diphthongs

GK-47 Hunt for Diphthongs

Students search for diphthongs in a familiar text.
MATERIALS: Short and familiar text, chalkboard/chalk, pencils

1 Provide copies of text for each student.

On the board, write one or two diphthongs EXAMPLE:
(e.g., /oi/ /oy/ /ou/ /ow/). /oi/ /oy/ /ou/ /ow/
2 Tell students they will search the text and soil boy south town
circle a word each time they find the diphthong boil toy scout frown
on the board.
voice joy pout howl
3 Students circle a word each time they find the spoil Roy round vowel
diphthong.
oil soy pound cow
4 Students go back and read each word circled.
5 Reread the text to the group, calling attention
to the circled words.

ADAPTATION: Before students search independently for diphthongs, work as a group to find them in text.
Repeat the activity on subsequent days using the same book, with students looking for the same diphthongs.

74 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Vowel Sounds: Diphthongs

Blackline Master available
GK-48 Diphthong Memory www.tpri.org

Students play a Memory-style card game, attempting to match diphthongs with a picture of a word
that includes that diphthong.
MATERIALS: Picture cards, index cards, marker

1 Write the diphthongs /oi/ /oy/ /ou/ /ow/ on 4 Students take turns turning over a diphthong
index cards, making two cards for each diphthong. card, pronouncing the diphthong, and then
turning over a picture card and saying the word
2 Print the picture cards provided on the Blackline depicted. If the student turns over a matching
Master for this activity, which includes two picture diphthong and picture, it makes a pair and the
cards for each diphthong. student keeps the cards.
3 Arrange the cards face down on a table, diphthong 5 Play continues with each student taking one
cards on one side and picture cards on the other. turn at a time until all cards are picked up.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Vowel Sounds: Diphthongs

Blackline Master available
GK-49 Writing /oy/ /oi/ and /ou/ /ow/ Words www.tpri.org

Students spell words with diphthongs /oy/ /oi/ /ou/ /ow/ and then sort them for practice.
MATERIALS: Word list, 8½ x 11" paper, pencils/markers

1 Fold sheets of 8½ x 11" paper in half from top frequent errors, repeat the process, starting with
to bottom. Divide each half into two columns, Step 2, using some of the same words mixed with
labeling the top-left column /oy/ and the top-right new words.
column /oi/. Give each student a folded sheet.
7 In a later lesson, repeat Steps 1-6 using /ou/
2 Explain to students the sound /oy/, as in and /ow/ words.
the word toy, can be spelled two ways: with the
letters oy and the letters oi. Example:
3 Call out one word at a time from the list of /oy/ Diphthong Word List
words in the example, for a total of about six words. /oy/ /oi/ /ou/ /ow/
Students write each word on the top half of their
paper in the left /oy/ column, underlining oy. As boy oink shout now
needed, help students spell the words correctly. toy spoil pout owl
4 Repeat Step 3, with students writing /oi/ joy coil out cow
words in the right column. coy oil loud town
5 With their papers folded, students prepare enjoy foil count gown
to write words again on the bottom half of their loyal broil proud frown
paper. Call out the same words to students, employer soil round brown
randomly choosing between /oy/ and /oi/ words.
Students attempt to write each word you say in royal moist found howl
the correct column. annoy join ground plow
6 Students unfold their papers and check destroy choice noun growl
whether they spelled words correctly and wrote
them under the correct column. If students make

Adaptation: Make word cards with /oy/ /oi/ /ou/ /ow/ words. Write one word per card, creating about
five words for each vowel diphthong. Give each student or team one set of cards. Students sort the
words into sets according to their vowel diphthong pattern and then read the words for each pattern.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 75

Graphophonemic Knowledge

Vowel Sounds: r-Controlled Vowels

Vowels followed by an r that affect the vowel pronunciation, with the r sound dominating.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Vowel Sounds: r-Controlled Vowels

Blackline Master available
GK-50 r-Controlled Vowel Word Sort www.tpri.org

Students sort r-controlled vowel words into groups of matching letter combinations.
MATERIALS: Word list, vowel chart, scissors, glue sticks/tape, marker

1 Make a random list of r-controlled vowel words 3 Give each student or team a copy of the word
that can be sorted by the er ur or ar ir patterns. list and vowel chart.
Don’t include category headings.
4 Students read the words on the list, cut them
2 Create a blank r-controlled vowel chart like out and glue or tape them in the correct column
the one below. on the chart.
er ur or ar ir

Example:
er ur or ar ir
her turn vapor starch fir
perfect surface evaporate chart stir
energy burn work part sir
water churn corn dark whirl
fern furnish horn march girl
over nurture labor cart virtue

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Vowel Sounds: r-Controlled Vowels

GK-51 Hunt for r-Controlled Vowels

Students search for r-controlled vowels in a familiar text.
MATERIALS: Short and familiar text, pencils

1 Provide copies of text for each student. On the 3 Students circle a word each time they find the
board, write one or two r-controlled vowels. r-controlled vowel.
2 Tell students they will search the text and 4 Students go back and read each word circled.
circle a word each time they find the r-controlled
vowel on the board. 5 Reread the text to the group, calling attention
to the circled words.

ADAPTATION: Before students search independently for r-controlled words, work as a group to find
them in text. Repeat the activity on subsequent days using the same book, with students looking for
the same r-controlled vowels.

76 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Vowel Sounds: r-Controlled Vowels

Blackline Master available
GK-52 r-Controlled Vowel Bingo www.tpri.org

Students play bingo using picture cards and r-controlled vowels.

MATERIALS: Chalkboard/chalk, picture cards, bingo boards, chips/counters, pencils/markers

1 Select r-controlled vowel spelling patterns and 5 Using the patterns on the chalkboard, students
write them on the chalkboard large enough for fill in the squares on their boards in random order,
students to view. writing one r-controlled pattern per square, with
each pattern written in multiple squares.
2 Find picture cards with the same r-controlled
vowels as those selected. Have multiple pictures 6 One at a time, turn over a picture card and say
for each r-controlled vowel pattern. the word depicted. Students use a chip to cover
a square with the r-controlled vowel pattern that
3 Create blank bingo boards with five columns matches the picture.
and four rows, for a total of 20 squares.
7 The first student to cover an entire row or
4 Give each student a blank bingo board and column wins.
20 chips.
8 Students clear their boards and play again as
time permits.

Consonant Digraphs
Found in both the initial and final position in words, consonant digraphs contain two or more consecutive letters that
represent one sound (e.g., sh th ch tch ck wh ng dge).

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Consonant Digraphs

GK-53 Hunt for Digraphs

Students search for digraphs in a familiar text.
MATERIALS: Short and familiar text, chalkboard/chalk, pencils

1 Provide copies of text for each student. 3 Students circle a word each time they find the
On the board, write one or two digraphs digraph.
(e.g., sh th ch ck).
4 Students go back and read each word circled.
2 Tell students they will search the text and
circle a word each time they find the digraph on 5 Reread the text to the group, calling attention
the board. to the circled words.

Adaptation: Before students search independently for digraphs, work as a group to find them in text.
Repeat the activity on subsequent days using the same book, with students looking for the same digraphs.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 77

Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Consonant Digraphs

Blackline Master available
GK-54 Digraph Memory www.tpri.org

Students play a Memory-style card game, attempting to match digraphs with a picture of a word
that includes that digraph.
MATERIALS: Picture cards, index cards, marker

1 Select digraphs previously taught. Write one 3 Students take turns turning over a digraph card,
digraph per index card and find a picture with the pronouncing the digraph, and then turning over a
same digraph. picture card and saying the word depicted. If the
student turns over a matching digraph and picture,
2 Shuffle and arrange the cards face down on a it makes a pair and the student keeps the cards.
table, digraph cards on one side and picture cards
on the other. 4 Play continues with each student taking one
turn at a time until all cards are picked up.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Consonant Digraphs

Blackline Master available
GK-55 Digraph Bingo www.tpri.org

Students play bingo using picture cards and digraphs.

MATERIALS: Chalkboard/chalk, picture cards, bingo boards, chips/counters, pencils/markers

1 Select five to six digraphs and write them on in random order, writing one digraph per square,
the chalkboard large enough for students to view. with each digraph written in multiple squares.
2 Find picture cards with the same digraph 6 One at a time, turn over a picture card and say
sounds as those selected. Have multiple pictures the word depicted. Students use a chip to cover a
for each digraph. square with the digraph that matches the sound
of the picture.
3 Create blank bingo boards with five columns
and four rows, for a total of 20 squares. 7 The first student to cover an entire row or
column wins.
4 Give each student a blank bingo board and
20 chips. 8 Students clear their boards and play again as
time permits.
5 Using the digraphs on the chalkboard,
students fill in the squares on their bingo boards

78 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Consonant Digraphs

Blackline Master available
GK-56 Digraph Word Puzzles www.tpri.org

Students practice recognizing digraphs and blending digraphs with other letters to make words.
MATERIALS: Word list, index cards, scissors, envelopes, marker

1 Write words containing a digraph previously 4 Students assemble the digraphs and word
taught on index cards, one word per card. parts to make real words.
2 Cut each word card into two pieces between 5 After you check their work, students exchange
the digraph and the remainder of the word. envelopes until they’ve assembled words from all
envelopes.
3 Place eight to 10 pieces in each envelope,
making sure both parts of a word are included.
Pass out to students.

EXAMPLE:

Digraphs
ck ch tch wh ng dge sh th
sick chance catch whale king bridge shack than
pick cheese patch wheel bring fudge she that
wreck chop ditch when sing lodge shell bath
trick beach stretch why long pledge shop tooth
track teach scratch while strong badge blush mouth

Common Syllable Types and Multisyllable Words:

Syllable Types
Learning about syllable types helps students determine how to pronounce vowel sounds in words and how to decode
multisyllable words.

Guidelines for Instruction

Teaching students syllable types helps them learn to sound out multisyllable words and determine the
sounds vowels make in words. Syllable types should be taught one at a time. Before moving to a new type,
make sure students understand the current type. Initially, students should be taught syllable types using one-
syllable words before moving on to multisyllable words. As students learn different syllable types, they can
begin comparing and analyzing the syllables in different words.
Activities in this section include a model for teaching a syllable type, and then activities that allow students
to apply their knowledge of syllable types to compare and decode a variety of syllables and words.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 79

Graphophonemic Knowledge

Syllable Types
Syllable types are often presented in six different categories: Closed, Open, Vowel Digraph/Vowel Diphthong, Final
Stable, r-Controlled and Vowel Consonant Silent e (CVCe). Following are definitions of each category.
Closed Syllables: Contain one vowel followed by one or more consonants. The vowel usually has a short
sound. The vowel sound is closed in by the consonant.
••ran, sat, sun — One closed syllable; the vowel is short because it’s closed in by a consonant.
••pic-nic, rab-bit, nap-kin — First and second syllable are closed; vowels are short because they’re closed in
by a consonant.
Open Syllables: End in a vowel, which is usually long.
••he, she, we — One open syllable; the vowel is long because it’s open at the end of the syllable.
••ba-by, ve-to — First and second syllables are open; vowels are long because they’re open at the end of
both syllables.
••ho-tel — First syllable is open; the vowel is long because it’s open at the end of the syllable. Second
syllable is closed; the vowel is short because it’s closed in by a consonant.
Vowel Digraph/Vowel Diphthong
Vowel Digraph Syllables: Contain two consecutive vowels that produce one sound
(e.g., /ai/ /ay/ /ee/ /oa/ /aw/ /au/ /ou/ /ue/ /ew/ /igh/ /eigh/)
or produce two different sounds (e.g., /ea/ as in bread and bead; /ow/ as in show and cow).
••pain, say, feed, boat, fawn, caught, fought, few, blue, light, sleigh — One syllable with a vowel digraph.
••rain-bow, boy-hood, oat-meal — Two syllables, each with a vowel digraph.
Vowel Diphthong Syllables: Contain two consecutive vowels whose sounds slide together to make one
sound (e.g., /oi/ /oy/ /ou/ /ow/).
••coil, boy, out, how — One syllable with a vowel diphthong.
Final Stable Syllables: Are located in multisyllable words and have a few common patterns. One set of final
stable syllable configurations includes the letter l and a vowel at the end of the word (e.g., le al el). In these
words, the vowel and the letter l blend together, rather than the vowel having a short or long sound. Other
final stable syllable configurations include a blended sound that can be taught by sight (e.g., tion sion sure
ture age tious cious).
••puz-zle — First syllable is closed; second syllable is a final stable syllable with le.
••le-gal — First syllable is open; second syllable is a final stable syllable with al.
••la-bel — First syllable is open; second syllable is a final stable syllable with el.
••con-trac-tion — First and second syllables are closed; third syllable is a final stable syllable with tion.
••con-clu-sion — First syllable is closed; second syllable is open; third syllable is a final stable syllable with sion.
••fu-ture — First syllable is open; second syllable is a final stable syllable with ture.
••clo-sure — First syllable is open; second syllable is a final stable syllable with sure.
••im-age — First syllable is closed; second syllable is a final stable syllable with age.
••cau-tious — First syllable has a vowel digraph; second syllable is a final stable syllable with tious.
••gra-cious — First syllable is open; second syllable is a final stable syllable with cious.

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 Graphophonemic Knowledge

r-Controlled Syllables: Contain one or two vowels followed by an r, which influences the way the vowel sounds.
••car, her, fir, for, fur — One r-controlled syllable; vowel sound is controlled by the r.
••per-fect — First syllable vowel sound is r-controlled; second syllable is closed.
••cor-ner — First and second syllable vowel sounds are r-controlled.
••pur-ple — First syllable vowel sound is r-controlled; second syllable is a final stable syllable with le.
••ef-fort — First syllable is closed; second syllable vowel sound is r-controlled.
Vowel Consonant Silent e Syllables (CVCe pattern): Contain a single vowel followed by a consonant and
then the vowel e. The e is silent and makes the vowel before it long (or in student-friendly language, “It makes
the vowel say its name”).
••kite, zone, grime — One syllable with vowel consonant silent e.
••be-have — First syllable is open; second syllable is a vowel consonant silent e.
••com-plete — First syllable is closed; second syllable is a vowel consonant silent e.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Common Syllable Types and Multisyllable Words: Syllable Types
Blackline Master available
GK-57 Model for Teaching a New Syllable Type www.tpri.org

A model for introducing and teaching a new syllable type to students.

MATERIALS: Word list, syllable type description, chalkboard/chalk, texts, paper, pencils

1 Tell students which syllable type you’re 5 Repeat Steps 1-4 as necessary. Once students
teaching and provide a short description of it. begin to master the syllable type, introduce
multisyllable words that include only the new
2 Write two to three sample words syllable type OR that include the new syllable type
representative of the type on the board. Explain and syllable types previously taught.
the characteristics of each word that make it fit
the syllable type. Underline the part of the word 6 In a later lesson, provide students with lists of
that best shows the syllable type. words and/or short paragraphs of connected text.
Students independently identify words that fit
3 Write and read additional words that the syllable type, underlining the part of the word
demonstrate the syllable type. When possible, that indicates the syllable type.
always start with single-syllable words. Ask
students to explain why each word fits the 7 In another lesson, ask students to search
syllable type and to come forward to underline books and environmental print for examples of
the part of the word that shows which syllable words that include the targeted syllable pattern.
type it is. Students write the words they find and mark the
separate syllables in any multisyllable words.
4 In a subsequent lesson, write and then read a list
of single-syllable words, some of which include the 8 Students share and discuss words they find for
syllable type being taught. Have students identify the syllable pattern.
words that include the targeted syllable type and
explain the reasons for their answers.

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Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Common Syllable Types and Multisyllable Words: Syllable Types
Blackline Master available
GK-58 Contrasting Open and Closed Syllables www.tpri.org

Students use plastic letters to build open and closed syllables.

MATERIALS: Word list, plastic/magnetic letters

1 Provide students with letters.

EXAMPLE: met -> me
2 Call out words from a closed vowel syllable list
and have students build each word with their letters. sod -> so
Tell them all of the words contain a vowel closed in by hit -> hi
a consonant, so the vowel sounds short.
got -> go
3 Have students remove the consonant after the
vowel and say the word. The syllable is now open bet -> be
and the vowel has a long sound. This exercise hem -> he
shows students that when the vowel is closed in
by a consonant, the vowel is usually short. When at -> a
the vowel doesn’t have a consonant after it, it’s not -> no
open and usually long.
bed -> be
4 Explain this is a strategy for attempting to
pronounce words, but it won’t work for every word. in -> I

VARIATION: This activity can be done with students writing words on whiteboards or paper.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Common Syllable Types and Multisyllable Words: Syllable Types
Blackline Master available
GK-59 Changing Closed Syllables to CVCe Syllables www.tpri.org

Students use plastic letters to change words from closed syllable to CVCe.
MATERIALS: Word list, plastic/magnetic letters

1 Provide students with letters.

EXAMPLE: cap -> cape
2 Call out words from a closed vowel syllable list
and have students build each word with their letters. tap -> tape
Tell them all of the words contain a vowel closed in by rid -> ride
a consonant, so the vowel sounds short.
mad -> made
3 Have students add an e to the end of each word.
rat -> rate
4 As students read the new word, explain that
adding an e to the end of the word causes the hat -> hate
vowel preceding it to make its long sound. pin -> pine
hop -> hope
can -> cane
hid -> hide

VARIATION: This activity can be done with students writing words on whiteboards or paper.

82 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Common Syllable Types and Multisyllable Words: Syllable Types

GK-60 Marking Vowels in Syllables

A model for teaching students how to identify syllables in words.
MATERIALS: Chalkboard/chalk

1 Write the following words on the board: 5 Write the following words on the board:
happy, stop, doghouse, regardless, stick, sunset, sandwich, burger, bathtub, intimidate.
photograph, school, nature, cycle.
6 Students come to the board, place dots under
2 Remind students that each syllable in a word each vowel in one of the words and determine
must include a vowel sound. how many syllables are in the word.
3 Put a dot under each vowel in the words on 7 As a group or individually, have students
the board. read each word syllable by syllable. To do this,
cover the word and then uncover one syllable at
4 Say each word aloud with students and a time as students sound out the syllable. After
ask them to identify the number of syllables, sounding out syllables individually, have them
reminding them that each syllable contains read the entire word.
one vowel sound. (Later, you’ll need to remind
students that sometimes two vowels are used to 8 Repeat Step 7 with the remaining words.
make one sound.) During later lessons, choose words like those in
the example.

EXAMPLE: shadow perfect explain December

magic program untie fortunate
server holiday winter pencil
waist person shampoo important
rapid barber prevent conversation

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Common Syllable Types and Multisyllable Words: Syllable Types
Blackline Master available
GK-61 Syllable Type Match www.tpri.org

Students identify the syllable type(s) included in different words.

MATERIALS: Chart with syllable types, index cards, marker

1 Choose two to four different syllable types 3 Before beginning, review the selected syllable
to teach. On index cards, create word cards by types using charts from previous lessons.
writing words that include these syllable types.
Write the syllable type(s) in the word on the back 4 Place the word cards in a stack.
of the card. One-syllable words can be used with 5 Students pick up one word card at a time and
students in any instructional group. For more place it on a table in front of them. They identify
advanced students, you can include two- or three- the syllable type(s) in the word and place the
syllable words. With two- or three-syllable words, appropriate syllable type card below the word
be sure to select words in which each syllable is a card. Students then read the word, turn over the
different type and a type you’re targeting. word card and check their answers.
2 Create sets of syllable type cards by writing 6 If correct, the student keeps the word card. If
the name of each syllable type you’re teaching, incorrect, the card is returned to the bottom of the
one per index card. Give each student or team a stack. Students continue with the remaining cards.
set of syllable type cards.

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Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Common Syllable Types and Multisyllable Words: Syllable Types
Blackline Master available
GK-62 Syllable Type Word Sort www.tpri.org

Students sort words and place them under the appropriate syllable type.
MATERIALS: Word list, chart paper, small index cards, marker

1 Make a three-column sorting chart labeled 3 Students take turns placing a word card
with three different syllable types and their under a syllable type label, reading the word and
definitions (see Syllable Types, pages 79-81). justifying their answer by referring to the syllable
Add additional types as you teach them. type definition.
2 On index cards, write words that fit the
syllable types on your chart and hand out the
cards to students.

EXAMPLE: Syllable Types

Vowel Digraph/
Closed Open Final Stable
Diphthong
hit he paint table
rat hi boy simple
perfect so fight fraction
bad she loud cradle
sun go down vision

Vowel Consonant
r-Controlled Silent e
flower gate
sailor line
far wide

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 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Common Syllable Types and Multisyllable Words:

Multisyllable Words
A combination of strategies to decode words with more than one syllable. The strategies are often referred to as
structural analysis and chunking.

Guidelines for Instruction

The more students read and write, the more likely they are to see the same letter sequences in words.
Repeatedly reading and writing the same letter sequences encourages students to form mental images of
these sequences or patterns. Over time, students can fuse recurring patterns together and treat them as
intact chunks. As a result, students are able to pronounce multisyllabic words without decoding the individual
letter-sound association.
Chunking is a more streamlined word identification strategy than associating sounds with letters that
routinely appear next to one another in words. Chunks can be either non-meaningful groups of letters that
contribute to pronunciation alone, or meaningful groups of letters that contribute to both the pronunciation
and meaning of a word.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Common Syllable Types and Multisyllable Words: Multisyllable Words
Blackline Master available
GK-63 How Many Syllables? www.tpri.org

Students sort one- to four-syllable words into groups.

MATERIALS: Word list, chart paper, small index cards, marker

1 Make a four-column sorting chart labeled One 4 Model breaking several multisyllable words
Syllable, Two Syllables, Three Syllables and Four into syllables by marking the vowels, saying the
Syllables for yourself and each student or team. word and placing it under the correct label on the
sorting chart.
2 On index cards, write one- to four-syllable
words, one word per card. 5 Pass out word cards and sorting charts to
students, allowing them to sort independently or
3 Remind students that each syllable has a in teams.
vowel sound.

EXAMPLE:
One Syllable Two Syllables Three Syllables Four Syllables
stick contain convention fascination
drop hero unfasten impractical
thing lumber suddenly understanding
bath sister probably elevation
bird dinner enclosure interesting
dog kitten predator dependable
pouch basket banana exhibition

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Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Common Syllable Types and Multisyllable Words: Multisyllable Words
Blackline Master available
GK-64 Multisyllable Match www.tpri.org

Students blend syllables into words.

MATERIALS: Word list, sentence strips, scissors, marker

1 Write one multisyllable word on each 4 Mix up the syllables and pass them out
sentence strip. to students.
2 Cut the word into syllable parts. On each 5 Students match their syllables by symbol or
syllable part, write the same symbol or number. number to form a word.
3 Repeat these steps for each word selected, 6 Students read the words they match.
using a different symbol or number for each word.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Common Syllable Types and Multisyllable Words: Multisyllable Words
GK-65 Word Chunk Scramble
Students combine chunks of words to make real and made-up words.
MATERIALS: Word list, small colored index cards, scissors, marker

1 Write each chunk of the selected words on a 3 Give each student a set of cards with words
different colored index card (e.g., use green cards containing the same number of chunks. More
for the first chunk, blue cards for the second advanced students can be given additional words
chunk, red cards for the third chunk, etc.). For or words with more chunks.
sample word lists, refer to the examples. The
lists are divided into order of difficulty, so choose 4 Tell students the sequence of colors for the
words appropriate for students in your group. chunks in their words (e.g., The first chunk is
green, the second chunk is blue, etc.).
2 Cut each word apart into separate chunks. Be
sure to cut the index card pieces into the same 5 Students combine the chunks in a variety of
size, regardless of what word is on the card. ways to make real or made-up words, and then
pronounce both the real and nonsense words.

Easy List
Chunks Words Chunks Words
fun ny funny pup py puppy
pen cle penny hap pet puppet
cir cus circle mo pen happy
par lor circus gig tor happen
for ty parlor wig tion motor
give party gle motion
forty giggle
forgive wiggle

bar ber barber bot tle bottle

pil ter barter lit tom bottom
be low pillow stu dent little
fol ware beware in der student
shal long belong cat indent
below or cattle
follow order
shallow

(continued next page)

86 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Word Chunk Scramble (continued)

Medium List
Chunks Words Chunks Words
fam i ly family pic nic ful picnic
sud den er suddenly pow ture tor picture
an oth mal sudden vis der ble powder
help ful another nev er power
hid animal i powerful
helpful visitor
helpfully visible
hidden never

com fort tion comfort in i tial initial

rot mo dance commotion yes dent day indent
at ten rotten hol struct instruct
pur tack attack ro ter yesterday
sue attention low holiday
chase attendance bust hollow
pursue robust
purchase

More Difficult List

Chunks Words Chunks Words
de mol ish demolish au then tic authentic
pro form tive deform ca di ble audible
re ceive deceive gi tumn tion audition
tec detective tra pa autumn
verse protective ter capable
reform gan cater
reverse gigantic
receive tradition

pro cras tin ate procrastinate en cour age encourage

re duce vi produce dis rage pear enrage
ab bre ble reduce sur ap discourage
pos ture vate abbreviate com prise disappear
cul si posture vive surprise
ti possible press survive
culture comprise
cultivate compress

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 87

Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Common Syllable Types and Multisyllable Words: Multisyllable Words

GK-66 Discover and Divide Multisyllable Words

Before reading, students find multisyllable words in text, divide them into chunks and blend them.
MATERIALS: High-interest reading material (magazines, newspaper articles, familiar texts), index cards, pencils

1 Before reading, students scan a text passage 3 Using slashes, students divide the word into
to find multisyllable words. chunks and read each chunk. Finally, they blend
the chunks together to read the word.
2 Students write each unknown multisyllable
word on an index card. 4 Discuss with students the meaning of each
multisyllable word.
5 Students read the selected text.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Common Syllable Types and Multisyllable Words: Multisyllable Words

GK-67 Spelling Syllable by Syllable

Students spell words that are said in syllables.
MATERIALS: Word list, paper, pencils

1 Call out words syllable by syllable. 3 Check to see if the syllables are spelled correctly.
2 Students write the syllables on paper. 4 Students take turns blending the syllables and
saying the words.

EXTENSION: Call out entire words instead of saying them syllable by syllable. Students spell the words
and mark the syllable divisions with a slash.

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 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Consonant Doubling and Inflectional Endings:

Consonant Doubling
The consonant doubling spelling rule states that when a one-syllable word with one vowel ends in a consonant, the
final consonant is doubled before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Consonant Doubling and Inflectional Endings: Consonant Doubling

Blackline Master available
GK-68 Adding Endings: –ed, –ing, –ful and –less www.tpri.org

Students spell words where the consonant is doubled.

MATERIALS: Word list, chart paper, paper, pencils/markers

1 Make a list of words to spell and a chart with 3 Provide examples of words that fit the rule
the rule: and allow students to practice.
If a one-syllable word ends in a consonant,
the consonant is doubled when adding an 4 Call out words as students spell them.
inflectional ending (e.g., –ed, –ing). The 5 Students practice writing words following the
consonant is not doubled if the suffix begins rule. Encourage them to reflect on the rule before
with a consonant (e.g., –ful, –less). spelling a word.
2 Teach and review the rule. 6 Provide corrective feedback as students work.

EXAMPLE:
Adding –ed Adding –ing Adding –ful Adding –less
hug hugged hug hugging rest restful rest restless
stop stopped stop stopping cheer cheerful cheer cheerless
trim trimmed trim trimming care careful care careless
pop popped pop popping pain painful pain painless
tap tapped tap tapping truth truthful truth truthless
pin pinned pin pinning help helpful help helpless
hop hopped hop hopping joy joyful joy joyless

Non-Examples
play played playing
walk walked walking
rest rested resting

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Graphophonemic Knowledge

Consonant Doubling and Inflectional Endings:

Inflectional Endings
Inflectional endings are suffixes added to a word to change the form of a word, but not its basic meaning. Inflections
include past tense, adding –ing and –ly, and comparatives –er and –est.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Consonant Doubling and Inflectional Endings: Inflectional Endings

Blackline Master available
GK-69 Making Singular Nouns Plural www.tpri.org

Students read words with the inflectional endings –s and –es.

MATERIALS: Word list, chart paper, small index cards, pencils/markers

1 Make a two-column sorting chart labeled 5 When sorting is complete, students read the
–s and –es. On index cards, write singular noun word again.
words, one to a card.
2 Review the rule for making singular nouns EXAMPLE: Singular Nouns
plural: For most singular nouns, add –s to form Adding –s Adding –es
the plural. When a singular noun ends in s ss ch sh
x z, add –es to form the plural. cap cow mix pass
hill park dress crash
3 Pass out the singular noun word cards so each bump axe box bus
student has a handful to sort.
bun chick glass dish
4 Students read a word, make it plural and place cliff farm brush church
it under the correct label on the sorting chart. If
the answer is incorrect, ask the student to repeat friend coat kiss tax
the rule for adding –s or –es. tune laugh dish lunch

EXTENSION: When students have mastered creating plurals using the rule above, introduce these
additional rules for creating plurals.
Rule: Make a singular noun ending with a consonant and o plural by adding –es.
tomato -> tomatoes
potato -> potatoes
hero -> heroes
tornado -> tornadoes
Rule: Make a singular noun ending in a vowel and o plural by adding –s.
radio -> radios
studio -> studios
Rule: Make a singular noun ending in f or fe plural by changing the f to v and adding –es or –s.
knife -> knives
calf -> calves

9.1

90 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Consonant Doubling and Inflectional Endings: Inflectional Endings

Blackline Master available
GK-70 Making Words Ending in y Plural www.tpri.org

Students spell words by changing y to i before adding an ending.

MATERIALS: Word list, chart paper, small index cards, pencils/markers

1 Write words ending in y on index cards, one 6 Provide corrective feedback as students work.
word to a card.
EXAMPLE:
2 Make a chart with the rule: If a root word ends
in a consonant-y pattern, change the y to i before y to i Plural Words
adding the suffix (e.g., story -> stories). bunny baby family
3 Review the rule with students and practice puppy jury cherry
with a few words.
pony party city
4 Pass out the words ending in y cards and blank story penny candy
index cards. 7
5 Students read the word and then write the
plural form on the blank index card.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Consonant Doubling and Inflectional Endings: Inflectional Endings

GK-71 Write the Plural

Students build word recognition fluency by writing plural words.
MATERIALS: Word list, index cards, marker boards/markers, erasers, chips/counters

1 Create a stack of index cards with plural 4 After a few seconds, say Stop. Students put
words, one to a card. Provide each student with a down their markers. Show the card so students
marker board, marker and eraser. can check their work.
2 Read a plural word from a card. 5 Students show their boards. If they wrote the
word correctly, they receive a chip.
3 After reading the word, say Go. Students pick
up their markers and write the word as quickly as 6 Students erase their boards. Repeat Steps 2-5
they can. with a new word.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Consonant Doubling and Inflectional Endings: Inflectional Endings

Blackline Master available
GK-72 Plurals Sort www.tpri.org

Students circle plural words when they locate them in a familiar text.
MATERIALS: Short and familiar text, paper, pencils

1 Make a three-column sorting chart labeled –s, 4 Students circle plural words each time they appear.
–es and y to i.
5 Students study each circled word, decide
2 Hand out copies of the text and sorting chart under which label it belongs and then write it on
to each student. their sorting chart.
3 Tell students they will circle plural words they 6 The group shares, compares and discusses
find in the text. their sorting results.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 91

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Graphophonemic Knowledge | Consonant Doubling and Inflectional Endings: Inflectional Endings

Blackline Master available
GK-73 Making Words Past Tense www.tpri.org

Students read words and distinguish between the three sounds for –ed.
MATERIALS: Chalkboard/chalk, index cards, markers

1 Write d, t and ed on three separate index cards 5 Students signal the ending sound by holding
and give a set to each student. up an index card. If incorrect, they listen to the
word again.
2 On the board, write ­–ed. Teach the three
sounds –ed can make by saying the following 6 Continue practicing the sounds of –ed at the
words aloud, with students listening to and end of words until students can determine all
discussing the sound at the end of each word: three sounds when they hear them.
played /d/ piled /d/ fished /t/
walked /t/ added /ed/ wanted /ed/ EXAMPLE:
3 Teach students that sometimes –ed at the /d/ /t/ /ed/
end of a word adds a syllable (e.g., as in wanted
or needed) and sometimes it doesn’t (e.g., as in played fished added
played or walked). piled walked wanted
4 Using the example, say the words without cleaned wished needed
students seeing them. Jump from sound to sound fried helped landed
to vary what students hear (e.g., begin with a /d/ raised liked waded
word, then a /t/ word and then an /ed/ word).

EXTENSION: Dictate simple past tense sentences for students to write, concentrating on the sounds
and spellings of the past tense verbs.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Consonant Doubling and Inflectional Endings: Inflectional Endings

GK-74 Hunt for Past Tense

Students search for past tense words in a familiar text.
MATERIALS: Short and familiar text, pencils

1 Provide copies of text for each student. 4 Students go back and read each word circled.
2 Explain they will search the text and circle 5 Reread the story to the group, calling attention
words written in past tense. to the circled words.
3 Students circle past tense words each time
they appear.

ADAPTATION: Before students search independently for past tense words, work as a group to find them
in text. Repeat the activity on subsequent days using the same book, with students again looking for
past tense words.

EXTENSION: Make three columns on the board labeled /d/ /t/ /ed/. Students write words they find
under the correct column.

92 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

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Graphophonemic Knowledge | Consonant Doubling and Inflectional Endings: Inflectional Endings

GK-75 Writing Past Tense Words

Students build word recognition fluency by writing past tense words.
MATERIALS: Word list, index cards, marker boards/markers, erasers, chips/counters

1 Create a stack of index cards with past tense 4 After a few seconds, say Stop. Students put
words, one to a card. Provide each student with a down their markers. Show the card so students
marker board, marker and eraser. can check their work.
2 Read a past tense word from a card. 5 Students show their boards. If they wrote the
word correctly, they receive a chip.
3 After reading the word, say Go. Students pick
up their markers and write the word as quickly as 6 Students erase their boards. Repeat Steps 2-5
they can. with a new word.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Consonant Doubling and Inflectional Endings: Inflectional Endings

Blackline Master available
GK-76 Drop Final e When Adding –ing or –ly www.tpri.org

Students spell words that allow them to apply the dropping the final e rule.
MATERIALS: Word list, paper, pencils/markers

1 Make a list of words to spell and a chart with 5 Students practice writing words following the
the rule: rule. Encourage them to reflect on the rule before
The e is dropped from a root word when a spelling a word.
suffix that begins with a vowel is added
(e.g., raking, shaking, baking). The e remains 6 Provide corrective feedback as students work.
in the spelling of the word when the suffix
EXAMPLE:
begins with a consonant (e.g., widely, nicely).
lose -> losing care -> caring
2 Teach and review the rule. give -> giving rope -> roping
3 Provide examples of words that fit the rule and hide -> hiding wide -> widely
allow students to practice. shine -> shining polite -> politely
bathe -> bathing nice -> nicely
4 Call out words as students spell them. smoke -> smoking like -> likely

EXTENSION: Students practice writing words on whiteboards in workstations. Provide a key for students
to check their work independently.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Consonant Doubling and Inflectional Endings: Inflectional Endings

GK-77 Adding –er and –est to Words

Students apply rules for spelling words with comparatives.
MATERIALS: Word list, paper, pencils

1 Discuss with students why –er or –est is added 3 Allow students to practice adding –er or
to a word to make a comparison between people –est to words in sentences. See example for
or things. As examples, use fast, faster and fastest. comparative words.
2 Provide additional opportunities for students (continued next page)
to use –er and –est to describe people or things.
As examples, use slow, large and small.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 93

Graphophonemic Knowledge

Adding –er and –est to Words (continued)

EXAMPLE: hot cold cool warm fun huge

long short tall wide thin quick
smooth rough strong weak smart strange

Morphemes: Prefixes and Suffixes

Morphemes are the smallest unit of meaning in language. Prefixes are morphemes added to the beginning of a word.
Suffixes are morphemes added to the end of a word.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Morphemes: Prefixes and Suffixes

Blackline Master available
GK-78 Building Words Using Prefixes www.tpri.org

Students use prefixes with different root words to build real and nonsense words.
MATERIALS: Word list, colored index cards, marker

1 Teach the definition: per card. Use one color for prefixes and another
Prefixes are small but meaningful groups of color for root words.
letters added to the front of a base or root word
adding to the meaning of the word. 3 Distribute a set of cards to each student or team.

2 Write commonly used prefixes and root 4 Students rearrange the cards to build and
words on colored index cards, one prefix or root then pronounce both real and nonsense words.

EXAMPLE: For additional prefixes, see VOC-25, page 132.

Common Prefixes
Prefix Meaning Examples
dis not, apart, from dishonest, discover, disagree
en, em cause to enjoy, enable, employ, embarrass
in, im not indirect, incomplete, impossible
mis wrongly misbehave, miscopy, mistake
non not, opposite of nonfiction, nonstop, nonviolent
over too much, above overjoyed, overcook, overgrown
pre before prepaid, prebake, predawn
re back, again return, redo, revisit, rewind
sub under, lower submarine, subzero, subhuman
un not unhappy, unhealthy, unwise

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Graphophonemic Knowledge | Morphemes: Prefixes and Suffixes

GK-79 Hunt for Prefixes

Students search for prefixes in a familiar text.
MATERIALS: Short and familiar text, chalkboard/chalk, pencils

1 Provide copies of text for each student. 4 Students circle a word each time they find a prefix.
2 Write the prefixes you want students to hunt 5 Students go back and read each circled word.
for on the board.
6 Reread the text to the group, calling attention
3 Tell students they will search the text and circle to the circled words and explaining how the prefix
words with those prefixes each time they appear. modifies the meaning of the root word.

ADAPTATION: Before students search independently for prefixes, work as a group to find them in text.
Repeat the activity on subsequent days using the same book, with students again looking for prefixes.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Morphemes: Prefixes and Suffixes

Blackline Master available
GK-80 Building Words Using Suffixes www.tpri.org

Students use suffixes with different root words to build real and nonsense words.
MATERIALS: Word list, colored index cards, marker

1 Teach the definition: card. Use one color for suffixes and another color
Suffixes are letter groups added to the end of for root words.
a base or root word. They often tell the part of
speech and sometimes add meaning. 3 Distribute a set of cards to each student or team.

2 Write commonly used suffixes and root words 4 Students rearrange the cards to build and
on colored index cards, one suffix or root per then pronounce both real and nonsense words.

EXAMPLE: For additional suffixes, see VOC-25, pages 132-133.

Common Suffixes
The most frequently occurring suffixes in printed school English are inflectional endings, such as the noun endings -s
and -es; verb endings -ed, -ing and -en; and adjective endings -er and -est.
Suffix Meaning Examples
ed past tense wanted, practiced, sneezed, baked, jumped
en cause to be, made of darken, strengthen, thicken, wooden, golden
er more lighter, smarter, quicker, meaner, greater
er, or one who teacher, painter, conductor, instructor
est most smartest, closest, quickest, biggest, loudest
ful full of joyful, fearful, careful, helpful, bashful
ible, able is, can be edible, incredible, likeable, comfortable
ing form of a verb laying, laughing, reading, talking, skipping
ly characteristic of friendly, slowly, badly, mostly, exactly
s, es more than one, plural boys, dogs, pencils, lunches, porches
tion, sion, ion process action, fascination, caution, tension, companion

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 95

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Graphophonemic Knowledge | Morphemes: Prefixes and Suffixes

GK-81 Hunt for Suffixes

Students search for suffixes in a familiar text.
MATERIALS: Short and familiar text, pencils

1 Provide copies of text for each student. 4 Students circle a word each time they find a suffix.
2 Write the suffixes you want students to hunt 5 Students go back and read each circled word.
for on the board.
6 Reread the text to the group, calling attention
3 Tell students they will search the text and circle to the circled words and explaining how the suffix
words with those suffixes each time they appear. modifies the meaning of the root word.

ADAPTATION: Before students search independently for suffixes, work as a group to find them in text.
Repeat the activity on subsequent days using the same book, with students again looking for suffixes.

Morphemes: Compound Words

Compound words are formed by combining two separate words into one word that creates a different meaning.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Morphemes: Compound Words

Blackline Master available
GK-82 Compound Word Sort www.tpri.org

Students learn about and sort compound words.

MATERIALS: Word list, index cards, marker

1 Select compound words that share some 3 Provide multiple examples using simple
similar parts (e.g., anyone, anywhere, anyhow, words from everyday vocabulary (e.g., nightlight,
someone, somewhere, something) and write bedroom, cookbook).
them on index cards, one word per card.
4 Working independently or in teams, students
2 Introduce or reintroduce the concept of sort the word cards. Students should perform
compound words: Two different single words are an “open sort,” meaning they create their own
combined to form one new word. criteria for sorting.

96 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

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Graphophonemic Knowledge | Morphemes: Compound Words

Blackline Master available
GK-83 Compound Word Race www.tpri.org

Students create different compound words using separate lists of word parts.
MATERIALS: Word lists, timer/clock, paper, pencils

1 Create several two-column lists of words that

make compound words. Having several different EXAMPLE:
lists allows students to play more than once. List 1 List 2 Compound
2 Using the timer, allow students 1 minute to foot how Words
write as many real compound words as they can football
from the lists. For each word they write, students air shine
no day airplane
must use a word from List 1 as the first part of
the word and a word from List 2 as the second night one nobody
part. base foot nighttime
3 Students play each other in pairs to see who any light baseball
can write the most real words. sun body anyone
day side anybody
some ball sunshine
bare plane sunlight
out time daylight
where daytime
somehow
somebody
somewhere
barefoot
outshine
outside

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Morphemes: Compound Words

GK-84 Hunt for Compound Words

Students search for compound words in a familiar text.
MATERIALS: Short and familiar text, pencils

1 Provide copies of text for each student. 4 Students go back and reread each circled word.
2 Tell students they will search the text and 5 Reread the text with the group, calling attention
circle any compound word. to the circled words and reviewing their meanings.
3 Students circle compound words each
time they appear.

ADAPTATION: Before students search independently for compound words, work as a group to find them
in text. Repeat the activity on subsequent days using the same book, with students again looking for
compound words.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 97

Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Morphemes: Compound Words

GK-85 Writing Compound Words

Students build word recognition fluency by writing compound words.
MATERIALS: Word list, index cards, marker boards/markers, erasers, chips/counters

1 Create a stack of index cards with compound 4 After a few seconds, say Stop. Students put
words, one to a card. Provide each student with a down their markers. Show the card so students
marker board, marker and eraser. can check their work.
2 Read a compound word from a card. 5 Students show their boards. If they wrote the
word correctly, they receive a chip. To be correct,
3 After reading the word, say Go. Students pick the compound word must be written as one word
up their markers and write the word as quickly as with no space between word parts.
they can.
6 Students erase their boards. Repeat Steps 2-5
with a new word.

Contractions, High-Frequency Words and Homonyms:

Contractions
Contractions are words formed by joining two words and replacing some of the letters in the second word with an
apostrophe (e.g., I will -> I’ll; you are -> you’re).

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Contractions, High-Frequency Words and Homonyms: Contractions

Blackline Master available
GK-86 Contraction Chart www.tpri.org

Students write contractions under the correct heading.

MATERIALS: Contractions list, paper, pencils/markers

1 Make a five-column chart labeled Will, Are, you’re should be written under the Are heading;
Is/Has, Have and Not and provide a copy to each the contraction we’ve under the Have heading.
student.
4 When the charts are complete, students share
2 Call out a contraction (e.g., we’ll, they’re, what they’ve written under each column. Confirm
you’re, who’s, it’s). that words are listed under the correct column.
3 Students write the contraction under the 5 Students make corrections as needed.
correct heading. For example, the contraction

EXTENSION: After completing the activity in class, turn it into a workstation. Write the five headings on
colored index cards and contractions on white index cards. Put all the cards together in an envelope.
Students lay out the headings and place each contraction word below the appropriate heading.
Students can then write a sentence using each contraction.

98 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency

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Graphophonemic Knowledge | Contractions, High-Frequency Words and Homonyms: Contractions

Blackline Master available
GK-87 Proofing Contractions www.tpri.org

Students correct the use of contractions in a letter.

MATERIALS: Letter, chalkboard/chalk, pencils/markers

1 Write a letter that includes misspelled 2 Students read the letter, circling and
contractions on the board and provide copies for correcting any spelling errors they find.
each student.
3 Review answers as a group, making
corrections to the letter on the board.

EXAMPLE:
Nine words are misspelled in the letter: won’t, we’re, we’re, you’re, isn’t, you’ll, it’s, I’ll, your.

Dear Keisha,
You wonn’t believe where wer’e going this weekend.
My mom says w’ere going to the beach and your
invited! Isnot that exciting news? I hope you’l be able to
come with us. Its going to be so fun!
Will you please come? I hope so. Il’l keep my fingers
crossed that you’re mom says you can come.
Love,
Sharon

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Contractions, High-Frequency Words and Homonyms: Contractions

Blackline Master available
GK-88 Contraction Memory www.tpri.org

Students play a Memory-style card game, attempting to find two words that combine to form a contraction.
MATERIALS: Contractions and word lists, index cards, marker

1 Write contractions on index cards, one per two word cards. If the overturned cards form
card. On separate cards, write pairs of words that the contraction, the student says the two words
comprise each of those contractions, one word and the contraction, and picks up all three
per card. cards. If there’s no match, the player returns the
contraction card to the bottom of the stack and
2 Shuffle and arrange the word cards face down turns the word cards face down.
on a table. Put the contraction cards in a stack for
students to draw from. 4 Play continues with each student taking one
turn at a time until all contractions are matched
3 Students take turns drawing and turning with the correct word pair.
over a contraction card, and then turning over

EXTENSION: Students make their own contractions cards for a Memory game and play with a partner.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 99

Graphophonemic Knowledge

Contractions, High-Frequency Words and Homonyms:

High-Frequency Words
Words that occur frequently in print and have unpredictable sound-spelling patterns.

Guidelines for Instruction

High-frequency words are sometimes referred to as “sight” or “irregular words,” because they’re read as
visual wholes instead of letter-sound correspondence. Many high-frequency words in English convey little
meaning (e.g., of), but are necessary for fluent reading. High-frequency words with unpredictable spellings
should be introduced holistically. One source for these words is the Dolch List.
The following activities are not intended for use solely with words that meet the high-frequency word
definition. Each can be used for teaching and studying various words and spelling patterns.
Teaching High-Frequency Words
Practicing the spelling of high-frequency words will reinforce students’ recognition of the words, the letter
patterns within the words and their recall of the sounds.
••Select and teach words that appear frequently in grade-appropriate literature and informational text.
••Separate the introduction of similar high-frequency words (e.g., was, saw; were, where; them, they,
there). Allow several weeks to pass between the time students master one word and the time they’re
introduced to a similar, potentially confusing new word.
••Introduce related irregular words together or one after the other (e.g., walk, talk, chalk; give, live; would,
could, should; other, mother, brother).

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Contractions, High-Frequency Words and Homonyms: High-Frequency Words

Blackline Master available
GK-89 What Word Am I? www.tpri.org

Students guess which high-frequency word is taped to their backs.

MATERIALS: Word list, index cards, tape, marker

1 Make two identical sets of high-frequency from the table and ask, “Am I _________?” The
word cards, one word per card. student fills in the blank with the word they picked
up, then turns around so other team members
2 Divide students into two teams. Using one set can see the word taped to the student’s back.
of word cards, tape a different word on the back
of each student. 5 If the student picks up a card that matches the
card on their back, the team keeps the card. If the
3 Spread out the other set of word cards on a table. word doesn’t match, the card goes back on the
4 The object of the game is to see which team table and another student takes a turn.
can be first to guess all the words taped on their 6 The game ends when one group guesses all
backs, without looking at their own card. Teams their own words.
take turns having a student pick up a word card

100 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Contractions, High-Frequency Words and Homonyms: High-Frequency Words

Blackline Master available
GK-90 High-Frequency Word Team Race www.tpri.org

Student teams compete to read high-frequency word cards.

MATERIALS: Word list, index cards, marker

1 Write a set of basic high-frequency words on opposing team’s line gets a chance to pronounce
index cards and stack them on a table. the word and then take their regular turn.
Whenever a team reads a word correctly, they
2 Divide students into teams, with each team keep the card.
lined up front to back.
4 After taking a turn, students move to the back
3 Alternating turns between teams, the student of the line.
at the front of the line draws a card from the
stack and attempts to pronounce the word. If the 5 Play continues until all cards have been read
student misses, the student at the front of the correctly.

VARIATION: The game can be played as a speed-reading challenge with students competing to see who
can read a word fastest. In this version, the teacher turns over a card for the two students at the front
of the line. The first student to read the word aloud correctly gets the card and then both players move
to the back of the line.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Contractions, High-Frequency Words and Homonyms: High-Frequency Words

Blackline Master available
GK-91 Around the World www.tpri.org

Students play a game where they practice reading high-frequency words automatically.
MATERIALS: Word list, index cards, marker

1 Write previously learned high-frequency reads the word, they keep the card. If a student is
words on index cards. slow to respond, move on to another student.
2 Quickly go to each student and show a word 3 Play continues until all cards have been
card. When a student immediately and correctly read correctly.

ADAPTATION: To make the game easier, allow each student as long as it takes to read the word.

EXTENSION: To make the game more challenging, progressively allow less and less time for students to
read the words. Start at 4 seconds and work your way down to a fraction of a second.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 101
Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Contractions, High-Frequency Words and Homonyms: High-Frequency Words

Blackline Master available
GK-92 Word Ping Pong www.tpri.org

Students compete to read the most words in sets of high-frequency word cards.
MATERIALS: Word list, index cards, paper, pencils/markers

1 Create five different sets of high-frequency word scorekeeper makes one mark on a piece of paper
cards, 10 cards in each set, one word per card. used as a scoring sheet.
2 Students work in pairs with one student acting 5 The process continues with the remaining nine
as reader and the other as scorekeeper. cards. The number correct for the first set is the
reader’s score for the first match.
3 The reader shuffles the cards in the first set
and places them face down in a pile. The reader 6 Students switch roles, with the scorekeeper
then draws a card from the top of the pile, turns it reading the words in the first set.
face up and reads it.
7 Students continue the process through all the
4 If the reader reads the word correctly, the sets, trying to receive as high a score as possible.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Contractions, High-Frequency Words and Homonyms: High-Frequency Words

Blackline Master available
GK-93 High-Frequency Word Bingo www.tpri.org

Students play bingo to practice reading high-frequency words.

MATERIALS: Word list, chalkboard/chalk, index cards, bingo boards, chips/counters, pencils/markers

1 Select 20 different high-frequency words and 5 Using the words on the chalkboard, students
write them on the chalkboard large enough for fill in the squares on their boards in random order,
students to view. writing one word per square.
2 Write the 20 words on index cards, shuffle 6 One at a time, draw a word card from the pile
and place in a pile. and call it out. Students use a chip to cover a
square with the word called.
3 Create blank bingo boards with five columns
and four rows, for a total of 20 squares. 7 The first student to cover an entire row or
column wins.
4 Give each student a blank bingo board and
20 chips. 8 Students clear their boards and play again as
time permits.

102 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
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Graphophonemic Knowledge | Contractions, High-Frequency Words and Homonyms: High-Frequency Words

GK-94 Sight Words in Context

Students listen to a story and read high-frequency words from the story.
MATERIALS: Story on tape, tape recorder, word list, small index cards, 8½" x 11" paper, bell, marker

1 Select eight to 10 high-frequency words from a 7 Continue Step 6 throughout the story.
story on tape.
8 When the tape ends, students read the words
2 Create word square sets by cutting index they’ve moved above the line and then move
cards into four pieces and writing one word per them back below it.
square.
9 Rewind the tape and repeat the process.
3 Give each student a set of word squares and
a piece of 8½" x 11" paper with a line drawn Replay the story a third and final time, but
horizontally across the middle. don’t stop the tape, ring the bell or say the word.
Students must move the appropriate word by
4 Students arrange their word squares below the themselves when they hear it in the story.
line and wait for the story to begin.
EXAMPLE:
5 Explain to students you will play a recorded
story. In the story, they will hear the words on
their squares.
6 Begin the tape. When you hear one of the
words, stop the tape, ring the bell and say the
word. At this point, students find the word and
move it above the line on their paper. As students of
move their word squares, they should arrange them said though
left to right in the order they’re heard in the story. the

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Contractions, High-Frequency Words and Homonyms: High-Frequency Words

GK-95 Funny Sentences

Students make sentences using high-frequency word cards.
MATERIALS: Word list, index cards, pocket chart, marker

1 Write high-frequency words that can be 3 Students take turns unscrambling the words
combined to make sentences on index cards, one into sentences, and then reading the complete
word per card. sentence to ensure words are in a sensible order.
2 Place the words in mixed-up order in the
pocket chart.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 103
Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Contractions, High-Frequency Words and Homonyms: High-Frequency Words

Blackline Master available
GK-96 Writing High-Frequency Words www.tpri.org

Students build word recognition fluency by writing high-frequency words.

MATERIALS: Word list, index cards, marker boards/markers, erasers, chips/counters

1 Create a stack of index cards with high- 4 After a few seconds, say Stop. Students put
frequency words, one per card. Provide each down their markers. Show the card so students
student with a marker board, marker and eraser. can check their work.
2 Read a high-frequency word from a card. 5 Students show their boards. If they wrote the
word correctly, they receive a chip.
3 After reading the word, say Go. Students pick
up their markers and write the word as quickly as 6 Students erase their boards. Repeat Steps 2-5
they can. with a new word.

ADAPTATION: For less advanced students or students with fine motor skills difficulty, you can remove
the time limit.

EXTENSION: For more advanced students, extend beyond high-frequency words to words with word
patterns recently studied.

Contractions, High-Frequency Words and Homonyms:

Homonyms
Homonyms, sometimes referred to as “homophones,” are words that sound the same, but have different meanings
and may be spelled differently (e.g., bare, bear).
Homographs are words that are spelled alike, but are pronounced differently and have different meanings (e.g., tear
the paper, shed a tear).

104 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Contractions, High-Frequency Words and Homonyms: Homonyms

Blackline Master available
GK-97 Making Homonym Flash Cards www.tpri.org

Students make flash cards defining each word in pairs of homonyms.

MATERIALS: Word list, chalkboard/chalk, index cards, crayons/markers

1 Teach the definition of homonyms: 4 Discuss the meaning of the word. On the back
Homonyms are words that sound the of the card, students write the definition, draw
same, but have different meanings and a picture or write a short clue to indicate the
different spellings. meaning.
2 Pass out index cards to students. Explain that 5 Repeat Steps 3-4 with the second word of the
they will create homonym flash cards by writing homonym pair.
a word on one side of a card and its definition on
the other side. For example say, 6 Repeat the process with several different
The correct spelling of homonyms depends homonym pairs.
on meaning, so let’s draw some pictures or 7 Working in teams or independently, students
write clues on cards to help us study our test themselves by looking at the front of each
spelling words. Here are some examples. homonym card, stating the word’s meaning and
then checking their answer by flipping the card
Here = this place over to see the definition, picture or clue.
EXAMPLE: Homonym Pairs
Hear = there’s an ear in hear rain reign
hair hare
dear deer
Tail = here hear
wear where
main mane
Tale = a story
to two
right write
3 Write the first word of a homonym pair on the
board. Students write the word on the front of an son sun
index card.

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Contractions, High-Frequency Words and Homonyms: Homonyms

Blackline Master available
GK-98 Homonym Definition Matching www.tpri.org

Students match homonyms with their definitions.

MATERIALS: Homonym list with definitions, white and colored index cards, marker

1 Create two cards for each pair of homonyms. 3 Playing independently or in teams, students
On white index cards, write only the homonym. try to match a white homonym card with a
On colored index cards, write the homonym on colored definition card. Students check their
one side and a brief definition or description of it answers by turning over the colored card. If
on the other side. correct, the student keeps the card.
2 Arrange the white cards face up on one side of 4 Play continues until all cards are picked up. If
a table. On the other side, place the colored cards time permits, lay out the cards and play again.
with the definition face up.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 105
Graphophonemic Knowledge

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Contractions, High-Frequency Words and Homonyms: Homonyms

Blackline Master available
GK-99 Homonym Clues www.tpri.org

Students read a short clue and tell the homonym that goes with the clue.
MATERIALS: Homonym list and clues, index cards, marker

1 Create a set of homonym clue cards. On the 2 Working alone, in pairs or groups, students
front of each card, write a short clue; below it, write take turns reading a clue and telling which
the two possible homonyms that go with the clue. homonym goes with it. Students turn over the
On the back, write the correct homonym. card to see if they answered correctly.
3 If playing in pairs or groups, students can
You can carry keep score by holding onto cards when they give
water in it
pale or pail
pail a correct answer.

Card Front Card Back

EXAMPLE:
Clue Homonym Pair Answer
Come to a certain place hear here here
When you get to the corner turn… write right right
Win a game beat beet beat
Hamburger meet meat meat
String for tying something cord chord cord
Birds fowl foul fowl
What a kitten does when it’s happy per purr purr
Part in a play role roll role

Graphophonemic Knowledge | Contractions, High-Frequency Words and Homonyms: Homonyms

Blackline Master available
GK-100 Editing for Homonyms www.tpri.org

Students edit a letter for correct use and spelling of homonyms.

MATERIALS: Dictionaries, copies of Spring Break (or similar text)

1 Pass out one dictionary and two copies of the

letter Spring Break (or similar text with errors) to EXAMPLE: Eight words are misspelled in the letter:
each student pair. Ensure the homonyms included hear, break, two, deer, right, our, their, hair.
have been previously taught and reviewed.
Dear Carey,
2 Students work to identify and correct errors. Did you here what happened on spring brake?
3 As needed, students use dictionaries to verify To dear came write up to Janie and me outside
hour cabin! We wanted to pet there hare, but it
the meaning of each word spelled incorrectly. started to rain and they ran away.
Sincerely,
Mary

106 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Graphophonemic Knowledge

References
Bear, D.R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S., Johnston, F. (1996). Words their way: Word study for phonics,
vocabulary, and spelling. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Blachman, B.A., Ball, W.B., Black, R., & Tangel, D.M. (2000). Road to the code. Baltimore, MD:
Paul H. Brookes Publishing.

Blevins, W. (1998). Phonics from A to Z: A practical guide. New York: Scholastic.

Carnine, D.W., Silbert, J., Kame’enui, E.J. (1997). Direct instruction reading (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Merrill.

Cunningham, P.M. (1995). Phonics they use: Words for reading and writing (2nd ed.). New York: Longman.

Fox, B.J. (1996). Strategies for word identification. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill.

Henry, M. K. (2003). Unlocking literacy, effective decoding and spelling instruction. Baltimore, MD:
Paul H. Brooks Publishing.

Kame’enui, E.J., & Carnine, D.W. (1998). Effective teaching strategies that accommodate diverse learners.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

McKenna, M.K. (2008). Syllable types: A strategy for reading multisyllable words. Teaching Exceptional
Children, 40(3), 18-24.

National Reading Panel (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific
research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Bethesda, MD: National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health.

Pinnell, G.S., & Fountas, I.C. (with Giacobbe, M.E.) (1998). Word matters: Teaching phonics and spelling in the
reading/writing classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Shanker, J.L., & Ekwall, E.E. (1998). Locating and correcting reading difficulties (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.

Texas Reading Initiative (2000). Promoting vocabulary development: Components of vocabulary instruction.
Austin, TX: Texas Education Agency.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 107
Graphophonemic Knowledge

108 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Fluency

Fluency
Reading text with speed, accuracy and proper expression; not hurried reading.

The ability to recognize or decode words quickly and efficiently is

a key to effective reading, and central to reading fluency. Reading
fluency consists of two components: Blackline Master available
Automaticity: Fast, effortless word recognition and decoding. www.tpri.org
Prosody: Reading smoothly and effortlessly with expression,
proper intonation and phrasing. Blackline Masters
www.tpri.org
Fluency and reading comprehension are closely related. The Some activities have associated
ability to read fluently has a significant impact on the ability to Blackline Masters available as PDF
comprehend text. Fluent readers are able to spend less time and files to download, print out and use
attention on decoding words, leaving more attention free for in your lessons. Go to www.tpri.org.
understanding the meaning of what they are reading. While some
students who read slowly comprehend well, students who read in a
labored, choppy and disfluent manner commonly have more trouble
understanding what they read.
Improvement in reading fluency is the result of gains in a variety
of reading skills, and leads to improvements beyond reading speed
and comprehension. As students improve their phonics and word
recognition skills, their reading fluency improves. As they become
more fluent readers, children are better able to understand what
they read and to learn new vocabulary from their reading. And as
their phonics, vocabulary and comprehension abilities improve, they
also can develop into more confident and fluid writers. Growth in
writing fluency also reinforces progress in phonics, reading fluency
and comprehension.
On the TPRI, reading fluency is assessed jointly with reading
accuracy and reading comprehension. Reading accuracy, fluency and
comprehension are components of the TPRI Inventory at grades 1,
2 and 3. For each story a student attempts to read, there are three
accuracy scores possible.
Listening: The student reads fewer than 90% of the words
in a passage correctly; the teacher then reads a story to assess a
student's listening comprehension.
Instructional: The student reads from 90% to 94% of the words
in a passage correctly.
Independent: The student reads from 95% to 100% of the words
in a passage correctly.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 109
Fluency

The number of words in a story, along with the number of errors a student makes and the length of time the
student reads, are used to calculate a “words correct per minute” (WCPM) fluency score. This reading rate is
calculated in the following way:
# of words attempted - # of words read incorrectly / total seconds read X 60 = WCPM
TPRI fluency scores are a measure of students’ reading rates, but not of their expressiveness or prosody.
Students’ ability to read fluently is always connected to the difficulty of the passages they read. Readers tend
to read more challenging text more slowly. Therefore, as teachers consider fluency scores, they also should
consider the difficulty of the text students read.
The TPRI provides fluency rate targets for each administration point in grades 1, 2 and 3. These targets should
be used as a guide to monitor student progress towards an end-of-year goal. It’s important to remember
that fluency rates naturally fluctuate. For example, it would not be unusual for the same student to read the
same passage on two consecutive days and have scores that differ by around five words correct per minute
(or even more for students with high fluency rates). Because reading fluency rates naturally fluctuate, when
considering a single fluency score for a student in comparison to a target, remember that a difference of a
few words between the student’s score and the target is not especially significant.
At the end of grade 2, for example, the TPRI target fluency rate is 90 words correct per minute. If a student
reads at 86 WCPM on the last second grade story, the student could be thought of as falling within range of
the fluency target for the end of year.

TPRI Fluency Targets

BOY MOY EOY
Grade 1 30 WCPM 45 WCPM 60 WCPM
Grade 2 60 WCPM 75 WCPM 90 WCPM
Grade 3 90 WCPM 105 WCPM 120 WCPM

Guidelines for Instruction

Students build fluency primarily as a result of multiple opportunities to practice reading text aloud with a
high rate of success. To improve fluency, students should read aloud text that is not challenging for them
to read (e.g., text they can read with at least 90% accuracy, or text at their Instructional or Independent
Level). Instructional or Independent Level text is manageable because it contains phonic elements students
have learned and words they can read with ease. With beginning readers, effective early fluency instruction
encourages students to practice sounding out words that contain recently introduced phonic elements.
Beginning readers also benefit from reading and rereading text aloud with increasing speed and ease, using
appropriate intonation and phrasing.
For students to build fluency, reading aloud with feedback is essential. Feedback from a teacher or skilled
adult reader is ideal. However, students can benefit from listening to and supporting each other. Students
also may record themselves reading or read along with recordings of others reading. Research has not
demonstrated that silent, independent reading improves fluency.
Research in the area of fluency instruction indicates repeated and monitored oral reading improves reading
fluency and overall reading achievement. Thus, ongoing progress monitoring through oral reading is an
essential component of an effective reading instruction and intervention program. To frequently monitor
students’ fluency growth, you can administer TPRI fluency probes, found in the TPRI Progress Monitoring for
Beginning Readers kit. This kit provides both a 6-week schedule for less frequent monitoring of progress and
a 2-week schedule for more regular progress monitoring. With frequent progress monitoring through the use
of fluency probes, you can graph student results to more easily track each student’s progress toward the end-
of-year expectation for grade-level performance.
The fluency activities provided in this section give students a variety of opportunities to practice fluent
reading, and to experience models of fluent reading. While fluency instruction and practice often focus on
quick reading, effective fluency instruction must reinforce students’ understanding that comprehending what
they read is always more important than reading quickly. Emphasizing both prosody and speed during fluency
instruction can help maintain a focus on comprehension during fluency instruction and practice.

110 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Fluency

Fluency

FLU-1 Reading Tracker

Students read text with a tracker to keep from losing their place.
Materials: Instructional or Independent Level texts, index cards

1 Provide each student a copy of the text and an 3 Students place the card underneath text and
index card. practice moving it as they read aloud.
2 At a table with a small group, demonstrate 4 Repeat the activity until students are proficient
how to track text by moving the card underneath and rarely lose their place when reading.
text while reading.

Fluency

FLU-2 Echo Reading

Students echo what you read to improve accuracy, speed and prosody.
Materials: Instructional or Independent Level texts

1 Provide each student a copy of the text. 4 The reader and students continue reading
the entire passage in echo fashion.
2 The reader (usually you) reads a small selection
of text orally, stressing appropriate phrasing and 5 Increase the amount of text read at a time as
intonation. The goal is to model fluent reading students become more proficient. Begin with just
for students. a sentence or part of a sentence, and gradually
build to reading multiple sentences at a time.
3 Students read the same text immediately
following the reader’s example.

Fluency

FLU-3 Do You Read Me?

Students listen and then read along with a recording of a book or other text.
Materials: Audio recording (cassette, CD, Internet, etc.) and printed copies of a text

1 Provide each student a copy of the text. 4 Play the recording a second time and have
students read aloud.
2 Students listen to an audio recording of the
text and follow along with the printed text. 5 Students repeat the activity until they can read
along with expression and good intonation.
3 Encourage students to use the tracker method
or point to words with their finger. 6 Finally, students read the book to each other
at the reading center or read it orally the next day
during class.

Extension: Students prepare a story to read orally to other readers. Students practice with a recording,
read the story to you and then read the story to a group of students. If used as a reading center
activity, have students write down the main idea of the story after reading to help focus students on
the importance of reading for meaning.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 111
Fluency

Fluency

FLU-4 Reading Decodable Text

Students reread decodable text to increase fluency.
Materials: Decodable text previously read (focused on phonic elements students need to practice)

1 Provide each student a copy of the text. 4 When students struggle with a sentence,
reread it together until they can read it correctly
2 In a small group, students practice reading with ease.
aloud chorally or taking turns reading a sentence
or page. 5 Students take books home for further practice
or put them in their independent reading bin to
3 Provide corrective feedback as needed. read during literacy workstations.

Fluency

FLU-5 Choral Reading

Students read text in unison to increase accuracy and speed.
Materials: Instructional or Independent Level texts

1 Provide each student a copy of the text. 4 Students focus on reading at the same rate
with good expression.
2 In unison with you, a small group practices reading.
5 Read the text several times.
3 Students read the selection together without
you. Monitor and provide assistance as needed.

Fluency

FLU-6 Follow the Reader: Neurological Impress

Teacher and one student read together to improve confidence, accuracy and speed.
Materials: Two copies of a text at a slightly lower level than the student normally reads

1 The student sits slightly in front of you so your 4 The initial lines or paragraph can be reread
voice is close to the student’s ear. several times together before going on to new
material (e.g., wait until the student is confident
2 Read a sentence of text in unison with the in reading the selected text).
student. Next, read the sentence again a little
louder and faster than the student. 5 Lower your voice as the student gains fluency.
3 On the student’s text, run your finger under 6 Stop reading when the student is reading well,
the words as they are being read along with the but begin reading again if the student falters.
student. Help the student by placing your hand
over the student’s, guiding it smoothly. Make 7 In the initial sessions, 2–3 minutes of reading
sure finger and voice are operating together. The is sufficient. The aim is to establish a fluent reading
student should point to words independently pattern in the reader; appropriate intonation and
when confident to do so. expression in reading the lines are important.
8 Time spent in this activity gradually can be
increased to as much as 15-20 minutes, if possible.

Adaptation: Echoing is used as a supplementary technique if a student has extreme difficulty with
saying a phrase or word. The student must repeat the phrase after you several times. When the
phrase has been satisfactorily repeated, go back to leading the reader.

112 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Fluency

Fluency

FLU-7 Buddy Reading

Students sit in pairs and take turns reading to improve accuracy, prosody and speed.
Materials: Familiar Instructional or Independent Level books, exit slips, pencils/markers

1 Two students sit side by side, usually at a 2 Students take turns reading to each other
workstation or their desks. Provide each a copy of using expression.
the text.
3 When finished, students complete an exit slip
with information about the book(s) they read.

Variation: Instead of taking turns reading independently, students may read together (chorally) or
take turns echoing each other.

Extension: Blackline Master available

www.tpri.org
Buddy Reading with Retell
Give each student pair a cue card like the one
on the right. After a student finishes reading, Retell Cue Card
the student who had been listening asks the two
questions on the Retell Cue Card. Buddy reading
and the Retell Cue Card also can be used during What did you learn first?
other periods of the school day, such as social
studies and science. What did you learn next?

Fluency

FLU-8 Timed Repeated Readings Blackline Master available

www.tpri.org

Students gain accuracy and fluency by timing themselves while they read the same text.
Materials: Instructional or Independent Level texts, Timed Repeated Readings record sheets, timers, pencils

1 Provide each student pair a copy of the text, a 4 Student A sets the timer for 1 minute and
Timed Repeated Readings record sheet and a timer. rereads the same text while Student B again
follows along.
2 Student A sets the timer for 1 minute and
begins reading. Student B counts the number of 5 Student A completes the record sheet for
words Student A read incorrectly (the number of the second attempt, again calculating the words
errors). correct per minute.
3 When 1 minute is up, Student A determines 6 Student A reads a third time and again
the words correct per minute score as directed on completes the record sheet.
the record sheet.
7 Students A and B switch roles and Student B
reads three times.

Adaptation: Have students write words they missed on index cards for further study.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 113
Fluency

Fluency

FLU-9 Developing Expression with Phrase-Cued Text

Students read text that has been divided into phrases using slash marks.
Materials: Instructional or Independent Level texts, phrase-cued text for teacher modeling (on chart paper or
transparency), timer, pencil/marker

1 Divide text into phrases by putting slash 3 Divide students into pairs. Provide each pair a
marks where students should pause. Phrases copy of phrase-cued text.
should be from one to five words in length.
4 Students take turns reading aloud, with
2 Model for the class how to read the text using emphasis on reading with expression.
the slashes to guide your pauses and expression.
Practice the model together with students. 5 Repeat the process using a timer to encourage
students to build speed.

Fluency

FLU-10 Take a Bow: Readers’ Theater

Students practice reading scripts dramatically, concentrating on proper phrasing and expression.
Materials: Instructional or Independent Level script (simple scripts can be found on the Internet or adapted
from a basal story, folk tale, etc.)

1 Review what a play is. Explain the design of a 5 Students read the play and take turns reading
script and how it shows what each character says their assigned part.
and does.
6 Provide corrective feedback as needed.
2 Assign parts to students.
7 Change roles until all students have an
3 Provide scripts to students with their parts marked. opportunity to read several parts.
4 Allow time for students to practice their parts 8 Repeat several times.
with each other.

Adaptation: Students read their parts chorally with you until they are confident enough to read alone.

ExtensionS:
• Introduce taped music to some parts of the play.
•M ake simple costumes and sets (e.g., draw pictures and /or create Popsicle® stick characters).
• Perform for the class or for other classes.

114 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Fluency

Fluency

FLU-11 Race the Clock

Students reread a text for a set amount of time, trying to read further and further each time.
Materials: Instructional or Independent Level texts, timer, sticky notes

1 Divide students into pairs with similar reading 4 Student A reads first, rotating after each page
abilities. Provide each pair two copies of the text with Student B.
and sticky notes.
5 When time runs out, students use a sticky
2 Specify the amount of time you want each pair note to mark the last word they read.
to read (usually 1-2 minutes).
6 Reset the timer and ask students to read
3 Set the timer to that amount of time. Start the again, challenging them to read further in the text
timer and tell students to begin reading. than the sticky note.
7 Repeat the process several times.

VariationS:
• The activity can be used with the whole class or with groups of students.
• Y ou can change the activity so students time each other reading the complete text, taking turns to
see who can read it fastest.

Fluency

FLU-12 Student Fluency Graphs Blackline Master available

www.tpri.org

Students make graphs of fluency results.

Materials: Graph paper, pencils/markers

1 Teach and model graphing of fluency for 3 Students write the date and name of the story
the whole class. On the vertical axis, show the on the graph.
number of words read correctly in a minute. On
the horizontal axis, list the title of each reading 4 Students graph fluency results from their reading.
and the date it was read. Draw a bar for each 5 Students compare their own fluency scores
reading that shows the words correct per minute across stories.
(WCPM) score for the reading.
Note: It is NOT recommended that students
2 Students practice making graphs with your chart WCPM for other students. Consider this an
feedback. individual activity.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 115
Fluency

References
Fuchs, L.S., Benson. B., & Fuchs, D. (1992). Identifying a measure for monitoring student reading progress.
School Psychology Review, 21, 45-58.

Fuchs, D., Fuchs. L.S., Mathes, P.G., & Simmons, D.C. (1997). Peer-assisted learning strategies: Making
classrooms more responsive to academic diversity. The American Educational Research Journal, 34,
174-206.

Mastropieri, M., Leinart, A., & Scruggs, T. (1999). Strategies to increase reading fluency. Intervention in School
and Clinic, 34(5), 278-283.

Mather, N., & Jaffe, L.E. (2002). Woodcock-Johnson III: Reports, recommendations, and strategies. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.

National Reading Panel (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific
research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Bethesda, MD: National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health.

Shinn, M., Good, R., Knutson, N., Tilly, W.D., & Collins, V. (1992). Curriculum-based measurement of oral
reading fluency: A confirmatory analysis of its relation to reading. School Psychology Review, 21(3),
459-479.

Snow, C.E., Burns, M.S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.) (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Stanovich, K.E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the
acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 360-397.

116 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Vocabulary

Vocabulary
Understanding word meanings.

Vocabulary knowledge is fundamental to reading comprehension:

Students cannot comprehend text without knowing what most of the
Blackline Master available
words mean. In fact, research has shown the single best predictor
of how well a reader will understand text is that reader’s general
vocabulary. www.tpri.org
So how do students develop their vocabularies? Students learn the Blackline Masters
meanings of most words indirectly, through everyday experiences with www.tpri.org
oral and written language. According to Nagy (1988), “Increasing the Some activities have associated
volume of students’ reading is the single most important thing teachers Blackline Masters available as PDF
can do to promote large-scale vocabulary growth.” files to download, print out and use
in your lessons. Go to www.tpri.org.
Although a great deal of vocabulary is learned indirectly, explicit
vocabulary instruction also is important and can be powerful for
students. Research shows vocabulary knowledge must be acquired
over time: Students need to encounter a word numerous times (usually
12-15 meaningful exposures) before they understand it well enough to
improve their comprehension. The implication of this research is that
to be effective, vocabulary instruction must be distributed over time,
with teachers continually revisiting and reinforcing the meanings of
words previously introduced, and encouraging students to use new
vocabulary words regularly.
Students should be taught unfamiliar words through integrated
activities that incorporate the deep processing of text. It’s not sufficient
to introduce new words once and assume students have incorporated
the new information into their oral and print vocabularies. To learn a
new word, students need many opportunities to hear or read it, and to
practice using it in their own speaking and writing.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 117
Vocabulary

Guidelines for Instruction

The activities presented in this section help provide the frequent and deep exposure to words critical to
vocabulary instruction. Because new words should be used repeatedly in a variety of meaningful ways, these
activities offer fun and inventive methods to inspire learning. Following are ideas to guide your vocabulary
instruction, including a sample daily lesson structure.
Create a Vocabulary Learning Environment
••Encourage a wide array of reading. Recommend or provide lists of books for students and parents to read
outside of class, and make time in class for students to discuss what they’ve read.
••Model the value you place on reading by telling students about the books you’re reading.
••Create a literate classroom by making books available to children and displaying their writing.
••Nurture high-quality oral language by reading storybooks to students, followed by classroom discussions.
While students of all ages benefit from read-aloud activities, older students can learn the meanings of
new words as efficiently by hearing stories read to them, as they can by reading the stories themselves. In
addition to read-alouds, it helps to provide a selection of quality audio books.
Vocabulary Text Selection
••In Bringing Words to Life: Robust Vocabulary Instruction, Beck, McKeown and Kucan (2001) suggest that
vocabulary instruction for young students not be limited to texts students are able to read by themselves.
Instead, the authors recommend focusing on oral vocabulary acquisition through listening activities
(e.g., with trade books).
••Choose books on a range of topics that will appeal to a diverse group of students. Some of your own favorite
childrens’ books might serve as an appropriate starting point. Particularly in the early elementary grades, texts
students can read by themselves (grade-level texts) may not contain sufficiently challenging vocabulary.
••The suggested time to spend on any one book or text passage is about a week. On the first day, a text is
introduced and normally read in its entirety; other days might begin with a brief (2 minute or so) review of
the text and vocabulary words learned.
Vocabulary Word Selection
Select words to be taught explicitly and directly. Beck (2002) suggests selecting words that:
••Are relatively high in frequency and can be found in a wide variety of contexts.
••Offer students more sophisticated ways of expressing ideas/concepts with which they are familiar.
••Are interesting and useful.
As students learn new words, they move through four stages of knowing the word. Dale (1965) identified
these stages as:
••Stage 1: “I never saw it before.”
••Stage 2: “I’ve heard of it, but I don’t know what it means.”
••Stage 3: “I recognize it in context — it has something to do with…”
••Stage 4: “I know it.”
We want to move students to Stages 3 and 4 with as many words as possible. To accomplish this goal:
••Limit the number of words taught explicitly so students have adequate opportunities to learn and process
the words deeply. Teach up to three or four words a day explicitly.
••During read-alouds, it’s helpful to explain from eight to 10 words a day. These explanations, even without
deep or explicit teaching, will move some students ahead a stage or two with a few of the words.
••Select words that might be problematic for students and whose definitions are essential to the meaning
of the story.
••Words selected should be of high utility. Vocabulary words students are likely to encounter in their books
and at school are most powerful. In addition, select words that lend themselves to other instructional
activities (e.g., spelling, writing, content areas, etc.).

118 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Vocabulary

Word Definitions
Define words in everyday language easily understood by students. Don’t rely on dictionary definitions. Short,
simple definitions are easier for students to understand, remember and repeat.
Think of ways to communicate the concept associated with the word, so the definition will be linked to prior
knowledge.
For example, in defining the word deep in reference to a cave, you could use the following definition: Deep
means to stretch far from front to back or from top to bottom. If a cave is deep, it stretches far from front
to back so there is lots of room.
Present the word orally in another sentence. For example, The water was so deep I couldn’t stand in it. Ask
students to create their own sentences.
Provide opportunities for students to say both the word and its definition. Initially, students may define a
word using only the simple definition you provide. Later, they may be able to independently provide their own
definition or explanation of a word’s meaning.
Although it’s important to teach students not to rely entirely on context clues to determine the meaning of
words (sometimes there simply are not enough clues available), they should understand that the context
of the word could help in defining new words. Instruct students on how to use clues in the text to figure out
unknown words.
Engagement and Practice
One goal of vocabulary instruction is to increase student awareness of words and interest in language. To
fully engage students, keep lessons active, interactive and fun.
Modeling proper use of new vocabulary is important,
but it’s even more important for students to practice Daily Vocabulary Instruction:
using new vocabulary in their speaking and/or writing. Sample Lesson Structure
The more opportunities vocabulary instruction provides
for the use of new vocabulary, the more powerful it will be. 1. Review previously taught vocabulary.
Oral language and vocabulary development are closely 2. Quickly introduce one to four new
linked: Strong vocabulary instruction includes ample vocabulary words and their definitions.
opportunities for students to talk. Include frequent times 3. Read aloud from a text containing the
for students to collaborate, share and discuss in pairs, targeted vocabulary.
teams and whole group settings.
4. Teach one vocabulary word at a time by:
Repetition is key to vocabulary learning. Be conscious ••Reviewing the meaning of the word
of using targeted vocabulary throughout vocabulary within the context of the read-aloud.
lessons and throughout the day. During vocabulary
lessons, encourage students to use targeted vocabulary ••Teaching the meaning of the word
words in their responses. Provide support so students more deeply, removing it from the
use new vocabulary correctly. specific context of the read-aloud and
providing practice using the word.
5. Quickly review new vocabulary and
definitions taught.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 119
Vocabulary

Vocabulary

VOC-1 Introduce Vocabulary Using Read-Alouds

Read a story to introduce students to new vocabulary words and provide a context for
understanding them.
MATERIALS: Picture book, big book or text passage

1 Choose a text to introduce one to four new 4 Read the story out loud with expression and
vocabulary words. without stopping, emphasizing the vocabulary
words whenever they appear in the text.
2 Select words from the text to use as new
vocabulary words. 5 Lead a brief discussion of the text, carefully
raising issues/concepts related to the selected
3 If using a picture or big book, take a minute vocabulary words.
to “picture walk” through the story, briefly
discussing major plot lines and themes, and 6 Follow up with additional activities to help
ideas the illustrations might suggest. Without students learn the vocabulary words you’ve
calling special attention to them, carefully use the introduced.
vocabulary words during the picture walk.

Vocabulary

VOC-2 Contextualize Words Within a Story

Students learn to understand words within the context of the story in which they were introduced.
MATERIALS: Large index cards, text originally used to introduce the words, marker

1 Write one to four words previously introduced 4 Provide a simple definition of the word, then
on large index cards. On the back of each card, lead a brief discussion of the word’s meaning
write a simple definition of the word. and how it fits within the story. Monitor for
understanding of the word’s meaning within the
2 Show students the first card, read the word story context.
and ask students to repeat it.
5 Repeat Steps 2–4 with additional vocabulary
3 Remind students how the word first appeared words.
in the text. Show the picture where the word first
appeared or discuss what was happening when
the word was first encountered.

120 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Vocabulary

Vocabulary

VOC-3 Contextualize Words Outside a Story

Students see deeper relationships between vocabulary words by understanding them outside the
context of the story in which they were introduced, and by relating the words to their lives and the
world in general.
MATERIALS: Large index cards, illustrations, pictures or props, etc. to help explore the meaning of the word, marker

1 Write one to four words previously introduced 4 Use the word outside the story’s context, so
on large index cards. On the back of each card, students’ understanding of the word is not limited
write a simple definition of the word. to its context within the story. You also can use
illustrations, pictures or props to help explain the
2 Show students the first card, read the word meaning of the word.
and ask students to repeat it.
5 Repeat Steps 2–4 with additional vocabulary
3 Remind students how the word first appeared words.
in the text and quickly review its definition.

Example:
If the word deep is introduced in reference to a cave, contextualize the word outside the story by
discussing the word deep in relation to a swimming pool’s deep end, treasure buried deep in the
ground, deep-dish pizza or taking a deep breath.
If the words village and deserted are introduced, ask:
Why would a village be deserted?
How would it feel to come back to a deserted village?
When would you find the school deserted?

Vocabulary

VOC-4 Deep Processing Through Word Associations

By thinking about their relationship to other words and phrases, students are given opportunities to
think deeply about the meaning of vocabulary words previously learned.
MATERIALS: Large index cards, marker

1 Write one to four words previously introduced For example, if the vocabulary word is cave, you
on large index cards. On the back of each card, could say the words:
write a simple definition of the word. flashlight (thumbs up)
flowers (thumbs down)
2 Think of three to four words that can be wet or damp (thumbs up)
associated with each vocabulary word, and one sunny (thumbs down)
to two words with different or opposite meanings. snakes and bats (thumbs up)
The word associations students make will help
them develop a richer and clearer understanding 5 Lead a discussion of why students responded
of the word. as they did for each word. For example, a student
might say, “A person needs a flashlight to explore
3 Show students the first card, read the word a cave, because caves are usually dark.” Or you
and ask students to repeat it. could say,
4 Tell students you’re going to say some words. A cave is often hidden in a forest and may be
If the word makes them think of the vocabulary a place where snakes and bats live.
word on the card, they give a thumbs up. If it 6 Repeat Steps 3–5 with additional vocabulary
doesn’t make them think of the vocabulary word, words.
they give a thumbs down.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 121
Vocabulary

Vocabulary

VOC-5 Word Association Brainstorming

Students brainstorm words associated with a target vocabulary word.
MATERIALS: Chart paper, marker

1 Select a vocabulary word you’ve previously 5 Refer to the chart on subsequent days when
introduced. Remind students of the word and reviewing the meaning of the target word.
its definition.
2 Write the word at the top of a piece of chart Example:
paper. For example, cave. Cave
3 Have students think about the target dark damp wet
vocabulary word. Ask them:
What are some words you’d use to tell quiet muddy bats
about a cave? lizards dirty snakes
What do you picture when you think of a cave? flashlight scary in nature
4 Ask students to call out words when they
think about the target word. As students share
words, record them on the chart.

Vocabulary

VOC-6 Example and Non-Example Pictures

Students look at pictures to determine if they’re examples of a vocabulary word.
MATERIALS: Picture cards

1 Select vocabulary words you want to teach. 6 Call on at least one student to explain
their answer. Provide clarification and further
2 Choose a variety of pictures to show students. explanation as needed.
(Clipart libraries are a great source for pictures
to use during lessons.) Some pictures should be Example:
examples of the target vocabulary word; others
non-examples. If using the word stormy, you might provide
pictures of:
3 When possible, include pictures that might lightning and rain (thumbs up)
cause students to reasonably disagree. These
will provide an opportunity for discussion, helping sunny field (thumbs down)
students better understand the word’s meaning. sunrise on the beach (thumbs down)
4 Have students say the word and quickly review tornado (thumbs up)
its definition. dark, cloudy sky (thumbs up or thumbs down)
5 Show one picture at a time. Students give a thumbs
up if the picture is an example of the vocabulary
word or a thumbs down if it’s a non-example.

122 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Vocabulary

Vocabulary

VOC-7 Deep Processing Through Either/Or Questions

By answering questions, students think deeply about the meaning of vocabulary words previously learned.
MATERIALS: Large index cards, marker

1 Write one to four words previously introduced 6 Lead a brief discussion to check for and
on large index cards. On the back of each card, expand on understanding the vocabulary word.
write a simple definition of the word. For example:
Caves usually have a small opening and not
2 For each word, think of three to four yes/no much sunlight can get in. There’s no other way
questions that will help students develop a richer for light to get into a cave, unless a person
and clearer understanding of the word, and their brings a light in, like a flashlight or a candle.
personal associations with it.
7 Repeat the process with other questions for
3 Show students the first card, read the word the vocabulary word.
and ask students to repeat it.
8 Repeat Steps 3–7 with new vocabulary words.
4 Remind students of the word’s definition,
then ask the first question. For example, if the Example:
vocabulary word is cave:
Is it usually dark in a cave? Questions for the word frequently could include:
Do you clean your room frequently?
5 Call on a student to answer and explain
their answer. For example, “Yes, it’s usually dark Do you frequently talk on the phone?
in a cave, because caves are underground.” Do your teachers frequently ask you questions?
Do you frequently watch TV?

Vocabulary

VOC-8 Connecting Vocabulary to Our Lives

Students connect personal experiences with vocabulary words.
MATERIALS: Large index cards, marker

1 Write one to four words previously introduced 4 Ask students to think about the word and then
on large index cards. On the back of each card, talk with a partner about their own connection to
write a simple definition of the word. or experience with the word.
2 Have students say the word and quickly 5 Call on a few students to share with the whole
review its definition. group. During sharing and discussion, remind
students to use the vocabulary word themselves
3 Share a personal experience about each word and repeatedly model for them the correct use of
or a connection you can make to the word. For the word.
example, for the word nervous:
A time I felt nervous was on the first day
of school when I’d just become a teacher.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 123
Vocabulary

Vocabulary

VOC-9 Vocabulary Collages

Students create collages with pictures that illustrate vocabulary words.
MATERIALS: Magazines or newspapers, construction paper, scissors, glue sticks, markers

1 Select magazines or newspapers with pictures 3 Have students write a vocabulary word at the
that correspond to vocabulary words previously top of the paper.
taught.
4 Students search through the materials for
2 Give each student or team magazines or pictures that illustrate their word, cut them out
newspapers, construction paper, scissors, glue and glue them to the construction paper.
sticks and markers.
5 Lead a group discussion and share the collages.

EXTENSION: Students can create two-word collages with words that are synonyms or opposites.
For words with opposite meanings, divide the construction paper into halves with a word on each side.

Vocabulary

VOC-10 What Word Am I?

Students practice matching vocabulary words with different definitions.
MATERIALS: Small index cards, marker

1 Select several vocabulary words to teach. 6 Students simultaneously turn over the word
Create word card sets by writing each word on an card they chose. Call on a student with the
index card, one word per card. Give a set of cards correct word to explain their answer.
to each student in the group.
7 Repeat Steps 4–6 with the remaining words.
2 Write a definition for each word.
Example:
3 Remind students about the meaning of
each word. Bare — Uncovered
4 Read the first definition. Peculiar — Something unusual or
out of the ordinary
5 Students individually choose the word card
that matches the definition and place the card Mineral — A natural substance
face down on a table. from the earth

EXTENSION: This activity can be used as an 4 Students select the definition they think
independent activity in which students play alone matches the word.
or in teams.
5 Students then flip the card they drew to see
1 Create two sets of word cards. On each card, the definition and check whether they were
write the word on one side and its definition on correct.
the other side.
6 If correct, the student picks up the definition
2 Students lay one set of cards on a table with card to make a pair. If incorrect, the card is
the definition side up. Keep the other set of cards returned to the bottom of the stack.
in a stack with the word side up.
7 Play moves to the next student and continues
3 Students draw a word card from the stack until all definition cards are picked up.
without looking at the definition on the back.

124 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Vocabulary

Vocabulary

VOC-11 Match Words and Definitions

Students match words with their definitions.
MATERIALS: Paper, pencils

1 Select five to 10 vocabulary words and write a 3 Students complete the activity by drawing a
definition for each word. line to connect the word with its definition.
2 Create two columns on paper, with words listed
on the left and definitions on the right. Give a
copy to each student.

EXAMPLE:
bare natural substances from the earth

annual a tropical woodland

rain forest happening once a year

minerals without a covering

Vocabulary

VOC-12 What’s the Definition?

Students match words with their definitions.
MATERIALS: Index cards, envelopes, marker

1 Make word card sets by writing a word and 4 Students empty the envelope on their desks
a number (e.g., 1. apple) on one side of an index or the floor. They place the word cards face up in
card, one word and number per card. a column in numerical order (e.g., 1. apple,
2. island, etc.).
2 Make definition card sets by writing the definitions
of the word cards (e.g., juicy fruit) on one side of 5 Students attempt to match word cards with
an index card. On the other side, write the number the appropriate definition cards.
that matches the number of the word (e.g., 1).
6 When finished, students check the accuracy
3 Place sets of word cards and definition cards in of their work by turning over their definition cards
envelopes. Give each student or team an envelope. to see if the numbers match.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 125
Vocabulary

Vocabulary

VOC-13 Match Words and Definitions from Memory

Students play a Memory-style card game, attempting to match words with their definitions.
MATERIALS: Index cards, marker

1 Choose five to 15 vocabulary words you’ve 3 Students take turns turning over a word card,
previously introduced. Write the words and their saying the word, and then turning over a definition
definitions on separate index cards, one word and card and reading the definition. If the student
one definition per card. turns over a matching word and definition, it
makes a pair and the student keeps the cards.
2 Arrange the cards face down on a table, with
word cards on one side and definition cards on 4 Play continues with each student taking one
the other. turn at a time until all cards are picked up.

Vocabulary

VOC-14 Rephrase It
Students learn new ways to say familiar phrases.
MATERIALS: Chart paper, marker

1 Create a chart labeled Old Phrase and New 5 Leave the phrases on display until use of the
Phrase to display. Choose a phrase commonly new phrase is firmly established. New phrases
used in the classroom and write it on the chart can be introduced as often as twice a week.
under Old Phrase.
Example:
2 Under New Phrase, write an alternative way
to say the phrase using different and more Old Phrase New Phrase
interesting or challenging vocabulary.
stop cease
3 Present students with both the old and new
way of saying the phrase, calling attention to the look at observe
new vocabulary. fix it correct it
4 Each day, concentrate on using the new phrase.

Vocabulary

VOC-15 Word Categories

Students see relationships between words by finding the word that doesn’t belong in the group.
MATERIALS: Paper, pencils

1 Select five to 10 vocabulary words and similar 2 Students work alone or in a group to find out-
words or phrases for each word. Also choose one of-place words.
word or phrase that doesn’t belong with the others.

Example:
Ask students to: Circle the word that doesn’t fit and explain why you chose that word.
open bare uncovered stripped covered
Answer: covered.
Why: The other words refer to something without a covering.

126 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Vocabulary

Vocabulary

VOC-16 Vocabulary Journals

Students keep track of vocabulary words they encounter outside the classroom.
MATERIALS: Small notebooks or journals, pencils

1 Provide a notebook for each student in the group. the radio, in movies or conversations at
home, or read them in books or comic strips.
2 Write a few sample entries in your own Whenever you encounter a vocabulary word,
notebook to use as examples for students. write the word in your journal, and tell when
3 Explain to students: and where you found the word.
The words you learn in school are used in 4 Read students your examples.
other parts of your lives. In this notebook,
you’re going to write vocabulary words when 5 Create a regularly scheduled time for students
you hear or see them in places outside this to share the vocabulary words they find.
classroom. You might hear them on TV or

Vocabulary

VOC-17 Word Maps: Synonyms and Antonyms Blackline Master available

www.tpri.org

Students learn word meanings using synonyms, antonyms or examples to make connections to other
words they already know, and to understand the boundaries of a word’s meaning.
MATERIALS: Chart paper, marker

1 Select vocabulary words to teach and identify 2 Write a word previously introduced in the
synonyms, antonyms and/or examples for the words. center of the map.
3 Lead a discussion to fill in the map.

EXAMPLE:
Alternate Word Map for
Synonym Word Map Synonyms and Antonyms
Synonym Antonym

spot locate

Find Target Word

see discover
Example Non-Example

EXTENSION: Word map worksheets can be used by students individually or in teams, with students
independently completing the maps for words previously learned. Students also can use antonyms
and synonyms to make up new titles for familiar books and stories. For example:
••Giant Red Riding Hood or Tiny Crimson Riding Coat (Little Red Riding Hood)
••The Feline in the Fedora (The Cat in the Hat)
••Where the Tame Things Are or Where the Savage Ones Exist (Where the Wild Things Are)

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 127
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Vocabulary

VOC-18 Multiple-Meaning Words: Different Pronunciations

Students learn to use words with the same spelling, but with different meanings and pronunciations.
MATERIALS: Sentence strips, marker

1 Write sentences with multiple-meaning words 2 Explain to students:

on sentence strips. For example: Most words with multiple meanings are
The dove dove into the bushes. pronounced the same, but when they’re not,
they present us with another challenge. Let’s
I did not object to the object. read these sentences.
The bandage was wound around the wound.
3 Reveal one sentence at a time, calling on
They were too close to the door to close it. students to read each word aloud.
I shed a tear when I saw the tear in my shirt.
4 As a group, discuss the differences in meaning
and pronunciation of each of the multiple-
meaning words.

Vocabulary

VOC-19 Multiple-Meaning Words: Same Pronunciations

Students learn to use words with the same spelling and pronunciations, but with different meanings.
MATERIALS: Chalkboard/chalk

1 Write a vocabulary word with multiple 3 In a subsequent lesson, introduce a second

meanings on the board. Call on a student for the definition of the vocabulary word. Have students
word’s meaning. discuss both definitions to understand different
ways the word can be used in reading.
2 Using the definition the student provides,
write a few sentences that fit the definition and 4 As a group or working independently with
discuss with the class. worksheets, students determine which definition
matches a word based on how it’s used in a sentence.

EXAMPLE:
The word atmosphere is initially introduced as: The mass of air around the earth. At a later time, a
secondary definition for atmosphere is taught: An environment. In the following sentences, students
determine which definition fits with each sentence.
••Principals do everything they can to create a school atmosphere where everyone can feel safe
and eager to learn. (an environment)
••I’ve always wondered what it would feel like to travel in a fast-moving rocket ship, blasting
through the earth’s atmosphere. (the mass of air around the earth)
••The restaurant had a very festive atmosphere. (an environment)
••The space shuttle was launched into the earth’s atmosphere. (the mass of air around the earth)
••Cars and factories pollute the atmosphere. (the mass of air around the earth)
••The atmosphere at my sister’s wedding was very formal. It was held in a large hotel and
included a sit-down dinner. (an environment)

128 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
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Vocabulary

VOC-20 Teaching Multiple-Meaning Words

A generic strategy for learning new meanings for known multiple-meaning words.
MATERIALS: Chalkboard/chalk or chart paper/marker

1 Select a word with multiple meanings to teach. 5 Ask students to identify the word in the
sentence with more than one meaning:
2 Write a sentence with a sample multiple- What word has more than one meaning in
meaning word to demonstrate how words can this sentence? (bat)
have more than one meaning. For example, using
the word can: What are the meanings of the word bat?
I can open the can. (bat as in baseball bat and bat as in creature)
3 Explain that the word can has two different 6 Working alone, in pairs or teams, challenge
meanings in the sentence — can as in able to and students to create their own sentences to go with
can as in container. each meaning of the targeted word.
4 Write a sentence with your targeted multiple- 7 Students share their sentences and have
meaning word. Using the word bat: classmates identify the meanings for each use of
The boy hit the ball with the bat. the word.

Vocabulary

VOC-21 Mapping Multiple-Meaning Words Blackline Master available

www.tpri.org

Students use a graphic organizer to learn vocabulary words with multiple meanings.
MATERIALS: Chart paper, marker

1 Select vocabulary words with multiple meanings,

at least one of which has been taught previously. EXAMPLE:

2 Create a map and write the word in the center. Definition Definition
#1 #2
3 Lead a discussion to fill in the map.
Word
4 Create a sample sentence to go with each
definition.
Definition
#3

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 129
Vocabulary

Vocabulary

VOC-22 Concept Definition Map Blackline Master available

www.tpri.org

Students use a graphic organizer to understand the essential attributes of a word’s meaning. Because
this process requires students to describe what the word is and is not, and to cite examples of it,
students develop a more thorough understanding of the word.
MATERIALS: Paper/chart paper, pencils/markers

1 Prepare and display an example of a concept 4 Model how to use the map by selecting a
definition map. Give each student a blank map. familiar vocabulary term from a social studies or
science unit and mapping its features.
2 Review the chosen word or concept by reading
it in sentences. Doing so provides students a 5 Lead a discussion of how students can use
context for determining the word’s meaning. the map’s information to write a definition of the
chosen word.
3 Discuss the questions a definition should
answer, recording answers as they’re discussed. 6 Select another familiar vocabulary word and
Ask students: have students work in pairs or individually to
What is it? What broader category or answer the questions.
classification of things does it fit into?
7 After students complete their maps, have
What is it like? What are its essential them write a complete definition of the concept
characteristics? What qualities does it using information from their maps.
possess that make it different from other
things in the same category? 8 As the unit progresses, encourage students
What are some examples of it? to refine their maps as they learn additional
characteristics and examples of the concept.
What are some non-examples of it?

EXAMPLE:

Category
Communication

Examples Non-Examples
• Panasonic • radio
• Sony • CD player
• flat-panel Television • computer
• HDTV • telephones

What is it like?
• has remote control • usually square
• has picture and sound • has buttons
• displays many colors • has speakers

130 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Vocabulary

Vocabulary

VOC-23 Semantic Web Blackline Master available

www.tpri.org

Students create a web of their knowledge on a theme, incorporating the use of related vocabulary
words. This helps readers activate and draw on prior knowledge, recognize important components
of different concepts and see the relationships among the components.
MATERIALS: Paper/chart paper, pencils/markers

1 Select a topic that will allow students words you selected in advance are included in
to develop and refine their vocabulary in a the words students provide.
particular area. The goal is to integrate multiple
new vocabulary words in a meaningful way. 4 Students group the words into categories and
Select the vocabulary words to teach in advance. depict the categories in the form of a map or web
to show the relationships among the words.
2 Write the topic in the center of a chart. It may
be one previously studied or read about, or one 5 Students share their semantic webs with
students are beginning to study and have prior the class, explaining the reasoning behind their
knowledge about. categories and the words they’ve grouped
under each. Discussion is an essential part in
3 Students think of as many words as possible the effectiveness of semantic mapping. As they
that relate to the topic. This can be done as a listen and share, students become aware of new
brainstorming session with the whole class, with words, gather new meanings for familiar terms
a partner or individually. Be sure the vocabulary and see relationships among numerous words.

EXAMPLE:
This semantic web shows how the word bare The vocabulary words selected for this
might be incorporated into a brainstorming semantic map were meteorologist, blizzard,
session on plants. The vocabulary words humidity and barometer.
selected were mineral, vitamin, rain forest, bare,
stalk, sprout and annual. The map incorporates Natural Man-made
all or most of the words, so students see how jet stream air pollution
the words represent ideas that are connected. cold front cloud seeding Disaster
stationary front phenomena
high pressure Factors that
How a El Niño hurricanes
may affect our
plant’s life starts: Kinds of plants: weather tornadoes
seed, vitamins, planted annual, perennial, blizzards
by a person, fertilizer, seasonal cyclones
seed sprouts ice storms
Weather hailstorms
floods
Places
where plants grow: Parts of a plant:
garden, rain forest, Plants stem, leaves, stalk, Forecast Measurement
bare ground, woods, roots, petals experts
jungle
meteoroligist
National Weather Service Tools Terms
climatologist
How a What a barometer isobars
plant’s life ends: plant needs to grow:
turns brown, leaves/ hydrometer millibars
water, minerals, sun,
petals drop and nuturing soil thermometer relative humidity
fall off temperature
Centigrade
Fahrenheit

EXTENSION: Semantic web worksheets can be used by students individually or in teams, with students
independently completing a web.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 131
Vocabulary

Vocabulary
Blackline Master available
VOC-24 Memory Hunt: Homonyms www.tpri.org

Students play a Memory-style card game, attempting to find and pronounce pairs of words that are
homonyms (words that sound the same, but are spelled differently).
MATERIALS: Small index cards, marker

1 Choose eight to 10 homonym word pairs. Write the word, and then turning over a second card
each word of the pair on separate index cards, for a and saying the word. If the student turns over
total of 16 to 20 cards. matching words (homonyms), it makes a pair and
the student keeps the cards.
2 Arrange the cards face down on a table.
4 Play continues with each student taking one
3 Students take turns turning over a card, saying turn at a time until all cards are picked up.

VARIATION: The game also can be played matching synonyms, or antonyms and synonyms.

Vocabulary

VOC-25 Meaningful Word Parts: Morphographs

Students form real and nonsense words by combing different prefixes, suffixes and root words.
MATERIALS: Small index cards, marker

1 Using the following charts as a reference, build and then pronounce both real and nonsense
write some common prefixes, suffixes and root words by rearranging the cards.
words on index cards, one to a card.
3 Students consider whether each word is a real
2 Working individually or as a group, students word and what the word means or could mean.

Example: Prefixes: Extended List

Prefixes are letter groups added before a base word
or root that usually change the meaning of the word.
Prefix Meaning Root/Word Part Examples
ab away from sent, sorb, stain absent, absorb, abstain
ad to, toward vance, tion advance, addition
after later, behind math, ward aftermath, afterward
anti against, opposed biotic, freeze antibiotic, antifreeze
auto self biography autobiography
bi two cycle, ceps bicycle, biceps
contra against dict, ry contradict, contrary
de from, down, away flect, flate, tach deflect, deflate, detach
dis* not, apart, from appear, regard disappear, disregard
in, im, ir, il* not convenient, polite, inconvenient, impolite,
responsible, logical irresponsible, illogical
inter among act, nal interact, internal
magni great fy, ficent magnify, magnificent
mega huge phone, bucks megaphone, megabucks
mis wrongly take, lead mistake, mislead
re* back, again gain, do, possess regain, redo, repossess
semi half, partial circle, annual, conscious semicircle, semiannual,
semiconscious
un* not usual, prepared unusual, unprepared
* Most common prefixes

(continued next page)


132 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Vocabulary

Meaningful Word Parts: Morphographs (continued)

Example:
Suffixes
Suffixes are groups of letters added after a base word or root.

Suffix Meaning Root/Word Part Examples

ant one who assist, please assistant, pleasant
ent one who reside, preside resident, president
er, or* one who teach, cheat, sail teacher, cheater, sailor
er* more bright, dark, cold brighter, darker, colder
ess one who act, villain actress, villainess
ful* full of mouth, spoon mouthful, spoonful
less without mother, pain motherless, painless
ly* every week, month, year weekly, monthly, yearly
ly* characteristic of lone, sad, timid lonely, sadly, timidly
ment state of amaze, ease amazement, easement
ness* state of being happy, crazy happiness, craziness
ology study of bio, chrono biology, chronology
ous full of wonder, glory wondrous, glorious
s, es* more than one desk, box, pouch desks, boxes, pouches
tion, sion process present, precise presentation, precision
* Most common suffixes

Vocabulary

VOC-26 Prefix Word Wall

Students learn about common prefixes by creating and studying groups of words.
MATERIALS: Chart paper, index cards, scissors, tape, marker

1 Write words with common prefixes (e.g., re, un) 3 Introduce the prefix word cards (e.g., return,
on index cards. Label a piece of chart paper Prefix unhook) and challenge students to guess the
Word Wall and attach it to a wall. meaning of new words with the prefixes.
2 Explain to students: 4 Students hunt for words in their textbooks,
Prefixes are placed at the front of words and newspapers, magazines, etc. to cut out and tape
have predictable meanings and pronunciations. on the prefix word wall.
We can learn to use common prefixes as cues
for word meanings. 5 Over time, introduce new prefixes students
encounter in their reading.

example: rebound redo rework rewrite

replay replace recycle reuse
unfair unpack unusual unknown
unlimited unequal unclear unlock

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 133
Vocabulary

Vocabulary
Blackline Master available
VOC-27 Word Sort: Prefixes and Suffixes www.tpri.org

Students sort words into groups with the same prefixes and suffixes.
MATERIALS: Index cards, paper, pencils

1 Create sets of word cards by writing a word with 4 Students read each word, then group words
a prefix or suffix on an index card, one word per with the same prefix and suffix.
card. Each student or team will need a set of cards,
paper and pencils. 5 Students check their work with another student
or team.
2 Model identifying the prefix in a word and
finding a word with the same prefix. 6 Students write their solution on a sheet of paper.

3 Pass out the word cards for students to sort

independently.

example: kindness unfair forgiveness unequal

unfriendly sadness unexpected loneliness
willingness unsure awareness unable

Extension: After checking students' sorting, discuss the meanings of the words. The discussions can
take place in either large or small groups.

Vocabulary

VOC-28 Word Sort: Roots

Students sort words into groups with the same root.
MATERIALS: Index cards, paper, pencils

1 Create sets of word cards by writing a word the root. Students then group together words
with a root on an index card, one word per card. with the same root.
Each student or team will need a set of cards,
paper and pencils. 5 Students check their work with another
student or team.
2 Model identifying the root in a word and
finding a word with the same root. 6 Students write their solution on a sheet of
paper by writing the root at the top. Below the
3 Pass out the word cards for students to sort root, they list all words containing the root.
independently.
7 Students write the meaning of each root.
4 Students read each word, then use a piece of
paper to cover the prefixes and suffixes to locate

example: forms form reform formation formable

invisible visual vision visible visitor

(continued next page)

134 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Vocabulary

Word Sorts: Roots (continued)

EXTENSION: For content area reading and word sorts, you might find it worthwhile to make up lists of
roots specific to each area. For science, the list might include bio, chromo, eco, meter and so forth.
For reference, here is a list of commonly occurring Greek and Latin roots.
Example:
Common Greek and Latin Roots
Root Meaning Origin Examples
aud hear Latin audiophile, auditorium, audition
astro star Greek astrology, astronaut, astronomy
bio life Greek biography, biology, biomass
dict speak, tell Latin dictate, predict, dictator
geo earth Greek geology, geography, geothermal
meter measure Greek thermometer, barometer
min little, small Latin minimum, minimal, minivan
mis, mit send Latin mission, missle, transmit, remit
ped foot Latin pedestrian, pedal, pedestal
phon sound Greek phonograph, microphone, phoneme
port carry Latin transport, portable, import
scrib, script write Latin scribble, manuscript, inscription
spect see Latin inspect, spectator, respect
struct build, form Latin construction, destruction, instruct

Vocabulary

VOC-29 Root Word Tree

Students make connections between words with the same root or base.
MATERIALS: Poster board, small index cards, markers

1 Create a tree outline on poster board to hang

EXAMPLE:
in the classroom. Select material that’s durable
and easy to write on or attach word cards to.
(If you draw the tree on a dry-erase board, you
can wipe off the words and start over with a
different base word. Otherwise, just replace the
index cards with new word cards as you study
additional base words.)
2 Select a root word to place at the base of
the tree.
3 Students write as many words as they can
derived from the root word, one word per index card.
4 Place the new words on individual branches.
5 Students continue adding new words over the
course of the lesson or theme.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 135
Vocabulary

Vocabulary

VOC-30 Content Word Board

Students collect and display words related to a theme.
MATERIALS: White board or individual notebooks, index cards, pencils/markers

1 Designate space on a bulletin board or wall words, wrote them on cards and then posted
to collect and display words related to a certain them on the board.
subject. Subjects may be selected to teach
particular vocabulary, derived from content area 4 While reading, students hunt for words that
study or seasonal themes. fit the theme of the word board. The board is
updated daily, based on content area work.
2 With the class, write a few sample words for
the board on index cards. 5 To encourage challenging word work and
vocabulary growth, designate incentives for
3 Introduce the board and its theme to “special” polysyllabic words posted by students.
students, demonstrating how you selected

example:

Words for space could include: “Special” words for talk could include:
planet orbit converse negotiate
space craft space shuttle speak confer
gravity rocket gossip reason
mission astronaut discuss notify
asteroids galaxy inform advise
satellite space station chatter explain
meteorite moon warn babble
sun Mars communicate preach

VARIATION: Instead of creating a word board for the whole class, students can collect words on
different topics in their own “vocabulary notebook.”

136 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Vocabulary

Vocabulary

VOC-31 Semantic Feature Analysis Blackline Master available

www.tpri.org

Students determine a term’s meaning by comparing its features to those of other terms that fall into
the same category or class. When students have completed a semantic feature matrix, they have a
visual reminder of how certain terms are alike or different.
MATERIALS: Paper/chart paper, pencils/markers

1 Select a general category of study. With minus sign (-) if it doesn’t. If students mark the
younger students, choose concrete concepts same pattern of pluses or minuses for more than
such as sports, food, farm animals, boats or one word, challenge them to identify a feature
board games. that will differentiate between the terms. This
step can be completed by the entire class, in
2 Create a matrix. Along the left side, list small groups or with a partner.
key vocabulary terms or concepts familiar to
students within the chosen category. Across the 4 Ask students to explain the rationale behind
top of the matrix, supply features these words their markings. Explaining their own reasoning
might share. Provide each student a matrix. and listening to other students’ reasoning
enhances understanding of the concepts.
3 Students use a plus sign (+) to indicate the
feature applies to the vocabulary word or a

Example: Here is a matrix created for the subject transportation.

two four one foot motor on in the in the

wheeled wheeled wheeled powered powered land water air
bicycle + - - + - + - -
car - + - - + + - -
unicycle - - + + - + - -
airplane -* - - - + +* +* +
boat - - - - +- - + -
* An airplane has more than two wheels, but the specific number of wheels depends on the type of plane.
An airplane can travel on land for take-off and landing.
Some types of airplanes can travel on water for take-off and landing.


Vocabulary

VOC-32 Guess the Definition

Students define words and then check their definitions using a dictionary.
MATERIALS: Dictionaries, index cards, marker

1 Write sentences with new vocabulary words 3 Students take turns picking up a card, reading
on index cards. Underline the vocabulary word. the sentence and defining the underlined word.
2 Provide each pair or team a set of word cards 4 Another student looks up the word in the
and a dictionary. Students shuffle the cards and dictionary and reads the definition. Students
place them face down. decide together whether the definition was correct.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 137
Vocabulary

Vocabulary

VOC-33 Word Sort: Vocabulary

Students sort words into groups of words with related meanings or associations. This helps develop a
deeper understanding of the key concepts and complex reasoning skills of classification and deduction.
MATERIALS: Index cards, marker

1 Write one vocabulary word on each index the categories into which students are to assign
card. (With older students, it may be more words (less difficult). In an open sort, students
effective and efficient to have students create their group words into categories and identify their
own word cards using a list you supply.) own labels for each category (more difficult).
Students can work alone or in teams.
2 Model putting together words with similar
meanings or words related to the same topic. 4 Encourage students to find more than one
way to classify the vocabulary terms. Classifying
3 Pass out the word cards for students to sort and then reclassifying helps students extend and
independently. This strategy can be applied in refine their understanding of the concepts studied.
two different ways: In a closed sort, you provide

Vocabulary

VOC-34 Seven Up
Students read and define words on selected cards, then create sentences that include as many of the words
on their cards as possible. This activity provides practice recognizing, defining and using vocabulary.
MATERIALS: Index cards, marker

1 Prepare word cards, making seven times 4 When students have seven correct cards,
as many cards as students playing. Be sure to they stand up.
include both nouns and verbs in the stack.
5 Play continues until all students are standing.
2 Students sit in a circle, with the stack of cards Students then sit down and see how fast they
face down in the center of the group. can make a sentence using some or all of their
seven cards. As soon as students have made a
3 Each student takes a turn by turning over a sentence, they stand again.
card, reading it and defining it. If students read
and define the word correctly, they keep the card. 6 The round continues until all students who can
make sentences with their words have done so.

Vocabulary

VOC-35 Vocabulary Charades

Students act out vocabulary words for their classmates to guess.
MATERIALS: Index cards, marker

1 Prepare a set of word cards that includes sure the word is read correctly. (Words can be
vocabulary words recently studied. read to nonreaders before they act out the word.)
2 Divide students into teams, with at least one 4 The student acts out the word and the other
strong reader on each team. students try to guess it.
3 One student chooses a card, reads it silently
and checks with a strong reader as needed to be

138 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Vocabulary

Vocabulary

VOC-36 Vocabulary Map Blackline Master available

www.tpri.org

Students use a graphic organizer to map their understanding of a vocabulary word, both before and
after hearing how it’s used in a story read aloud.
MATERIALS: Book, chart paper, marker

1 Select a text to read with the group and 5 Read the story, emphasizing the vocabulary word.
identify vocabulary words to teach.
6 After reading the story, you and the students
2 Make a vocabulary map with three columns return to the map and discuss the meaning of the
labeled Word, What I Think It Means Before word again.
Reading and What I Know It Means After Reading.
7 Record those answers in the third column and
3 Introduce a word alone or in a sentence, compare them to answers in the second column.
write it on the map and ask students what they
think it means. 8 Repeat the process with additional vocabulary
words.
4 Record their answers in the second column of
the map.

EXAMPLE:

What I Think It Means What I Know It Means

Word Before Reading After Reading

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 139
Vocabulary

References
Anderson, R.C., & Freebody, P. (1981). Vocabulary knowledge. In J. Guthrie (Ed.), Comprehension and teaching
research reviews. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York:
Guilford Press.

Biemiller, A. (2006). Teaching vocabulary in the primary grades: Vocabulary instruction needed. In J.F.
Baumann & E.J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 28-40). New York:
Guilford Press.

Billmeyer, R., & Barton, M.L. (1998). Teaching reading in the content areas: If not me, then who? (2nd ed.).
Aurora, CO: McREL.

Center for Academic and Reading Skills (2001). Vocabulary enrichment project. Unpublished Curriculum.
Houston, TX.

Curtis, M.E. (1987). Vocabulary testing and vocabulary instruction. In M.G. McKeown & M.E. Curtis (Eds.),
The nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp. 37-51). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Honig, B., Diamond, L., Gutlohn, L., & Mahler, J. (2000). Teaching reading sourcebook: For kindergarten through
eighth grade. Emeryville, CA: CORE.

Lehr, F., Hiebert, E.H., & Osborn, J. (2006). A focus on vocabulary. Honolulu, HI: Pacific Resources for
Education and Learning.

McKeown, M.G., & Beck, I.L. (2006). Direct and rich vocabulary instruction. In J.F. Baumann & E.J. Kame’enui
(Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 13-27). New York: Guilford Press.

Nagy, W.E. (1988). Teaching vocabulary to improve reading comprehension. Newark, DE: International Reading
Association.

Pinnell, G.S., & Fountas, I.C. (with Giacobbe, M.E.) (1998). Word matters: Teaching phonics and spelling in the
reading/writing classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Schwartz, R.M., & Raphael, T. (1985). Concept of definition: A key to improving students’ vocabulary. Reading
Teacher, 39(2), 198-205.

Shanker, J.L., & Ekwall, E.E. (1998). Locating and correcting reading difficulties (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.

Stahl, S.A. (1999). Vocabulary development. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.

Texas Reading Initiative (2000). Promoting vocabulary development: Components of effective vocabulary
instruction. Austin, TX: Texas Education Agency.

140 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Comprehension

Comprehension
Constructing meaning from hearing or reading text. The purpose for reading.

Comprehension, the ability to gain meaning from print, is the central

purpose for reading. Comprehension depends on the reader’s
Blackline Master available
understanding of word meanings and ability to draw inferences.
To comprehend text, readers draw on a wide range of knowledge
and skills, and utilize a variety of cognitive processes. The TPRI www.tpri.org
assesses student abilities in areas that contribute to comprehension
(graphophonemic knowledge, accuracy and fluency), and assesses Blackline Masters
comprehension directly on the reading accuracy, fluency and www.tpri.org
Some activities have associated
comprehension portion of the Inventory Section. Blackline Masters available as PDF
To assess comprehension, the TPRI provides stories at each grade files to download, print out and use
level for students to read or hear. After reading or listening to a in your lessons. Go to www.tpri.org.
story, students answer a series of questions to demonstrate their
understanding of it.
TPRI comprehension questions are divided into four types. The question
types use a modified version of the QAR question taxonomy: Right There,
Think and Search, Author and Me, and On My Own. The four TPRI
comprehension question types — Recalling Details, Linking Details,
Inferring Meaning and Inferring Word Meaning — are described below.
Recalling Details Questions
••Require students to provide information stated directly in the text.
The language used in the question closely matches the language
used in the text, and the answer is contained within a single sentence.
Students require no background knowledge to answer correctly.
••When students struggle to answer correctly, they may not
remember or understand significant details in the text.
Linking Details Questions
••Require students to provide information stated in the text.
Answering correctly requires connecting information in multiple
sentences. Sometimes these sentences are close together in the
text; at other times, they’re separated by several sentences or
paragraphs. No background knowledge is necessary to answer
these questions.
••When students struggle to answer, they may have trouble
understanding significant details and making connections from one
part of the text to another.
Inferring Meaning Questions
••Require students to make connections beyond what is stated
directly in the text. Answering correctly requires students to make
feeling, causal and/or logical inferences using personal experience
and/or background knowledge.
••When students struggle to answer, they may have difficulty gaining
deep or complex understanding of the text.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 141
Comprehension

Inferring Word Meaning Questions

••Require students to provide the meaning of a word from the story.
The meaning of the word is provided or can be inferred in the story’s context.
••When students struggle to answer correctly, they may have trouble
understanding text containing unfamiliar vocabulary.
The TPRI assesses two forms of text comprehension: listening comprehension and reading comprehension.
These types of comprehension are distinct, but closely related.
Listening Comprehension
Children begin learning to understand books when they hear them as babies and toddlers. However, in pre-
school or kindergarten, around ages four or five, more structured listening comprehension instruction can
begin. To help build listening comprehension, teachers may:
••Have students listen and respond to stories based on well-known
characters, themes, plots and settings.
••Ask students to listen to stories with the goal of retelling them.
••Use retelling as a way to assess how well students comprehend
a story, and then use that information to help students develop
a deeper understanding of story structure.
••Work with students on ordering and summarizing information
from a story and making inferences.
Reading Comprehension
As students begin to read text independently, reading comprehension becomes a focus of instruction.
Reading comprehension requires an active strategic process that varies depending on the characteristics of
the reader, the nature of the text and the purpose for reading. While some students may devise their own
strategic process for understanding text, most students require explicit instruction in reading comprehension
strategies.
Following are important considerations regarding reading comprehension strategies:
••According to research published in the National Reading Panel (2000),
skilled readers construct meaning from text not through the use of a single
potent strategy, but through the coordination of several strategies.
••Students should learn what the comprehension strategy is, why it’s important,
and how, when and where to apply it.
••Students require sufficient practice in working with multiple strategies so
the appropriate use of these strategies becomes a habit. It’s recommended
students master one comprehension skill before a new strategy is taught.
••Reading comprehension strategies should be included in the content areas
for generalization.
••Instruction in reading comprehension should be directed towards helping students:
Understand what they read.
Remember what they read.
Communicate with others about what they read.
Connect what they read with prior knowledge and experience.

142 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Comprehension

Guidelines for Instruction

Years of reading research confirm the activity described as “good reading” is made up of a set of well-
developed and well-practiced skills. Good readers actively and consciously bring together these different
skills and strategies during three stages of reading text: before, during and after reading. General guidelines
for instruction during these three stages are provided below. More detailed, specific instructional activities
comprise the remainder of the Comprehension section.
Before Reading
••Select important and potentially confusing or unknown
vocabulary and briefly teach the meanings of these words
to facilitate comprehension during reading.
••Provide students opportunities to preview the text
by browsing the material and looking for clues.
••Activate students’ relevant background knowledge.
••Generate an interest in the text.
••Provide an opportunity for students to answer inferencing
questions and make predictions about what will be learned
from reading the text.
••Identify the purpose of the text — information or entertainment/story.
••Encourage active reading of the text.
During Reading
••Include activities that facilitate understanding.
••Summarize the main idea.
••Predict events and outcomes of upcoming text.
••Draw inferences and make connections.
••Sequence events.
••Monitor understanding.
••Ask questions related to the purpose of the story.
After Reading
••Encourage students to complete an academically engaging
activity to interact with the material they have just read.
••Have students think about the information and ideas that emerge
from their reading, and to respond to what they’ve read.
••Facilitate student retention and deep understanding of the text.

About the Comprehension Activities

Comprehension activities are divided into three areas: Read-Alouds and Retells, Reading Comprehension
Strategies and Story Elements. The focus of these sections progresses from primarily listening
comprehension and the basic reading comprehension skill of retelling; to a variety of strategies for
building comprehension of any text type; to helping students use story elements as a way to better
comprehend narrative books and stories.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 143
Comprehension

Read-Alouds and Retells

After hearing or reading a text, students tell about it.

Comprehension | Read-Alouds and Retells

COM-1 Structured Reading

Read a book aloud and ask students to retell the story using the 5 W’s — who, where, when,
what and why.
MATERIALS: Book or book on tape

1 Review the 5 W’s using a familiar story to give 3 Let each finger on your hand represent one of
an example of each. the 5 W’s as you retell the story with assistance
from students.
2 Read a book aloud or play a book on tape.
4 Model oral retellings numerous times before
having students perform the task independently.

EXTENSION: Structured reading using the 5 W’s Blackline Master available

www.tpri.org
can be taught with a graphic organizer or web.
Elicit student responses and record them in the
appropriate circles. In addition to the 5 W’s, the What
web includes the how.
Who When

Title

How Where

Why

Comprehension | Read-Alouds and Retells

COM-2 Teacher-Directed Read-Alouds

Hearing books read aloud offers students opportunities to learn new vocabulary and comprehend
books they’re unable to read themselves.
MATERIALS: Book

1 Before reading aloud, preview and discuss the 2 During reading, continue to discuss the text,
text, and teach the associated vocabulary. Create check for understanding of the vocabulary words
interest in the text, activate prior knowledge and and ask for predictions.
encourage predictions. Introduce the purpose of
reading the story. 3 After reading, discuss the accuracy of the
students’ predictions and ask content-related
questions to check for understanding.

144 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Comprehension

Comprehension | Read-Alouds and Retells

COM-3 Draw a Story

Students illustrate the beginning, middle and end of a story, and then retell it using their pictures.
MATERIALS: Book or book on tape, paper, crayons/markers

1 After reading a text aloud, discuss what happened labeled Beginning, Middle and End.
at the beginning, middle and end of the story.
3 Using their pictures, students retell the story
2 Ask students to draw pictures on a piece of to a partner or the class.
paper that’s been divided into three sections

EXTENSION: Ask students to write a sentence describing each picture. Another option is to ask students
to predict what the beginning, middle and end will be after reading only the title page. Students can
draw predictions and compare pictures after hearing or reading the story.

Comprehension | Read-Alouds and Retells

COM-4 Story Retell: Sequence Cards

Students retell a story by sequencing the main events on a timeline made of yarn.
MATERIALS: Narrative or expository text, yarn or string, index cards, paper clips

1 Explain that a string, like a story, has a 5 Have students touch the middle of the yarn
beginning, middle and end. Tell students you’ll and discuss the middle of the story.
read a book and then discuss its beginning,
middle and end. 6 Along with students, select a word or short
phrase to represent the start of the story and
2 Read the story aloud to students. write it on an index card. Repeat the process with
the end of the story, then the middle.
3 Hand each student a 12-inch piece of yarn
or string. 7 Use paper clips to attach the cards to the yarn
in chronological order.
4 Have students touch the beginning and end of
the yarn. Discuss what happened first and then 8 Retell the story while touching each main
last in the story. event card.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 145
Comprehension

Comprehension | Read-Alouds and Retells

COM-5 Story Retell: Sentence Strips

Students retell a story using sentence strips as an aid.
MATERIALS: Narrative or expository text, chalkboard/transparency, sentence strips, chalk/marker

1 Before reading a story to the class, write should stand so the sentences appear in correct
its key events on sentence strips and distribute chronological order. (Make sure the student
to students. with the first sentence stands at the left from
the perspective of students who are observing.
2 After reading, have one student at a time When reading, we always move left to right.)
come to the front. Read the sentence the student
is holding. 4 Finally, use the sentence strips to write a story
summary on the chalkboard or transparency.
3 Call on another student with a sentence.
Decide with students where each student

EXAMPLE: Here’s how a timeline might look for the book Just Us Women, by Jeannette Caines.

Beginning We make a list of things to do.

Aunt Martha buys two road maps.

We pack our food into shoe boxes.

We have breakfast at night.

End We arrive in North Carolina.

EXTENSION: Using sentence strips, students predict the order of key events in a story they haven’t read.

Comprehension | Read-Alouds and Retells

COM-6 Story Retell: Timelines
Students retell a story using a timeline they help create.
MATERIALS: Narrative or expository text, chalkboard/transparency, chalk/marker

1 Read a story aloud to the class or have 3 Using words as labels, have students help you
students read independently. create a chronological sequence of the story.
2 Create a timeline on the board by drawing a 4 Students retell the story using the timeline as
straight line and marking its beginning, middle a reference.
and end.

146 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Comprehension

Comprehension | Read-Alouds and Retells

COM-7 Story Retell: Increasingly Complex Models

Through oral reconstruction, students’ understanding of story structure increases and their retellings
become more sophisticated.
MATERIALS: Book or book on tape

1 Read a book aloud or play a book on tape. More Complex Retelling: Students identify
and retell events and facts in a sequence. After
2 Support students in providing increasingly students have mastered retelling sequential
complex retellings using the following types as events, have them make inferences to fill in
a guide: missing information, and identify and retell
Simple Descriptive Retelling: Students identify causes of actions or events and their effects.
and retell the beginning, middle and end of a Most Complex Retelling: Students identify and
story in chronological order. After students retell a sequence of actions or events, make
become proficient in identifying the beginning, inferences to account for events or actions, and
middle and end, have them describe the setting, provide explanations for the motivation behind
identify the problem and resolution of the problem. the characters’ actions. Finally, have students
evaluate the story, which may involve rating the
story in comparison to other stories or discussing
how they might change it.

Reading Comprehension Strategies

A variety of approaches for helping students connect with and understand what they read.

Comprehension | Reading Comprehension Strategies

Blackline Master available
COM-8 Story Retell: Partner Reading www.tpri.org

Students read together in pairs and practice retelling what they’ve read.
MATERIALS: Books, retell cue cards

1 Create one retell cue card for each pair of “What did you learn first?” (Asked only once at
students. the beginning of each section.)
2 Give the same book or story to each student “What did you learn next?” (Asked as many
pair, along with a retell cue card. times as necessary to cover all the information
students learned while reading the section.)
3 Students take turns reading their text,
alternating every paragraph or page. EXAMPLE:
4 While one student reads, the other student
reads along. Students help and correct each other Retell Cue Card
while reading.
5 After a section of text has been read (the 1. What did you learn first?
length depends on the level of the readers and 2. What did you learn next?
difficulty of the text), the student who was not
reading asks the other student:

EXTENSION: Working with a partner, students close the book and write a retell for a section of text.
Students then discuss and compare their written retells.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 147
Comprehension

Comprehension | Reading Comprehension Strategies

Blackline Master available
COM-9 KWL Chart www.tpri.org

Students access background knowledge before they hear a text read, then reflect on what they
learned afterwards.
MATERIALS: Book, KWL chart, marker

1 Create a KWL chart. With students, brainstorm what they want to

know and list it under the second column.
2 Explain the K stands for what readers already
know about the story from studying its title and 4 Explain the L stands for what readers learn
illustrations. Discuss what the students know and from reading, and this column will be filled out
list it under the first column. after reading and discussing the book.
3 Explain the W stands for what readers want to 5 Read the book to the class.
know about the text. What students want to know
is based on the questions or curiosity they have 6 Discuss what students learned and list it
after reading the title and seeing the illustrations. under the third column.

EXAMPLE:

What We Know What We Want to Know What We Learned

VARIATION: After modeling this technique, students can use a KWL chart in small groups or
individually. The chart can be laminated for daily use.
On the modified KWL chart below, students write What I Already Know in the first column. While
reading, they write what the text says in the What I Have Read column. Students can compare their
statements in a whole group discussion.

EXAMPLE:

What I Already Know What I Have Read

148 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Comprehension

Comprehension | Reading Comprehension Strategies

COM-10 Anticipation/Reaction Guide

Students activate and access prior knowledge before reading informational text. Motivates reluctant
readers by stimulating and focusing their interest on a topic.
MATERIALS: Informational text, anticipation/reaction guide, paper, pencils/markers

1 Identify the major facts you want students to 5 Discuss each statement with the class, then
learn from reading the text. ask how many students agree or disagree with
the statement.
2 Create an anticipation/reaction guide with
four to six statements that may support or 6 Ask one student from each side of the issue to
challenge students’ beliefs and experiences explain their response.
about the topic. The statements can address
important points, major concepts, controversial 7 Students reread the selection with the purpose
ideas or misconceptions. Try not to write simple, of finding evidence that supports or refutes their
literal statements that can be easily answered. responses.

3 Provide a guide for students after they've read 8 After reading, students confirm their original
the text. They can work in groups if the subject responses, revise them or decide if additional
matter is fairly complex, or on their own. information is needed.

4 Ask students to react to each statement 9 In their own words, students write what the
(agree or disagree), formulate a response to it author said about each statement.
and be prepared to defend their opinions. Lead a whole class discussion on what students
learned from their reading.

EXAMPLE: Below is an anticipation/reaction guide that can be used with the story Stellaluna, by
Janell Cannon. As a variation, the Text column can be replaced with Author. After reading, students
place a check next to statements with which the author would agree.

Anticipation/Reaction Guide

Directions: In the column labeled Me, place a check next to any statement you
agree with. After reading the text, compare your opinions on those statements with
information contained in the text.
Me Text
_____ _____ 1. Owls are friends of bats.
_____ _____ 2. Bats are reptiles.
_____ _____ 3. Bats sleep at night and hunt for their food during the day.
_____ _____ 4. Bats sleep hanging by their feet.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 149
Comprehension

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Blackline Master available
COM-11 Prediction Chart www.tpri.org

Students use a graphic organizer to record their predictions about a text. After reading, students
confirm or revise their predictions based on the content.
MATERIALS: Book, prediction chart, small index cards, tape, marker

1 Make a prediction chart. 4 One at a time, show students a card and

ask them to help you place it on the chart. Let
2 On separate index cards, write the name of a students discuss their reasons for card placement.
character, setting, event, etc., from a story. Include
items not found in the story. These allow students 5 Read the text aloud.
to disconfirm some of their predictions.
6 After reading, students confirm or revise
3 Show students the text, briefly discuss its title their predictions in a class discussion, moving
and flip through the illustrations. cards if necessary.

EXAMPLE:
Prediction Chart
What can you predict about each of the following categories?
Characters Setting Goal/Problem Action/Events Other Things

EXTENSION: After completing as a whole class, student pairs can use a prediction chart with a new book.

Comprehension | Reading Comprehension Strategies

Blackline Master available
COM-12 Semantic Web www.tpri.org

Students see a graphic representation of a story’s concept or theme, setting the stage for better
understanding during reading.
MATERIALS: Book, semantic web, marker

1 Create a semantic web. Select a topic from a 3 Discuss the topic with students.
book or text and write it in the center circle.
4 Brainstorm answers for each question you’ve
2 In each of the outlying circles, write a listed and write them in the appropriate circle on
question related to the topic. the web.

EXAMPLE: Before reading Syd Hoff’s Danny and What Kinds of

the Dinosaur, a book about a little boy who goes are dinosaurs? dinosaurs
to the museum and is befriended by a dinosaur,
you might discuss this semantic web and write
student answers under the correct question.
Dinosaurs
Where Words
can you find that describe
dinosaurs? dinosaurs

150 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Comprehension

Comprehension | Reading Comprehension Strategies

Blackline Master available
COM-13 Click and Clunk www.tpri.org

Students monitor their understanding of text while reading, and follow steps to “fix” their
comprehension when it breaks down.
MATERIALS: Books or sections of text, fix-up strategies chart, index cards, pencils/markers

1 Create a chart with the four fix-up strategies 4 Students apply a fix-up strategy to determine
and post it at the front of the class. Model each the meaning of each clunk and record the
strategy before students use them independently. meaning on the clunk log.
2 Provide each student a “clunk log” on an 5 Students continue the process until they’ve
index card. Review the definitions of click — finished reading the text.
understanding the content of what is read. Then
clunk — not understanding the content of what is 6 Allow students to share clunks they’ve been
read. (Repeat this review the first few times the able to fix and how they determined the meaning.
activity is taught.) 7 Discuss any clunks students were unable to fix.
3 Students read a section of text, identifying 8 As needed, reteach or review how to apply the
clunks as they read and recording them on their fix-up strategies to determine word meanings.
clunk log.

EXAMPLE:

Fix-Up #1 Fix-Up #2 Fix-Up #3 Fix-Up #4

Reread the Reread the Look for a Break the
sentence with sentence before prefix or suffix in word apart
the clunk. Look and after the the word. and look for
for key words clunk to look for smaller words.
to help you
understand. clues.

Clunk Log
Clunk Clunk Meaning

EXTENSION: Students use a clunk log and fix-up strategies on a new text with a partner. After reading,
students can play a game by cutting the clunks and meanings apart, then match the pieces after
they’re shuffled.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 151
Comprehension

Comprehension | Reading Comprehension Strategies

Blackline Master available
COM-14 Reciprocal Reading and Questioning www.tpri.org

Provides practice in questioning, clarifying, summarizing and predicting a text’s content.

Recommended for grades 3 and up.
MATERIALS: Books or sections of text

1 Divide a text into smaller sections of about two 3 Model the discussion leader’s tasks, guiding
to three paragraphs. Provide each student a copy. students in applying the comprehension strategies,
monitoring the group’s understanding and
2 After students read each section, lead a small providing feedback.
group discussion using the reciprocal reading
and questioning techniques. 4 After ample modeling, turn the leadership
role over to students, who take turns leading
the discussion.

EXAMPLE:

Reciprocal Reading and Questioning

1. Predicting: Preview the selection by reading the title, any boldface subheadings and
looking at graphic aids. Based on the preview, have each student predict what the
selection will be about.
2. Questioning: Read the first section of text. Then provide time for students to write a
few questions on the important information they learned in the section. Allow students
to share and discuss each other’s questions.
3. Clarifying: Clarify any parts of the text that were unclear during reading. Things to clarify
include words, maps or illustrations that were confusing.
4. Summarizing: Summarize the section by identifying and condensing the most
important points.
Repeat the four steps with each remaining section of text.

152 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Comprehension

Comprehension | Reading Comprehension Strategies

COM-15 Question-Answer Relationships (QAR)

Helps students understand the relationship between question-answer pairs and types of questions, so
they can generate different levels of questions on their own.
MATERIALS: Books or sections of text, chart paper/index cards, pencils/markers
Note: Each of the four QAR question types should be taught separately; two are text-based and two are
knowledge-based.

1 Introduce a QAR question type and discuss its Before moving on to the next step, make sure
definition. students understand the relationship between
the question-answer pair and can identify the
2 Model how to locate answers to the QAR type of question.
question type.
5 Students independently write questions that
3 Students read a text selection aloud with fit the QAR type by reading a new text selection
a partner. aloud with a partner.
4 Provide questions and have students 6 Repeat Steps 1-5 for the next question type
locate the answers. Discuss why the question until students are proficient in generating
represents a particular QAR question type. questions at each level.

EXAMPLE:

QAR Question Types

Level 1: Right There

• Answers are stated in the text.
• Questions and answers have the same wording.
• Questions usually elicit one word or short phrase answers.
• Questions begin with words or statements, such as who is, where is, list, what is,
when is, how many, when did, name or what kind of.
Level 2: Think and Search
• The reader has to look for the answers.
• Answers are pulled from different parts of the text, so students must search throughout
the entire text to find answers that apply.
• Questions may begin with words or statements, such as summarize, what caused,
contrast, retell, how did, explain, find two examples, for what reason or compare.
Level 3: Author and Me and On My Own
This level has two categories of questions. Answers to these questions are not explicitly
stated in the text.
Author and Me
• Students draw conclusions from what the author wrote.
• Students must have read the text material to understand what the question is asking.
On My Own
• Questions can be answered from students’ prior knowledge and don’t require
reading the text.

ADAPTATION: To help students, make charts of the question types with pictorial clues.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 153
Comprehension

Comprehension | Reading Comprehension Strategies

Blackline Master available
COM-16 Discussion Guide www.tpri.org

A graphic aid for teaching students to examine both sides of an issue before drawing conclusions.
MATERIALS: Books or sections of text, discussion guides, pencils/markers

1 Provide each student pair with a text selection attempt to give an equal number of reasons in
to read aloud and one discussion guide. each column.
2 After reading, introduce the discussion guide 5 Students pair with another set of partners to
with a question based on the content of the discuss the reasons in each column.
text selection. Have each student pair write the
question at the top of their guide. 6 Each group works towards a consensus about
which view (agree or disagree) is most correct.
3 With their partner, students discuss various
responses to the question and record the reasons 7 When a conclusion is reached, they record it
they agree or disagree in the appropriate column. at the bottom of the guide.

4 Partners work on the same discussion guide, 8 During whole group discussion, one person
writing only key words or phrases in the columns. from each group shares their conclusion and why
They don’t have to fill in all the lines, but should they agreed on it.

EXAMPLE:

Discussion Guide

Question

Reasons We Agree Reasons We Disagree

1. ______________________________ 1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________ 2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________ 3. ______________________________

Conclusions
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

154 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Comprehension

Comprehension | Reading Comprehension Strategies

Blackline Master available
COM-17 Directed Reading and Thinking www.tpri.org

Teaches students how to make predictions and provide evidence that either supports or refutes them.
Recommended for grades 3 and up.
MATERIALS: Books, prediction and evidence charts, pencils/markers

1 Work with the whole class or divide students 4 Ask students to look at the title and cover of
into pairs or groups of three. For this strategy to the book, and make a prediction based on that
be successful, each step should be modeled prior information. Discuss answers thoroughly as a
to students using it independently. group before recording them on the class chart.
2 Determine stopping points in the text. 5 Students read the first paragraph and make
Stopping points can be after every paragraph, a prediction of what will happen next. Ask them
multiple paragraphs and/or every page. to consider which predictions are based on
evidence from the text. Record those predictions
3 Provide each student a copy of the text and on the class chart.
give each group one prediction and evidence
chart. Designate one chart as the class chart. 6 Guide students through the same process for
the remaining sections of text, as they continue
to make and evaluate their predictions.
EXAMPLE:
Prediction and Evidence Chart
Prediction from Title/Cover Evidence from Text

Comprehension | Reading Comprehension Strategies

COM-18 Reciprocal Questioning

Students set their own goals for reading and learn to raise questions independently.
MATERIALS: Books or selections of text

1 Distribute texts to each student. Offer a brief 5 In addition to asking more detailed questions,
introduction to the text and discuss the purpose encourage questions that require students to
for reading it. relate personal experiences and prior knowledge
to information in the passage.
2 Ask students to read the first sentence of a
passage silently. 6 Continue the process, reading one or several
sentences at a time, until students have a
3 Model asking a question after reading it. confident prediction of what’s going to happen in
4 After closing their books, have students ask the remainder of the selection.
questions about the sentence and what it means. 7 After they’ve finished reading, ask students to
Provide direct feedback regarding the quality of check their predictions.
their questions.
8 Discuss their predictions and whether the initial
questions raised were the best ones for the selection.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 155
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Blackline Master available
COM-19 Using Your Five Senses www.tpri.org

Helps students identify sensory imagery and appreciate how authors create pictures through words
and phrases that appeal to our senses.
MATERIALS: Narrative or expository text, using your five senses chart, paper, pencils/markers

1 Read a text aloud to the class. 4 Record the words on the chart under the
appropriate sensory heading.
2 Periodically, stop and have students close their
eyes and form images about what was just read. 5 After completing the story, students can use
the words on the chart to write a summary.
3 Help students suggest words and phrases
that assist them in forming images.

EXAMPLE:

Using Your Five Senses Chart

See Touch Hear Smell Taste

Alternative graphic organizer for Using Your Five Senses:

See

Taste Touch

Topic

Smell Hear

156 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Comprehension

Comprehension | Reading Comprehension Strategies

Blackline Master available
COM-20 Say Something www.tpri.org

Provides a structure for students to regularly pause, think about and comment on what they’ve read.
MATERIALS: Books, sticky notes, say something cue cards, marker

1 Using sticky notes, mark several places where 4 Continue reading, stopping to discuss at each
you will stop and “say something” about the text. sticky note.
2 Read the text aloud until you reach the first 5 Once students understand the process, have
sticky note. them work in pairs or groups of three.
3 Model saying something about the text you’ve 6 Provide the same text for each student and
just read. Then ask students to “say something” pass out a say something cue card for each set of
about it. For example, they might share an students (see the example card below).
experience, summarize what’s been read, wonder
about something in the text or predict what will 7 Students read and then “say something,”
happen next. using the stopping points marked in their books.

EXAMPLE:

Say Something Cue Card

1. Divide into pairs or groups of three.
2. Get a copy or copies of text.
3. Decide how you will read:
• Silently
• Taking turns
4. Locate the first sticky note where you will stop and Say Something about the text.
5. Continue to read, stopping at each sticky note to Say Something.
Remember: When you stop to Say Something, it must be about what you just
finished reading! Each group member must Say Something different about the text.

EXTENSION: Instead of saying something, students “write something” and follow the same process
using a write something cue card.
EXAMPLE:

Write Something Cue Card

1. Preview the reading selection.
2. Locate the first sticky note where you will stop and Write Something about
the text.
3. At each stop, write either a:
• Comment
• Prediction
• Surprise
• Summary
• Similar experience
Hint: If you have little or nothing to write, try reading the section again.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 157
Comprehension

Comprehension | Reading Comprehension Strategies

COM-21 Visualization
Students practice creating mental images of what they read.
MATERIALS: Pictures, narrative or expository text

1 Before teaching students to visualize text, 3 As students begin reading text, ask them to
model the procedure thoroughly and practice stop reading and make a mental image of what
frequently with them. they’ve read. Story parts to visualize include the
setting, characters and major events.
2 Begin by using pictures for visualization. Tell
students you are holding a picture of a specific 4 After making a mental image, students
item (e.g., cat, dog, car, house, park), but don’t discuss their image and compare it to the images
show the picture. Ask students to think about the made by other students.
picture and then talk with a partner about the
mental image they created. Ask a few students to 5 Students with sparse images may need
share the description of what they visualized. prompting to describe more thoroughly.

EXTENSION: Students draw their image and explain and compare it with a partner.

Comprehension | Reading Comprehension Strategies

Blackline Master available
COM-22 Cause and Effect Relationships www.tpri.org

Students use a graphic organizer to learn about cause and effect relationships in literature.
MATERIALS: Books or selections of text, cause and effect chart, sentence strips, tape, marker

1 Make a cause and effect chart with two columns. ask students to decide where each strip belongs
on the chart.
2 Read a text with the class.
4 Start by using selections with one cause and
3 When beginning to teach this concept, write one effect, before progressing to selections with
the causes and effects on sentence strips and several causes and effects.
EXAMPLE:
Cause Effect
What happened? What was the result?

EXTENSION: As students read, they’re given a list of causes (what happened) and asked to find the
effects (result of what happened). Later, they may be given a list of effects and asked to find the causes.

158 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Comprehension

Story Elements
Students focus on the primary story elements of main idea/theme, character, setting and plot while reading.

Comprehension | Story Elements

Blackline Master available
COM-23 Get the Gist www.tpri.org

This cooperative learning activity teaches students how to identify the main idea of a paragraph.
Scaffolding helps students determine what is and what is not important by stating the main idea in
10 words or less.
MATERIALS: Picture cards, simple paragraphs and texts, get the gist cue cards

1 Begin by modeling the activity at the picture 5 After each paragraph, students name the main
level. Provide multiple opportunities to practice idea by identifying the who or what, using a get
the process using picture cards as a class. the gist cue card to guide them. Students make a
statement of 10 words or less using their fingers
2 When students understand the process at to help them count. The first thumb is the who
the picture level, model the activity with simple or what; the remaining fingers count as the most
paragraphs, followed by simple text with multiple important information about the who or what.
paragraphs.
6 If students are unable to make a statement
3 Place students in pairs. Provide each a copy of in 10 words or less, they move on to the next
the same text and one get the gist cue card. paragraph.
4 Students take turns reading the selection, one
paragraph at a time.

Get the Gist Cue Card

1. Name the who or what.
2. Tell the most important information about the who or what.
3. State the main idea in 10 words or less.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 159
Comprehension

Comprehension | Story Elements

Blackline Master available
COM-24 Story Mapping www.tpri.org

Students learn about narrative plot structure by identifying and mapping the major structural features
of a story.
MATERIALS: Narrative text, story maps, pencils/markers

1 Create a story map on chart paper or mapping, students complete their own maps
overhead projector. working in pairs or individually, either on the
same text or different texts.
2 After reading or hearing a text read aloud,
complete the story map as a group. 4 Students share and discuss their completed
story maps.
3 After participating in whole group story

EXAMPLE:
Story Map

Story Title _ ______________________________________________

Characters _______________________________________________

Setting _ _________________________________________________

When ___________________________________________________

Where _ _________________________________________________

Problem _________________________________________________

Major Events
1_ _______________________________________________________

2________________________________________________________
3________________________________________________________

4________________________________________________________

Story Outcome ___________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

Theme _ _________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

VARIATION:
Simple Story Map

Story Title________________________________________________

Beginning Middle Ending

At first... Then... In the end...

160 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Comprehension

Comprehension | Story Elements

Blackline Master available
COM-25 Sequencing Events www.tpri.org

Helps students understand that stories have a beginning, middle and end, and prepares them to retell
the story.
MATERIALS: Books, paper, pencils/markers

1 Model the strategy with the whole class

EXAMPLE:
before asking students to work independently
or with a partner. Page _____ Page _____
2 While reading, students write the main idea Main Idea: Main Idea:
on each page in the order presented.
3 Students then add the most important details Important Details: Important Details:
on the page about the main idea.
4 Sequencing notes can be used to write story
summaries or book reports.
Page _____ Page _____
Main Idea: Main Idea:

Important Details: Important Details:

Comprehension | Story Elements

Blackline Master available
COM-26 Story Wheel www.tpri.org

Students use a graphic organizer to focus on story elements while reading silently or aloud with a partner.
MATERIALS: Books, story wheels, large laminated wheel (optional), pencils/markers

1 Before students attempt this activity

independently, be sure they understand each of EXAMPLE:
the story elements: Author
Author: Who wrote the story?
Characters: Who or what is the story about? n C
io

ha

Setting: Where does the story take place?

lut

rac

Time: When does the story take place?

Reso

ters

Plot: What is the problem in the story?

Resolution: How is the problem solved?
2 Distribute story wheels to students and
explain that each section of the wheel focuses on
Set

a particular story element.

t
Plo

tin

3 While students read individually or in

g

pairs, they discuss and write answers in the

appropriate wheel section. Time
4 As a graphic teaching aid, use a large
laminated wheel and assign student groups a
section to complete as they’re reading.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 161
Comprehension

Comprehension | Story Elements

Blackline Master available
COM-27 Character Reflection www.tpri.org

Students analyze and describe a character from their reading.

MATERIALS: Previously read text, character reflection charts, pencils/markers

1 Create a character reflection chart and model 2 Provide charts for students to complete alone
how to complete it by discussing a character from or with a partner.
a previously read text. Encourage students to use
interesting and vivid language to describe characters, 3 Students use the charts to share information
focusing on distinct and important aspects. about characters in their books.

EXAMPLE:

Character Reflection Chart

Character _____________________________ Title ____________________________
What did the character look like? _ _________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Actions _________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Feelings About Self _______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Feelings About Others ____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

162 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Comprehension

Comprehension | Story Elements

Blackline Master available
COM-28 Polar Opposites Character Traits www.tpri.org

Students analyze traits of characters in the stories they read.

MATERIALS: Book, polar opposites chart, marker

1 Create a polar opposites chart.

EXAMPLE:
2 Before reading, tell students which character
you will discuss. Read a text aloud. Polar Opposites Chart
3 After reading, explain the polar opposites Character Name _ ____________________
chart and work with students to decide where the Book Title ___________________________
character fits on it.
Where do you think _ _________________
4 A plus sign (+) is placed on the line closest would fit for each of these traits?
to the character trait. For example, if a character
is more fearful than brave, a + is written closer Brave ___ ___ ___ ___ Fearful
to fearful. The reason for the answer is written Reason:________________________
below the trait. Model the activity often before
assigning it independently or to small groups. A Leader ___ ___ ___ ___ A Follower
Reason:________________________
Adventurous ___ ___ ___ ___ Cautious
Reason:________________________
Generous ___ ___ ___ ___ Greedy
Reason:________________________
Wise ___ ___ ___ ___ Foolish
Reason:________________________
Happy ___ ___ ___ ___ Sad
Reason:________________________

EXTENSION: Students fill out the polar opposites chart for two different characters and then compare
the traits of the two characters.

Comprehension | Story Elements

Blackline Master available
COM-29 Character Comparison www.tpri.org

Students use a Venn diagram to compare two characters.

MATERIALS: Book with at least two characters, Venn diagram, marker

1 After reading a text, create and model how to

use a Venn diagram. EXAMPLE:

2 Write a character’s name on each side of the Character Both Character

diagram and with the class, list ways in which the A Characters B
characters differ under their name.
3 In the intersecting portion of the diagram, list
what the two characters have in common.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 163
Comprehension

Comprehension | Story Elements

Blackline Master available
COM-30 Response Questioning www.tpri.org

Students discuss story elements using question cards to guide them.

MATERIALS: Books, response questioning cue cards, journals, pencils/markers

1 Create cue cards with questions about a text 3 After reading the text, students use their
(e.g., mood, setting, plot, etc.). cards to discuss it.
2 Divide students into small groups, designating 4 Ideas from the discussion can be presented to
one student as leader. Each group receives one the whole class or written in journals as a follow-
response questioning cue card and is responsible up activity.
for discussing that aspect of the text.

EXAMPLE: Response Questioning Cue Cards

Mood Setting Characters

1. How did you feel while reading 1. Where does the story take 1. Who are the main characters?
the story? place? 2. Choose one character. Why is
2. What was the: 2. Tell me what the place was like. this character important in the
• Funniest part? 3. Have you ever been to a place story?
• Saddest part? like that? 3. Do any of the characters
• Most exciting part? change during the story?
4. Did the story take place a long
3. Describe how the main time ago, right now or in the
character felt in the story. future?

Plot Connections Visualizing

1. Tell the main things that hap- 1. What connections did you make 1. When you picture the charac-
pened in the story. with the conflict or problem in ters, what do they look like?
2. Can you think of another way the story? 2. When you picture the setting,
the story might have ended? 2. What connections did you make what is it like?
3. What do you think was the best with the characters in the story? 3. When you picture the action in
part of the story? Why? 3. What connections did you make the story, what do you see?
with the setting in the story?

Taking a Stand
1. What do you think is the point
of the story?
2. How would you change the
characters or setting?
3. Would you like the author to
write a sequel? Where would
it start?
4. Which parts of the story did
you like most?

164 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Comprehension

Comprehension | Story Elements

Blackline Master available
COM-31 Simple Webbing www.tpri.org

Students use a graphic organizer to understand the most important ideas and underlying structure of
expository text. The process highlights how ideas are interrelated and facilitates information recall.
MATERIALS: Expository text, simple webs, pencils/markers

1 Provide text and simple webs to students.

EXAMPLE: Simple Web
2 Either independently or in pairs, students read
the text selection.
3 Students identify the main idea of the
selection and write it in the center of the web.
4 Students identify details about the main idea
and write them on a spoke of the web.
5 The web is complete when all details about
the main idea have been recorded.

EXTENSION: Content webs are used as tools to summarize expository text.

MATERIALS: Expository text, content webs, pencils/markers
1 Either independently or in pairs, students read
a text selection. EXAMPLE: Content Web
2 Students write the selection’s topic in the
center of the web.
3 While reading, students identify details about
the main idea from each paragraph and record
them in a circle connected to the topic.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 165
Comprehension

Comprehension | Story Elements

Blackline Master available
COM-32 Story Frame www.tpri.org

Graphically illustrating information helps students organize knowledge acquired from a story.
MATERIALS: Books, story frames, pencils

1 Provide each student with a text and story 2 After reading, students complete their story frame.
frame and model how to use it.
3 Lead a discussion of student responses.

EXAMPLE:
Story Frame

The story takes place _______________________________________

The problem in the story ____________________________________

The problem is solved when _________________________________

In the end _________________________________________________

EXTENSION: Story frames can be made more complex by requiring sequencing of all important information
in a text. Students can write a summary report about the text using the story frame as a guide.

166 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Comprehension

Comprehension | Story Elements

Blackline Master available
COM-33 Story Pyramid www.tpri.org

Students describe story elements using a pyramid that requires increasingly long answers.
MATERIALS: Books, story pyramids, pencils

1 Create a story pyramid and model how to use 2 Working independently or in pairs, students
it with a text familiar to the entire class. Students practice using a story pyramid with another
follow the steps by selecting words from the familiar text.
text that describe the main character, setting,
problem and events. 3 Once they understand how to use a story
pyramid, students can complete them regularly
for texts read independently.

EXAMPLE:

Story Pyramid
1. __________________________
Main character’s name.
2. _______________ __________________
Describe the main character in two words.

3. _______________ _______________ ______________

Describe the setting in three words.
4. ____________ ____________ _____________ ________________
Describe the main problem in four words.
5. _____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ______________
Describe one event in five words.
6. ____________ ___________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________
Describe a second event in six words.
7. ____________ _____________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ____________ _____________
Describe a third event in seven words.
8. __________ ___________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ____________ ______________
Describe how the problem was solved in eight words.

EXTENSION: Story pyramids can be created with fewer or more events, and with more lines for writing
about characters or setting.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 167
Comprehension

References
Alverman, D.E. (1991). The discussion web: A graphic aid for learning across the curriculum. The Reading
Teacher, 45, 92-99.

Anthony, H.M., & Raphael, T.E. (1989). Questioning strategies in content area reading. In J. Flood & D. Lapp
(Eds.), Instructional strategies for content area reading and learning. New York: Prentice Hall.

Babyak, A.E., Luze, G.J., & Kamps, D.M. (2000). The good student game: Behavior management for diverse
classrooms. Intervention in School and Clinic, 35(4), 216-223.

Billmeyer, R., & Barton, M.L. (1998). Teaching reading in the content areas: If not me, then who? (2nd ed.).
Aurora, CO: McREL.

Caines, J. (1991). Just Us Women. New York: Scholastic.

Carnine, D.W., & Kinder, D. (1985). Teaching low-performing students to apply generative and schema
strategies to narrative and expository material. Remedial and Special Education, 6(1), 20-30.

Cecil, N.L. (1995). The art of inquiry: Questioning strategies for K-6 classrooms. Winnipeg, Canada: Peguis.

Cudd, E.T., & Roberts, L.L. (1987). Using story frames to develop reading comprehension in a first grade
classroom. The Reading Teacher, 41(1), 75-79.

Flood, J.F., Jensen, J.M., Lapp, D., & Squire, J. (1991). Handbook of research on teaching the English language arts.
New York: Macmillan.

Fuchs, L.S., Benson, B., & Fuchs, D. (1992). Identifying a measure for monitoring student reading progress.
School Psychology Review, 21, 45-58.

Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L.S., Mathes, P.G., & Simmons, D.C. (1997). Peer-assisted learning strategies: Making classrooms
more responsive to academic diversity. The American Educational Research Journal, 34, 174-206.

Hoff, S. (1993). Danny and the Dinosaur. USA: New Harper Edition.

Klinger, J.K., & Vaughn, S. (1998). Using collaborative strategic reading. Teaching Exceptional Children, 30(6),
32-37.

Klinger, J.K., Vaughn, S., Dimino, J., Schumm, J.S., & Bryant, D. (2001). From clunk to click. Longmont, CO:
Sopris West.

Macon, J.M., Bewell D., & Vogt, M. (1991). Responding to literature. Newark, DE: International Reading
Association.

Mathes, P.G., & Fuchs, L.S. (1994). Peer tutoring in reading for students with mild disabilities: A best-
evidence synthesis. School Psychology Review, 23, 55-76.

Mathes, P.G., Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L.S., Henley, A.M., & Sanders, A. (1994). Increasing strategic reading practice
with Peabody classwide peer tutoring. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 9, 44-48.

National Reading Panel (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific
research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Bethesda, MD: National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health.

Short, K.G., Harste, J.C., & Burke, C.L. (1996). Creating classrooms for authors and inquirers (2nd ed.).
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

168 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Writing

Writing
Communicating ideas in written form.

Writing instruction is a key component of an effective elementary language

arts program. While a writing task is not included on the TPRI, writing is
Blackline Master available
closely related to the reading and language skills the TPRI assesses.
www.tpri.org
Reading and writing are interactive communication skills that build
on each other. Reading is a receptive process primarily focused on
the comprehension of written words. Writing is an expressive process Blackline Masters
that allows writers to use words to reflect, record and communicate www.tpri.org
thoughts and information. As students write more and learn to Some activities have associated
write more effectively and independently, their reading also tends to Blackline Masters available as PDF
improve. Becoming more confident and fluid at writing words helps files to download, print out and use
students build confidence and fluency in reading words. Integrated in your lessons. Go to www.tpri.org.
writing and reading instruction also helps students apply what they’ve
learned about reading to the writing process, and vice versa. For example:
••While students practice looking for the main idea in their reading,
they also can learn how to write their own topic sentences.
••Students can extend a reading comprehension practice, such as
story mapping, into writing a narrative summary or book report.
••After completing a writing lesson on using interesting language, students
can look in their reading for examples of rich and engaging language.
••After hearing a story in a listening station, students can complete a story
map or, for younger students, draw a picture of the main characters.
Research suggests that good writers don’t “just happen” — students must
be taught to write. Remember these key points about writing instruction:
••Students need to be taught both the mechanics of writing and the
authoring aspects of writing.
••Effective writing programs incorporate explicit instruction that
includes think-aloud modeling and teacher feedback. Time devoted
to assigned writing without direct teaching does not improve writing.
••A minimum of 30 minutes per day, four times a week, should be spent
on modeling and independent writing. Writing daily for a short amount
of time is better than a single long session once a week.
••Writing instruction can take place in content areas other than
reading and language arts. Social studies and science provide great
opportunities to teach writing.
••When teaching a new skill, consistently model the skill, offer
guided practice with your feedback and then provide students with
independent practice time.
••Writing skills should be taught in a systematic manner, beginning
with simple writing and working toward more complex writing.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 169
Writing

Guidelines for Instruction

To help students learn to effectively express themselves in writing, instruction and practice in the mechanics
of writing should be integrated with the instruction and practice of composition. Research shows that when
students are expected to learn mechanics only incidentally as part of the writing process, their learning often
is limited and their progress inadequate. The writing section of the Intervention Activities Guide is divided into
three sections that focus on both the mechanics of writing and written composition: Teaching Foundational
Writing Skills, Teaching the Writing Process and Developing Writing Assessment Tools.
Teaching Foundational Writing Skills
Activities provided in this section help students build writing skills like:
••Using correct punctuation, spelling and syntax.
••Using correct grammar within the context of sentences.
••Writing simple sentences.
••Writing detailed descriptive paragraphs.
••Adding details to sentences.
••Writing expository and narrative paragraphs,
including elements such as description, sequence,
comparison, cause and effect, and problem and solution.
Teaching the Writing Process
Students need to be taught how to use the writing process and shown how the process leads to writing
independently. The writing process:
••Allows for supported application and independent
practice of every skill along the writing continuum.
••Provides a strategy for organizing students’ thoughts
in written form, as well as an opportunity to apply the
writing skills being taught.
••Must be taught directly to students.
••Teaches students that a finished piece of writing involves
multiple steps and cannot be completed in one sitting.
Developing Writing Assessment Tools
As in all areas of the curriculum, effective assessment is essential for delivering high-quality, targeted
instruction. This section provides guidance in developing writing assessment practices and tools, and offers a
sample writing assessment rubric.

Teaching Foundational Writing Skills

The process starts with basic steps for teaching students how to write complete sentences, progresses to forming
more complex sentences and, finally, moves to paragraph and report writing.

The following activities are suggestions for sequentially building foundational skills in writing. As students
approach a more difficult stage of writing, they are introduced to graphic organizers to aid in planning. Use
a teach/model and guided practice/independent practice routine to ensure students fully understand a task
and can meet expectations.

170 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Writing

Writing | Foundational Skills

WRI-1 Writing a Sentence from a Picture

Students learn a rule for writing a sentence as they write about a picture.
MATERIALS: Pictures, paper, pencils

1 Begin by telling students a rule for writing 4 Model punctuation as you model how to write
a sentence: a sentence. When modeling, use think-aloud
A sentence names a who or what and tells strategies so students hear the thought process
what the who or what is doing or what is as you go through the steps of deciding which
happening. letters to capitalize and where the ending
punctuation goes.
2 Show students a picture and model how to
create a simple sentence about the picture. 5 Students work in pairs to write a sentence
about a picture. Provide multiple opportunities for
3 Write a sentence about the picture. By starting practice and frequent feedback.
with a picture, students can focus on the task
of writing. The pictures chosen should lend 6 Students write sentences alone for different
themselves to writing sentences following the rule. pictures.

Writing | Foundational Skills

WRI-2 Distinguishing Between Sentences and Non-Sentences

Students tell the difference between sentences and non-sentences.
MATERIALS: Pictures, chalkboard/chalk

1 Remind students of a rule for writing 4 Continue practicing using different pictures.
a sentence: Have students distinguish between sentences
A sentence names a who or what and tells and non-sentences while using the rule for a
what the who or what is doing or what is sentence to explain their choices.
happening.
5 Use other pictures and guide students’ writing
Discuss the difference between sentences and non- of sentences using the rule. As students dictate a
sentences, presenting several examples of each. sentence, write what is said on the board.
2 Show students a picture and write two sentences 6 Scaffold responses as needed by having
on the board to demonstrate a sentence and non- students identify the parts of the sentence.
sentence about the picture. For example, show a
picture of a bee chasing a duck and then write: EXAMPLE:
The duck ran from the bee. (sentence) Sentence and non-sentences for the picture
The duck and the bee (non-sentence) of the king:
3 Explain the differences between the sample The king is counting
sentence and non-sentence: his money.
The first sentence tells us about a duck and (sentence)
then tells us what the duck did. The king
The second sentence just tells us about a (non-sentence)
duck and a bee, but it doesn’t tell us what
they did. Counted his money
(non-sentence)

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 171
Writing

Writing | Foundational Skills

Blackline Master available
WRI-3 U
 sing a Self-Monitoring Checklist www.tpri.org

at the Sentence Level

Students use a checklist to monitor their own writing.
MATERIALS: Self-monitoring checklist, writing passage, paper, pencils

1 Create a checklist that includes only four

items and reflects skills previously taught. Items EXAMPLE:
on the checklist will change as students learn Do the sentences name a who or what?
new skills. Yes______ No______
2 Model use of the checklist on a passage of
writing that contains errors. Do the sentences tell what the who or what did
or what happened?
3 Have students practice using the checklist on Yes______ No______
their own writing with your feedback.
4 Students use the checklist to monitor their Do the sentences begin with a capital letter?
sentences. Yes______ No______

Do the sentences end with proper punctuation?

Yes______ No______

Writing | Foundational Skills

WRI-4 Distinguishing Between Complete and Incomplete Sentences

Students discriminate between complete sentences and incomplete sentences.
MATERIALS: Sentences with and without missing parts, pencils

1 Write sentences with and without missing 3 Give students sentences with missing parts to
parts, and model how to determine a complete or complete as practice.
incomplete sentence. The missing parts should
be the who or what or the part that tells what 4 Provide corrective feedback while students
happened to the who or what. For example: practice.
The dog was running away from his family. EXAMPLE:
(complete sentence)
1. The boy ______________________________.
Running away from his family
(incomplete sentence) 2. ___________________ ran after the red kite.
The dog from his family
(incomplete sentence) 3. ______________ watch for birds in the trees.
2 Have students complete the missing parts as 4. The big dog __________________________.
you write them on the board.
5. ______________________ grow in the fields.

172 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Writing

Writing | Foundational Skills

WRI-5 Connecting Sentence Writing to Reading

Students write sentences to sequence information from a story.
MATERIALS: Previously read stories for modeling and student practice, self-monitoring checklist, chart paper, pencils

1 Students orally retell a story previously read 5 Pairs share with the class, while you provide
to the class. feedback.
2 Model by writing down the story on chart 6 Students work alone to retell another story
paper, correcting as necessary. they’ve read.
3 Students reread a previously read story in pairs. 7 Provide students with a self-monitoring
checklist for editing and revising their work (see
4 Working in pairs, students practice retelling WRI-3, page 172, for a sample checklist).
and writing down the story sequence.

Writing | Foundational Skills

WRI-6 Adding Complexity to Sentences

Students combine simple sentences to make more complex compound sentences.
MATERIALS: Pairs of simple sentences, paper, pencils

1 Read students a pair of simple sentences. I am the tallest person in my class, but my
For example: sister is taller than me.
I am the tallest person in my class. (compound sentence)
(simple sentence) 3 Guide students through the process of
My sister is taller than me. combining sentences orally.
(simple sentence) 4 Provide students with simple sentences to
2 Model how to use the conjunctions and or practice combining into more complex sentences.
but to combine the simple sentences into a 5 Students combine sentences in a piece of their
compound sentence. own writing. Monitor and provide feedback.

Writing | Foundational Skills

WRI-7 More Methods for Creating Sentence Complexity

Students move an internal dependent clause or phrase that tells when to the beginning of a sentence.
MATERIALS: Teacher- and student-created sentences, pencils

1 Model how to use introductory dependent Before I brushed my teeth, I ate a bowl of cereal.
clauses. For example: (more complex sentence)
When I was seven years old, I visited my 3 Students find a sentence in their own writing
grandmother in Florida. and move a dependent clause to the beginning of
2 Students practice moving an internal the sentence.
dependent clause or phrase that tells when to the 4 Monitor and provide feedback.
beginning of a sentence:
I ate a bowl of cereal before I brushed my teeth.
(original sentence)

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 173
Writing

Writing | Foundational Skills

WRI-8 Writing a Paragraph from a Picture

Students use a picture’s main idea to write a paragraph.
MATERIALS: Pictures, self-monitoring checklist, chart paper/paper, pencils

1 Find pictures with an easily identifiable main 5 Provide guided practice by showing students
idea and supporting information, so students a new picture. Ask students to restate the
can concentrate on the process of writing a paragraph rule.
paragraph. Primary coloring books are a good
source for pictures. 6 As students identify the picture’s main idea,
write down their ideas for a topic sentence.
2 On chart paper, write a paragraph rule and Students should be able to identify the parts of
read it to students: a sentence within this topic sentence. Select the
A paragraph tells a main idea and tells more most effective main idea sentence, modifying it
about it using details. as needed to ensure it’s a high-quality example.
3 Model the rule by identifying the main idea of 7 As students state details about the picture,
a picture. Tell students the who or what and then write them on chart paper.
the most important thing about the who or what.
Write the main idea on chart paper. 8 Continue practicing with other pictures,
allowing students to work in pairs to write
4 Demonstrate how to write sentences, paragraphs together.
describing details that tell more about the picture
and only about the picture. Talk about each step 9 Provide students with a self-monitoring
as you model it, so students hear you think-aloud checklist for editing and revising their work.
as you work through the process. While modeling (see WRI-3, page 172, for a sample checklist)
how to write sentences, also model correct
capitalization and punctuation.

Writing | Foundational Skills

Blackline Master available
WRI-9 Writing a Summary Paragraph from a Simple Web www.tpri.org

Students write a paragraph using a web.

Materials: Simple web, previously read text or section of text, self-monitoring checklist, chart paper/paper, pencils

1 Use the same teaching process as the 7 Guide student practice by writing down
previous activity (WRI-8), starting with the their statements about the topic sentence and
paragraph rule: supporting details from the text.
A paragraph tells a main idea and tells more
about it using details. 8 Allow multiple opportunities for paragraph
writing practice in groups using webs.
2 Model how to write a paragraph from a simple
web completed during a student reading assignment. 9 Provide students with a self-monitoring
checklist for editing and revising their work.
3 Demonstrate how to write a topic sentence (see WRI-3, page 172, for a sample checklist)
from the web.
Example:
4 Model and write detailed sentences for other Supporting
detail
parts of the web. Talk about each step as you
model it, so students hear you think-aloud as
you work through the process. While modeling Supporting Supporting
Topic
how to write sentences, also model correct detail detail
capitalization and punctuation.
5 Provide students a copy of previously read Supporting
text, allowing them time to reread it. detail
6 Ask students to restate the paragraph rule.

174 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Writing

Writing | Foundational Skills

WRI-10 Writing a Narrative Summary or Book Report

Students write a summary of a book they’ve read.
MATERIALS: Narrative text, story maps, self-monitoring checklist, paper, pencils

1 Begin by giving students a rule for writing 6 Have students identify the main events (plot)
a summary: that happened in the story and then write a
A summary is comprised of several conclusion or ending.
sentences about one topic.
7 As you model writing the narrative summary,
(When writing a summary paragraph about a include a discussion of the mechanics of writing.
story, the summary paragraph consists of several Think-aloud about your decisions on writing
sentences about the story.) mechanics (e.g., punctuation, capitalization, etc.).
2 Refer to the Story Mapping activity (COM-24, 8 Provide guided practice by writing down
page 160) in the Comprehension section of this statements students provide as they follow
guide. Model the use of a story map for the specific another story map to write a summary. Have
purpose of writing a summary paragraph. Talk students concentrate on writing transitions that
about each step as you model, so students hear allow the summary to read smoothly.
you think-aloud as you work through the process.
9 Allow multiple opportunities for summary
3 Write about the main character or characters writing practice in groups using story maps.
in the story. Start by naming each character and
then add descriptors, sharing what’s unique or Later, students can use their own story maps
most important about each character. to write a narrative summary.
4 Move on to the setting, again modeling how to Provide students with a self-monitoring
use details to describe the story’s setting. checklist for editing and revising their work.
(see WRI-3, page 172, for a sample checklist)
5 Next, model how to select details to describe
the problem or theme of the story and express
the problem or theme in sentences.

Writing | Foundational Skills

WRI-11 Writing an Original Story from an Organizer

Students write a story in correct sequence using a story map, which serves as an organizer for the
planning phase of writing.
MATERIALS: Story map, paper, pencils

1 Students use a story map to think about a 3 Remind students the main events in the story
story before they write it. should make sense with its ending.
2 Students fill in each part of the map, thinking 4 Students use the map to compose their story.
about characters, setting and what will happen in
the story.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 175
Writing

Teaching the Writing Process

The writing process provides students with a routine to follow as they learn the foundational writing skills.

Following is an overview of the phases of the writing process and how instruction — consisting primarily of
think-alouds and modeling — should look in each phase. Combining think-aloud routines from the previous
foundational writing section with the writing process helps students become more accomplished writers.
The think-aloud routines from the foundational skills section can serve as minilessons during the writing
process activities.
When implementing writing process instruction, students need frequent opportunities (three to five sessions
per week) to write independently. Students should gradually extend the amount of time they spend writing
independently. For example, kindergarten and first grade students can start with 10-minute writing sessions
and build to 30-45-minute sessions. Older students may write independently from 45 minutes to an hour, or
longer in some cases. Sometimes, students will write on subjects entirely of their own choosing; other times,
they may write pieces using a particular prompt or assigned topic.

Writing | Process

WRI-12 Prewriting
The thinking and planning phase is a critical part of the writing process. Students brainstorm a list of
possible topics for writing.
MATERIALS: Writing notebooks/paper, chart paper, pencils/markers

1 Discuss with students where writers get ideas tell a shortened version of the event, so students
about what to write. Keep the ideas in a handy hear the story. Provide three to four examples of
spot, because you’ll want to use them to prompt topics you might want to write about.
students when they make a topics list. Some
responses to guide the class toward are: 3 Next, ask students to share orally things they
want to write about. Record their ideas on the
••Books chart paper along with your ideas. Post the list in
••Good things that happened to me the room to use as a reference.
••Good things that happened to other people
••Bad things that happened to me 4 After completing your whole group modeling,
••Bad things that happened to other people have students write down their own topics list,
••Vacations or places to visit either on paper or in a “writer’s notebook.” Allow
••Pets about 10 minutes for students to brainstorm
••Friends possible topics. Some students may choose to
••Family members copy ideas from the board to get them started.
••Holidays 5 Students should work quietly and independently
••Schools on their lists, while you circulate and help
••World events generate ideas for students who are stuck.
••Favorite things (e.g., color, food, clothes, etc.)
••Things they know a lot about (e.g., football, 6 Some students may have few topics on
Barbie™ dolls, animals, etc.) their list, others many. Encourage students to
try to fill at least one page with possible ideas.
2 Brainstorm on chart paper a list of things Remind students that not every idea has to be
you (the teacher) would want to write about. spectacular. Even a seemingly boring idea might
Be specific about the events. Instead of writing inspire a great writing topic another day.
friends on the topics list, name which friend and a
specific time you’re thinking about. For example: 7 Allow 5-7 minutes for students to share some
When Sarah and I stayed up all night. of the topics on their list. As students share,
let them add to their list when they think of
Think-aloud as you describe your topic ideas and additional topics while listening to other students.
why you find the topic interesting. It’s helpful to
(continued next page)

176 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Writing

Prewriting (continued)

8 Have students read their list silently to Purpose: Why am I writing this?
themselves. Ask them to select the one topic Audience: For whom am I writing?
they most want to write about and put a check by
that topic. Accessing knowledge: What do I know about
the subject?
9 Students now have their first writing topic and
can begin writing. During the prewriting phase, Have students keep their topics list in their
remind students to consider: writer’s notebook or folder, so they always have
ideas to write about. They should add to their
topics list regularly.

EXTENSION: Teach students to use the following organizational strategies for the prewriting phase.
When teaching prewriting, model the planning process by thinking-aloud and creating your own
graphic organizer with the class.
••Brainstorming ••Using appropriate graphic organizers (e.g.,
••Discussing web, story frame, plot line, Venn diagram)
••Listing key words and phrases • •Putting ideas in related groups or categories
••Listing events in chronological order ••Labeling groups of ideas

Writing | Process

WRI-13 Drafting: WALSAL Method

Students learn a drafting strategy.
MATERIALS: Writing notebooks/paper, chart paper, chalkboard/chalk, pencils/markers

1 During the drafting phase, students put their 4 Write WALSAL (Write A Line, Skip A Line) on
ideas for a topic into sentences and paragraphs the chalkboard. Ask students how using WALSAL
— they get their ideas “down on paper.” Begin can help them while they’re drafting.
by modeling how to move from choosing an idea
during the prewriting phase into the drafting 5 Demonstrate WALSAL on chart paper. Show
phase. As you model, be sure to think-aloud so students how to add a sentence or words in
students hear and see not only what you’re doing, the blank spaces. As you model the drafting
but also why you’re doing it. process, share your thinking. Purposely make
errors in spelling, punctuation, etc. as you model,
2 As you model and write on chart paper, indirectly allowing students to focus on content
demonstrate that you’re not focused on during drafting. In addition, if you’ve made errors,
handwriting and spelling during the drafting phase. you’ll have opportunities when it’s time to model
These will be addressed during the editing phase. the think-aloud process for editing.
3 Remind students that when they draft, they 6 Students begin writing using the WALSAL
might want to add more text later. strategy.

EXTENSIONs: Drafting strategies should be taught one at a time. Additional lesson ideas for teaching
drafting are:
••Leave a blank space between words when you ••Use abbreviations or spelling approximations.
can’t think of the best word to use. Teach students to circle words they’re unsure
••Put parentheses around a word that might be of and continue writing.
changed later. ••Cross out words and sentences. Use a caret to
•• insert new words or sentences into the text.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 177
Writing

Writing | Process

WRI-14 Sharing Work Publicly: Author’s Chair

Students share their work with the class, learn how to respond to another student’s writing and discuss
ideas for improving it.
MATERIALS: Chart with prompts, writing notebooks

1 Begin by discussing the purposes and 4 Provide written examples of both positive and
procedures for sharing work with other authors. suggestion prompts for feedback. Teach only
Have a single student share with the class. (Later, one or two prompts at a time. Don’t introduce
after ample opportunities to share and provide new prompts until students are consistently and
feedback in a whole group setting, students can effectively using the prompts you’ve introduced.
meet in pairs or small groups to share writing.)
5 After a student has shared their writing, ask
2 Tell the class that each student will share their classmates to give two positive comments about
writing with the class at some point, but only a the writing. Use modeling and feedback to help
few students will share each day. students learn to be specific in their responses.
3 Explain to the class: 6 When students can provide consistently
While you’re listening to the student read, specific and clear positive comments, model how
think about: to offer suggestions for improvement.
What is interesting?
What is important?
What is your favorite part?
Did you hear an interesting word or a word
you don’t know?
Were you confused about anything while
you were listening?

Example:
Positive Comment Prompts Suggestions for Improvement Prompts
My favorite part was ___________. What happened after ___________?
I like the part where ___________. I’d like to know more about ___________.
I liked the word ______ in your story, Why did ___________ happen?
because ___________.
The part that confused me was ___________.
I like the way you describe ___________.

178 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Writing

Writing | Process
Blackline Master available
WRI-15 Revising www.tpri.org

Students return to their previous writing to make it more clear, focused and interesting.
MATERIALS: Previously created student writing, revision checklist, pencils/markers

1 The first step in the revision process is I should say some more about this.
selecting a writing piece for revision. Not all I’ll add more details to describe this.
student writing needs to be revised. Pieces
selected for revision should be chosen primarily This part seems confusing. I might need to
for two reasons: change the order or add some information.
••The piece will be published and/or 4 Develop a system for approaching revision
performed. For example, the piece might and stay consistent. Showing students a
be displayed on the wall, turned in for a system helps them learn to rework and perfect
published writing grade, read during a class their writing. Elicit and discuss suggestions
celebration or author’s day, or published in a from students for further revisions and make
class anthology. additional changes if appropriate. Revision is
••The piece is especially important to the ongoing and may occur multiple times with one
student or is a clear example of their piece of writing. It’s not necessary for students to
strongest work. rewrite the text completely after each revision.
2 Not all revised pieces need to be followed 5 Ideas for revision may come from sharing with
through to final revision and publishing. Some others and receiving their feedback. For grades 3
may simply undergo an initial revision to create a and up, more sophisticated questions dealing with
second draft. sentences, paragraphs and words can be asked.

3 Revising can be a difficult process, particularly 6 Sometimes, using a revision checklist is helpful.
for younger students. For kindergarteners and Work with students to create the checklist
below, only very limited revision work is productive. based on skills and concepts previously taught,
For all students, learning to revise successfully modeled and practiced with students. Checklist
requires repeated teacher modeling, teacher and items will change as different skills or concepts
peer conferencing, and practice. Think-aloud are taught and mastered.
comments for you to model while revising include:
I need a better word here.
This is good. I’ll keep it as it is.

EXAMPLE:
Model revising sentences by asking: Model revising paragraphs by asking:
Can I combine sentences that are too short? Does each sentence belong in my paragraph?
Have I broken sentences that are too long Does each sentence connect smoothly with
into two shorter sentences? the next?
Have I varied the beginnings of the sentences? Does each sentence say something about
the main idea of the paragraph?
Model revising words by asking:
Have I repeated any words too many times? Demonstrate revising shortcuts by:
Is there a stronger word I could use to ••Using arrows to move words or sentences.
describe something? ••Using numbers or asterisks to indicate an
insertion.
••Crossing out unnecessary words and
sentences.

(continued next page)

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 179
Writing

Revising (continued)

Sample Revision Checklist

A revision checklist should be developed in conjunction with students to increase their sense of
ownership and understanding of what it includes. Items on the revision checklist will change as
student ability and knowledge shift over time.

Revising for meaning:

Read the piece of writing to yourself.
Did you remember? Fix OK Teacher Comments
Beginning catches the reader’s interest
Middle part is sequenced
Clear ideas
Easy to follow (uses transition words)
Ending makes sense
Details so the reader really understands
Each sentence helps the reader understand

Writing | Process
Blackline Master available
WRI-16 Editing and Publishing www.tpri.org

Students finalize a writing piece by proofreading, using an editing checklist, correcting mechanical
errors and creating a published copy.
MATERIALS: Writing notebooks with drafts, editing checklist, correction pencils

1 Editing and publishing are the culminating errors. It’s not necessary to identify the author of
phases of the writing process. Final editing occurs the sentence.
only after sufficient revision has taken place.
Proofreading marks can be taught and used as 4 Students edit papers in pairs initially. Remind
early as kindergarten. Using an editing checklist students to concentrate on one type of error at
appropriate to grade level can assist students in a time (e.g., capitalization) using their editing
becoming independent editors of their own and checklist. Provide corrective feedback and
one another’s work. assistance as needed.

2 Work with students to create an editing 5 Students continue to edit in pairs until they’re
checklist based on skills and concepts previously proficient and able to edit their own writing
taught, modeled and practiced. Checklist items independently.
will change as different skills and concepts are 6 Students can apply the writing process
taught and mastered. strategies in all areas of the language arts block.
3 Using the checklist, model proofreading skills For example, have students write sentences to
with a piece of your own writing that includes sequence information they’ve learned in a story.
errors from the drafting session. Correct your Then ask them to revise and edit their work.
writing by concentrating on one checklist item 7 For longer pieces of writing and with older
at a time. Another powerful way to teach editing students, ask students to start using their editing
is by asking several students’ permission to checklist during the revising phase.
demonstrate editing with sentences from their
writing. Select sentences that contain common (continued next page)

180 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Writing

Editing and Publishing (continued)

Sample Editing Checklist

Younger and less advanced readers and writers should work with shorter, simpler checklists. Older
and more advanced students are able to use longer checklists more effectively. The checklist should
be developed with students to increase their sense of ownership and understanding of what it
includes. Items on the editing checklist will change as student ability and knowledge shift over time.

Self-Editing:
Read the piece of writing to yourself.
Did you remember? Fix OK Teacher Comments
Complete sentences
Period at the end of telling sentences
Question mark at the end of asking sentences
Capital letters at the beginning of sentences
Capital letters for proper nouns
Capital I
Indent paragraphs
Spelling
Neatness

Developing Writing Assessment Tools

Writing assessment is a means of improving both instruction and student learning. The main purpose of any
assessment tool should govern its design, implementation and results.

The phrase “begin with the end in mind” applies to writing assessment. Before the instruction process starts,
it’s important to establish specific criteria or expectations for students’ writing. If you don’t know the writing
standard you want students to reach, it’s more difficult to help them progress. Developing an assessment or
writing rubric prior to teaching allows it to inform and guide your instruction.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 181
Writing

Writing | Assessment Tools

Blackline Master available
WRI-17 Assessing Writing www.tpri.org

Teachers in the same grade level create a writing rubric tool for consistency in student writing evaluation.
MATERIALS: Samples of student writing, chart paper, marker

1 To develop a scoring rubric for writing 3 After assessing students’ writing, compile
assessment, meet with your grade-level peers. the names of students who need instruction
As a group, review a collection of benchmark in specific areas on the rubric: Ideas and
writing samples of student work. Determine Organization, Grammar and Language,
your scoring criteria and categories. Performing Mechanics. Determine which concepts/skills
this task as a group creates more consistency should be taught to the entire class and which
in assessing student writing, and in analyzing should be part of small group instruction to
writing scores across the grade level. students with similar needs.
2 Once an assessment rubric is developed, it 4 Following instruction, students need ample
can be used over the course of the school year to opportunities to practice new skills while
assess specific student strengths and weaknesses, receiving assistance and corrective feedback.
and plan instruction accordingly. The assessment When students struggle with a particular skill,
should be utilized three to five times during the provide further instruction before the cycle is
school year to set instructional goals and track repeated with a new skill.
individual student progress toward mastery.

Example:

Writing Rubric

Area Assessed ✔
q 1 ✔
q 2 ✔
q 3
Addresses the Subject q Writer does not q Subject is addressed, but q Clear purpose and reason
Organization

of the Writing address the subject there is little elaboration for writing
Ideas and

Unity and Logical q Sentences often seem q Reader can follow the q Writing shows a logical
Organization unconnected; sequence, but the writer flow of ideas; good
transitions are poor or may jump around sequence and use of
non-existent transitions
Vocabulary q Limited vocabulary q Vocabulary is appropriate; q Rich use of words;
some strong word choices vocabulary shows
elaboration
Grammar and
Language

Sentence Completion q Mostly run-ons q Simple sentences with little q Variety in sentences;
and fragments variety compound sentences

Grammar Usage q Consistently incorrect q Partially correct; q Consistent, accurate use;

some errors very few errors

Capitalization Usage q Consistently incorrect q Partially correct; q Consistent, accurate use;

(beginning of sentences, some errors very few errors
proper nouns, etc.)
Mechanics

Punctuation Marks q Consistently incorrect q Partially correct; q Consistent, accurate use;

Usage some errors very few errors

Spelling q Consistently incorrect q Partially correct; some q Consistent, accurate use

(over 10% errors) errors (5-10% errors) (0-5% errors)

182 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Writing

References
Berninger, V., Abbott, R., Abbott, S., Graham, S., & Richards, T. (2002). Writing and reading: Connections
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Calkins, L. (1994). The art of teaching writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Carnine, D.W., Silbert, J., & Kame’enui, E.J. (1997). Direct instruction reading (3rd Ed.). Upper Saddle River,
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Graham, S., Berninger, V., Abbott, R., Abbott, S., & Whitaker, D. (1997). The role of mechanics in composing
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89, 170-182.

Graham, S., & Harris, K.R. (1989). Components analysis of cognitive strategy instruction: Effects on learning
disabled students’ compositions and self-efficacy. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(3), 353-361.

Isaacson, S.L. (1989). Role of secretary vs. author: Resolving the conflict in writing instruction. Learning
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Isaacson, S.L. (1999). Instructionally relevant writing assessment. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 14, 29-48.

Kame’enui, E.J., & Simmons, D.C. (1990). Designing instructional strategies: The prevention of academic
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Santi, K.L., Cronce, L.A., Vaughn, S., Mathes, P.G., & Foorman, B. (2002). Developing Writers. Austin, TX:
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Thompkins, G.E. (1993). Teaching writing: Balancing process and product. New York: Merrill.

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Writing

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190 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Glossary

Glossary

Affix Connected Text

One or more letters or sounds attached before or Text with a high percentage of words relating to
after a root or base word to modify its meaning; the the sound-symbol correspondence relationships
category includes prefixes and suffixes. being taught.
Alphabetic Principle Consonant Blend
Use of letters and letter combinations to represent Two or three consonants blended together at the
segments of speech. beginning or end of a word (e.g., branch, scratch,
fast, paint).
Alliteration
Ability to produce words that begin with the same Consonant Digraph
sound (e.g., busy bees buzz by). Two or more consecutive consonants representing
one sound; found in both the initial and final position
Antonyms in words (e.g., charm, show, sack, breath).
Words with opposite meanings.
Consonant Doubling
Automaticity Spelling rule stating that when a one-syllable
Fast, effortless word recognition and decoding. word with one vowel ends in a consonant, the final
consonant is doubled before adding a suffix beginning
Blending with a vowel (e.g., sit = sitting; stop = stopped).
Ability to blend word parts or individual sounds
(phonemes) into words (e.g., /c/ /art/ = cart; Contraction
/c/ /a/ /t/ = cat). Word formed by joining two words and replacing
some of the letters in the second word with an
Book and Print Awareness apostrophe (e.g., I will = I’ll).
Understanding the purpose of print and the basic
characteristics of books and other print materials. Decodable Text
Text in which approximately 70% to 80% of the
Chunk words have sound-symbol relationships previously
Recurring letter combination that students recognize taught. Used for students to apply decoding skills and
and treat as an intact unit when decoding a word form a bridge between learning phonics and applying
(e.g., in-ter-est-ing, con-test). phonics in independent reading.
Closed Syllable Developed Score on the TPRI Inventory
Single vowel followed by one or more consonants. The Indicates a student understands that particular reading
vowel usually has a short sound because it is closed in or spelling concept as assessed on the TPRI Inventory.
by the consonant (e.g., sat, ran, pen-cil, ab-sent).
Developed Score on the TPRI Screening Section
Compound Word Indicates students are not likely to have difficulties
New word formed by combining two separate words; learning to read if they receive quality instruction.
the new word has a new meaning (e.g., butter + fly = Scoring Developed on the Screening Section does not
butterfly; mail + box = mailbox). mean students already read well. Scoring Developed
Comprehension on the Screening Section simply suggests that students
Constructing meaning from hearing or reading text. are likely to be receptive to effective reading instruction
The purpose for reading. and should progress well if they are taught well.

© 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency 191
Glossary

Differentiated Instruction Inflectional Ending

Learning experiences designed specifically for Suffixes added to a word to change its form, but not its
individual students, tailored to their needs and abilities. basic meaning (e.g., adding –ed, –ing, –ly or comparatives
–er, –est).
Digraph
Two or more consecutive letters representing one Instructional Intervention
sound (e.g., charm, shin, rain; also see “consonant Instruction provided to select students in addition to the
digraph” and “vowel digraph”). regular instruction received by all students.
Diphthong l-controlled
Vowel sound formed when two vowel sounds slide Refers to the vowel immediately preceding or following
together to make one sound (e.g., /oy/ as in toy; the consonant l, such that the pronunciation of the
/ow/ as in cow). vowel is affected or even dominated by the l (e.g.,
ball, pebble).
Elision
Deleting (eliding) sounds and repeating the Letter-Name Identification
remaining sounds (e.g., stop without the /s/ = top; Ability to recognize and name the letters of the alphabet.
past without the /t/ = pass).
Letter-Sound Correspondence
Final Stable Syllable Ability to identify the letters of the alphabet and
Usually found at the end of a word and taught by understand their sound-symbol relationships.
sight (e.g., –ple, –ble, -tion, -age).
Letter to Sound Linking
Fluency Ability to identify the letters of the alphabet and link
Reading text with speed, accuracy and proper them to the sounds they make.
expression; not hurried reading.
Listening Comprehension
Genre Understanding what has been heard.
Literary category, such as fiction or nonfiction.
Long Vowel Sound
Graphophonemic Knowledge Pronunciation of one or more letters in a word
Recognition of the letters in the alphabet and the where the sound matches the name of a vowel. Long
understanding of sound-symbol relationships and vowel sounds may be represented in print in several
spelling patterns. different ways (e.g., he, seed, lead).
Heterogeneous Group Metacognitive
Comprised of students with varying skills and/or Thinking about one’s own thinking.
ability levels.
Morpheme
High-Frequency Word Smallest meaningful unit of language. Prefixes and
Occur frequently in print and have unpredictable suffixes are examples of morphemes.
sound-spelling patterns (e.g., of, said). Also referred
to as “sight words,” because they are read as visual Morphology
wholes rather than by letter-sound correspondences. Study and description of word formation.

Homogenous Group Multisyllable/Multisyllabic Word

Comprised of students with similar skills and/or ability Words with more than one syllable.
levels.
Onset-Rime
Homograph Ability to blend a consonant and a rime into a word
Words spelled alike, but that are pronounced differently (e.g., r-ace, pl-ay).
with different meanings (e.g., tear the paper; shed a tear).
Open Syllable
Homonym Ends in a vowel; the vowel sound is usually long
Words that sound the same, but have different (e.g., she, ve-to, re-cent).
meanings and may be spelled differently (e.g., bare, bear).
Orthographic Pattern
Homophone Spelling pattern.
See “homonym.”

192 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Glossary

Orthography Reliable
Standardized spelling according to established In terms of assessment/evaluation/testing, reliable
language usage. refers to consistency of results for a particular
assessment instrument.
Parsing of Multisyllable/Multisyllabic Words
Combination of strategies used by students to Rhyming
decode words with more than one syllable. Ability to produce words that end with the same
sounds (e.g., hill, bill; sat, rat).
Phoneme
A unit of sound. Rime
A vowel and any following consonants of a syllable
Phoneme Blending (e.g., c – at, f – it).
Ability to blend sounds (phonemes) into words
(e.g., /s/ /a/ /t/ = sat; /ch/ /ar/ /m/ = charm). Sentence Segmentation
Ability to identify words in a sentence.
Phoneme Comparison
Ability to compare differences between beginning, Sight Word
ending and middle sounds in words. Words taught to be read as a whole instead of
sounded out. They are usually phonetically irregular
Phoneme Elision and are sometimes referred to as “high-frequency
Ability to delete (elide) sounds from words and blend words,” which don’t need to be sounded out to be
the remaining sounds together (e.g., stop without the recognized quickly.
/s/ = top; past without the /t/ = pass).
Small Group
Phoneme Segmentation During small group instruction, six or fewer students
Ability to break words into their sounds (e.g., How receive instruction targeting a particular skill,
many sounds are in cat? three; What are the sounds concept or topic. Students in small groups are usually
you hear in cat? /c/ /a/ /t/). selected based on having similar levels and/or similar
instructional needs.
Phonemic Awareness
Ability to identify or manipulate the individual sounds Sound Substitution
(phonemes) in words. Ability to replace a sound or blend in the initial, final
or middle position of a word.
Phonics Instruction
Teaches students how to use letter-sound Spelling
relationships to read or spell words. Forming words with letters in an accepted order;
writing words accurately.
Phonology
The science, history and theory of speech sounds, Still Developing Score on the TPRI
including especially the history and theory of sound Indicates a student has not developed the reading
changes in a single language or in two or more concepts being assessed on the Screening Section or
related languages. within a particular Inventory task.
Prefix Structural Analysis
One or more letters or sounds preceding a root or Teaching students to decode words by recognizing
base word that contribute to or modify the meaning prefixes, suffixes or inflectional endings on a base word.
of a word (e.g., rebuild, prepay).
Suffix
Prewriting One or more letters or sounds added to the end of a
The thinking and planning stage of writing. root or base word that often changes the word’s part of
speech and modifies its meaning (e.g., running, handful).
Prosody
Reading with expression, proper intonation and Syllable
phrasing; smooth and effortless reading. Smallest unit of sequential speech sounds, comprised
of at least a vowel sound or a vowel-sound combination.
r-controlled
Refers to the vowel immediately preceding the consonant Syllable Awareness
r in a word, such that its pronunciation is affected or Ability to determine the number of syllables in a word.
even dominated by the r (e.g., farm, burn, fern, sir).

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Glossary

Syllable Boundary Vowel Digraph

Boundary or division between two adjacent syllables. Two or more consecutive vowels representing one
sound (e.g., rain, bread).
Syllable Elision
Ability to delete (elide) syllables from words and say Vowel Diphthong
the remaining syllables or word (e.g., Say ba-na-na Two consecutive vowels whose sounds slide together
without the /ba/ = nana). to make one sound (e.g., boil, crowd).
Syllable Segmentation Vowel Team
Ability to separate syllables in a word (e.g., clap for Vowel spelling using two or more letters for a single
each syllable in bicycle = bi-cy-cle). speech sound (e.g., rain, bread, boil, crowd).
Synonym Whole Group
Words with identical or very similar meanings. During whole group instruction, all students learn
new concepts or review concepts. As a rule of thumb,
Syntax skills not already mastered by roughly two-thirds of
Rule system governing sentence formation; the study the class are taught during whole group instruction.
of sentence structure.
Word Study
Systematic Instruction Teaching students to apply phonics and structural
Instruction that is structured, consistent and ordered analysis to improve word recognition and spelling skills;
according to the nature of the program/system used teaching basic sight words and high-frequency words.
or taught.
Writing
Vocabulary Communicating ideas in written form.
Understanding word meanings.
Vowel Consonant Silent e (CVCe) Pattern
Words containing a single vowel followed by a
consonant then the vowel e. The e at the end of the
syllable makes the vowel before it long or “makes it
say its name” (e.g., same, in-vite).

194 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency
 Acknowledgments
Special thanks to the following individuals who contributed to either prior versions of the
TPRI Intervention Activities Guide or the revision and editing of the current edition.
Barbara R. Foorman, Ph.D.
Kristi L. Santi, Ph.D.
Dennis J. Ciancio, Ph.D.
Keith A. Millner, M.A., M.Ed.
Marguerite Held
Victoria Moss
Jamie Snyder, Ed.S.
Melissa McGee, Ph.D.
Sharon Kalinowski, M.Ed.
Diane Clark
Susan Ciancio, M.A.

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196 © 2010 The University of Texas System and Texas Education Agency