Vocabulary building
Affixes and roots
Adding affixes to existing words (the base or root) to form new words is common in academic English. Prefixes are added to the front
of the base (like dislike), whereas suffixes are added to the end of the base (active activate). Prefixes usually do not change
the class of the base word, but suffixes usually do change the class of the word.
The most common prefixes used to form new verbs in academic English are: re-, dis-, over-, un-, mis-, out-. The most common suffixes
are: -ise, -en, -ate, -(i)fy. By far the most common affix in academic English is -ise.
Verbs
e.g. prefix + verb verb
Prefix Meaning Examples
re- again or back restructure, revisit, reappear, rebuild, refinance
dis- reverses the meaning of the verb disappear, disallow, disarm, disconnect, discontinue
over- too much overbook, oversleep, overwork
un- reverses the meaning of the verb unbend, uncouple, unfasten
mis- badly or wrongly mislead, misinform, misidentify
out- more or better than others outperform, outbid
be- make or cause befriend, belittle
co- together co-exist, co-operate, co-own
de- do the opposite of devalue, deselect
fore- earlier, before foreclose, foresee
inter- between interact, intermix, interface
pre- before pre-expose, prejudge, pretest
sub- under/below subcontract, subdivide
trans- across, over transform, transcribe, transplant
under- not enough underfund, undersell, undervalue, underdevelop
e.g. Suffix used to form verbs with the meaning "cause to be".
Suffix Example
-ise stabilise, characterise, symbolise, visualise, specialise
-ate differentiate, liquidate, pollinate, duplicate, fabricate
-fy classify, exemplify, simplify, justify
-en awaken, fasten, shorten, moisten
Nouns over and
sur- surtax
above
The most common prefixes used to form new nouns in
academic English are: co- and sub-. The most common tele- distant telecommunications,
suffixes are: -tion, -ity, -er, -ness, -ism, -ment, -ant, -ship,
-age, -ery. By far the most common noun affix in academic tri- three tripartism
English is -tion.
ultra- beyond ultrasound
e.g. prefix + noun noun
below, too underpayment, under-development,
Prefix Meaning Examples under-
little undergraduate
anti- against anticlimax, antidote, antithesis vice- deputy vice-president
auto- self autobiography, automobile
bilingualism, biculturalism, bi- e.g. Suffix added to a verb (V), noun (N) or adjective (A)
bi- two
metalism noun
co-founder, co-owner, co-
co- joint Suffix Meaning Examples
descendant
counter-argument, counter-example, -tion action/instance of alteration, demonstration
counter- against -sion V-ing expansion, inclusion, admission
counter-proposal
the converse person who V-s
dis- discomfort, dislike advertiser, driver
of -er something used
computer, silencer
for V-ing
ex- former ex-chairman, ex-hunter
action/instance of development, punishment,
-ment
hyper- extreme hyperinflation, hypersurface V-ing unemployment
the converse inattention, incoherence, -ant assistant, consultant
in- person who V-s
of incompatibility -ent student
in- inside inpatient, -age action/result of V breakage, wastage, package
interaction, inter-change, -al action/result of V denial, proposal, refusal, dismissal
inter- between
interference
preference, dependence,
kilo- thousand kilobyte -ence interference
action/result of V
-ance attendance, acceptance,
malfunction, maltreatment, endurance
mal- bad
malnutrition
action/instance of
bribery, robbery, misery
mega- million megabyte -ery/-ry V-ing
refinery, bakery
place of V-ing
misconduct, misdeed,
mis- wrong
mismanagement
Suffix Meaning Examples
mini- small mini-publication, mini-theory
person concerned with
monosyllable, monograph, -er astronomer, geographer
mono- one N
monogamy
Marxism, Maoism,
neo- new neo-colonialism, neo-impressionism -ism doctrine of N
Thatcherism
out- separate outbuilding, friendship, citizenship,
-ship state of being N
leadership
poly- many polysyllable
-age collection of N baggage, plumage
pseudo- false pseudo-expert
re-organisation, re-assessment, re-
re- again Suffix Meaning Examples
examination
semi- half semicircle, semi-darkness state or quality of ability, similarity, responsibility,
-ity
being A curiosity
sub- below subset, subdivision
state or quality of darkness, preparedness,
-ness
more than, superset, superimposition, being A consciousness
super-
above superpowers
state or quality of
-cy urgency, efficiency, frequency
being A
Adjectives
Many adjectives are formed from a base of a different class with a suffix (e.g. -less, -ous). Adjectives can also be formed from other
adjectives, especially by the negative prefixes (un-, in- and non-).
The most common suffixes are -al, -ent, -ive, -ous, -ful, -less.
e.g. Suffix added to verbs or nouns adjective
Suffix Example
-al central, political, national, optional, professional
-ent different, dependent, excellent
-ive attractive, effective, imaginative, repetitive
-ous continuous, dangerous, famous
-ful beautiful, peaceful, careful
-less endless, homeless, careless, thoughtless
-able drinkable, countable, avoidable,
e.g. negative + adjective adjective
Prefix Examples
un- unfortunate, uncomfortable, unjust
im-/in-/ir-/il- immature, impatient, improbable, inconvenient, irreplaceable, illegal
non- non-fiction, non-political, non-neutral
dis- disloyal, dissimilar, dishonest
Mixed
e.g. base with both prefix and suffix
Adjectives: uncomfortable, unavoidable, unimaginative, inactive, semi-circular
Nouns: disappointment, misinformation, reformulation
Word formation
Formal written English uses nouns more than verbs. For example, judgement rather than judge, development rather than develop,
admiration rather than admire.
There appeared to be evidence of differential treatment of children.
This is reflected in our admiration for people who have made something of their lives, sometimes against great odds, and in our
somewhat disappointed judgment of those who merely drift through life.
All airfields in the country would be nationalised, and the government would continue with the development of new aircraft as
recommended by the Brabazon Committee.
Associated with nominalisation is the occurrence of prepositional phrases, introduced by of:
judgment of those
treatment of children
development of new aircraft
-tion is the most common suffix used in this way. For example: alteration, resignation.
However others are: -ity ability, similarity, complexity; -ness blindness, darkness, preparedness; -ment development, encouragement;
-ship friendship; -age mileage; -ery robbery, bribery; -al arrival; -ance assistance, resemblance.
