ATOC 4880/5880

Mesoscale Meteorology

The Boundary Layer

Spring 2023
SEEC Bldg., Room N129
Tuesdays and Thursdays 11:30 am –12:45 pm

Dr. David Kingsmill

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer
 Boundary Layer Structure and Evolution
The Boundary Layer :
"that part of the troposphere that is directly influenced by the
presence of the earth's surface and responds to surface forcings
with a time scale of about an hour or less."
Typical depth: 100 – 3000 m
Boundary layer/troposphere: ~10%.

Boundary Layer forcing mechanisms – what physical processes

modify boundary layer air parcels?
Wallace and Hobbs (2006)
1. Heat transfer to/from the
ground
2. Frictional drag
3. Evaporation/transpiration
4. Terrain-induced flow
modification
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer
 Boundary Layer Structure and Evolution

• There are sub layers within the boundary layer

Surface layer, mixed layer, entrainment zone, stable
boundary layer, residual layer, capping inversion
• These sub layers exhibit considerable diurnal variation

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer

 Boundary Layer Structure and Evolution
Let’s start during the daytime:

• At low levels, a surface layer (0-100 m typically) exists

– Have strong gradients of temperature, moisture, and winds
– Often superadiabatic
• Above the surface layer, there is a mixed layer where convective
thermals are mixing heat, moisture and momentum
– In the mixed layer, q, and rv are conserved (constant)
• The entrainment zone is a transition layer between the mixed layer
and the free atmosphere – often exhibits a temperature inversion

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer

 Boundary Layer Structure and Evolution
Surface Layer
• The surface layer is in direct contact with the
earth's surface.
• The lowest few centimeters of air in the
surface layer is often called the microlayer,
or interfacial layer.
• The interfacial layer is at most, a few
centimeters deep.
• Within this layer, molecular transport of heat,
moisture, and momentum is much more
effective than turbulent transport.
• Above the interfacial layer, in the heart of the
surface layer, turbulent transport dominates.
• Gradients of temperature, moisture and
winds can be very large in the surface layer,
especially in the interfacial layer.
• The lapse rate within the surface layer tends
to be super-adiabatic.
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer
 Boundary Layer Structure and Evolution
Mixed Layer
• Heat, moisture and momentum are
uniformly mixed within the mixed
layer. This is accomplished by turbulence
within the mixed layer.
• Turbulence within the mixed layer is largely
convectively driven from two main sources:
1. heat transfer from the warm ground to the
interfacial layer via conduction and then
convective transport of this heat by
thermals up into the mixed layer.
2. radiative cooling from the top of the cloud
layer creating "upside down" thermals of
cool, sinking air.
• Wind shear can also generate mechanical
turbulence within the mixed layer
• The mixed layer begins to grow vertically
approximately 1/2 hour after sunrise. It
grows rapidly during the morning hours and
reaches a maximum depth in the afternoon ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer
 Boundary Layer Structure and Evolution
Entrainment Layer
• The entrainment layer (zone) is a stable layer above the mixed layer.
• It acts as a lid to rising thermals
• It is often an inversion layer, but not always.
• Waves can often be seen propagating on top of the mixed layer within and
above the entrainment zone.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer

 Boundary Layer Structure and Evolution
Definition of Flux
In discussions about the Flux is the transfer of a generic
boundary layer, fluxes of mass, quantity per unit area per unit time.
heat, moisture and momentum Stull (1988)
are usually of greatest concern.
Flux type Units
kgair
Mass
m2 s
J
Heat
m2 s
kgwater
Moisture
m2 s
kgair (m s−1 ) Kinematic Flux type Units
Momentum m
m2 s
Mass
s
These fluxes are often redefined in a m
Heat K
kinematic form by dividing by density s
kgwater m
(and specific heat for heat flux). The Moisture
kgair s
kinematic forms are more readily mm
applied to measurable parameters Momentum
s s
like wind speed and temperature.
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer
Boundary Layer Structure and Evolution
Turbulence in the Boundary Layer

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer

 Boundary Layer Structure and Evolution
Wallace and Hobbs (2006)
Turbulent fluxes are largely responsible
for the structure and evolution of the
boundary layer.
Turbulent fluxes are quantified by
decomposing parameters into mean
and perturbation components
(Reynolds averaging).
𝑢 = 𝑢ത + 𝑢′ , 𝑣 = 𝑣ҧ + 𝑣 ′ , 𝑤 = 𝑤
ഥ + 𝑤′ ,
𝜃 = 𝜃ҧ + 𝜃 ′ , 𝑟𝑣 = 𝑟ഥ𝑣 + 𝑟𝑣 ′

In quiescent conditions, the vertical

component of turbulent flux dominates.
Horizontal momentum flux ≡ 𝑢′ 𝑤 ′
≡ 𝑣 ′𝑤 ′
Heat flux ≡ 𝑤 ′𝜃′
Moisture flux ≡ 𝑤 ′ 𝑟𝑣′
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer
 Boundary Layer Structure and Evolution

Nocturnal Boundary Layer: Mean Profiles

• Approximately 1/2 hour before sunset,
the thermals in the convectively mixed
boundary layer have shut off as the
surface is cooling. Radiation cooling
at the surface creates a stable
boundary layer.
• Hence, above the stable boundary
layer, the residual layer is found, and
can be thought of as a left-over Turbulent Fluxes
convective mixed layer.
• The capping inversion is essentially
the entrainment zone from daytime
but without much exchange between
the residual layer and free
atmosphere.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer

Boundary Layer Structure and Evolution

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer

 Boundary Layer Convection

• Convection in the boundary layer occurs to transport

heat, moisture, and momentum from the surface to
the free atmosphere.
• Boundary layer convection often produces clouds,
but not always.
• There are two common scenarios:

1) Daytime solar heating 2) cold-air outbreaks, lake effect

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer

 Boundary Layer Convection
Convective Structures
• Horizontal Convective Rolls
(HCRs):
─ Adjacent counter-rotating
horizontal vortices
─ Usually oriented approximately
parallel to boundary layer flow Satellite Imagery
direction and/or shear direction
─ Often called “cloud streets”
Aerial Photograph

Houze (2014)

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer

 Boundary Layer Convection

Convective
Structures
• Horizontal
Convective
Rolls (HCRs):
─ Also
commonly
observed in
clear air
radar data

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer

 Boundary Layer Convection
Convective Structures
• Horizontal Convective Rolls (HCRs):
─ Typical aspect ratio (width/height) is 3:1 but can vary from 3:1 to 10:1

Figure adapted from Houze (2014)

Theory predicts a wavelength of 𝜆 = 2 2 𝑍𝑖

Typical updraft strengths are 1-3 ms-1, but can be larger

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer

 Boundary Layer Convection
Convective Structures

• Open-Cell Convection:
─ Descending motion at the core
─ Typical aspect ratios of 10:1
─ Hexagonal structure

• Closed-Cell Convection:
─ Ascending motion at the core
─ Typical aspect ratios of 30:1
─ Hexagonal structure

• Open and closed-cell convection form in environments

with weaker vertical wind shear than HCRs.
• Mechanisms for developing open- vs closed-cell
structures are not well understood.
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer
 Boundary Layer Convection
Open- and Closed-Cell Convective Structures

Houze (2014)

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer

 Boundary Layer Convection
HCRs vs Open/Closed-Cell Convection
It is generally accepted that HCRs form in environments with some
amount of convective instability (vertical heat flux at the surface) and
wind shear (in the boundary layer).
• The vertical heat flux generates the convectively driven
turbulence
• The wind shear organizes the convection into linear bands

There are two parameters that appear to be important for the

formation and subsequent evolution of HCRs. They are:
• The magnitude of the vertical heat flux from the surface
• The ratio of -zi / L where L is the Monin-Obukhov Length and zi
is the boundary layer depth
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer
 Boundary Layer Convection
HCRs vs Open/Closed-Cell Convection
Monin-Obukhov Length:
0.75
2 2
𝜃 𝑢 ′ 𝑤 ′ |0 + 𝑣 ′ 𝑤 ′ |0
𝐿=−
𝑘𝑔𝑤 ′ 𝜃 ′ |0
where:

𝑢′ 𝑤 ′ |0 and 𝑣 ′ 𝑤 ′ |0 are the turbulent momentum fluxes in the surface layer

𝑤 ′ 𝜃 ′ |0 is the turbulent heat flux in the surface layer
𝜃 is the mean potential temperature in the surface layer
𝑘 is the dimensionless von Karman constant (~0.4)
𝑔 is the gravitational constant

Physically, -L is proportional to the depth over which shear-induced

turbulence dominates over buoyancy-induced turbulence. It generally
varies from 1-200 m. L is only meaningful in daytime convectively driven
boundary layers, specifically within the surface layer. L < 0 (L > 0) for
unstable (stable) conditions. ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer
 Boundary Layer Convection
HCRs vs Open/Closed-Cell Convection

MID MORNING:
• Vertical heat flux is small
• Monin Obukhov Length is large
• Zi is small
• Therefore -Zi/L is small

MID DAY:
• Vertical heat flux is moderate
• Monin Obukhov Length is moderately large
• Zi is moderately large
• Therefore -Zi/L is moderate

MID AFTERNOON:
• Vertical heat flux is large
• Monin Obukhov Length is small
• Zi is large
• Therefore -Zi/L is large
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer
 Boundary Layer Convection
HCRs vs Open/Closed-Cell Convection

As surface heating strengthens during the mid morning hours,

HCRs are the first form of boundary layer convection that is
observed, and only when the vertical heat flux reaches a critical
value of 35-50 Wm-2. The value of -Zi/L increases during the
early-mid morning hours.
Weckwerth et al. (1999)

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer

 Boundary Layer Convection
HCRs vs Open/Closed-Cell Convection

Close to mid day, the HCRs lose their identity and evolve into
open-cellular convection. This occurs when the value of -Zi/L
exceeds a value of about 25.

Open-cellular or disorganized convection dominates for the

remainder of the afternoon as -Zi/L continues to become larger.
Weckwerth et al. (1999)

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer

 Nocturnal Low-Level Jet (LLJ)
• What is the nocturnal LLJ?

• Why is the nocturnal LLJ important?

1. Convective initiation often results at the intersection of the LLJ nose
and a synoptic/mesoscale boundary
➢ Often leads to the formation of large MCSs – explains the nocturnal
maximum of precipitation over the Plains States of the US.
2. Transports high equivalent potential temperature air northward

• How does it form and why at night????

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer
 Nocturnal Low-Level Jet (LLJ)

Wind force balance during mid afternoon

• Assumes lower pressure to the west – possibly

Geostrophic
due to lee trof/thermal low as higher terrain to
Wind
the west heats up during the day
Vg
• Vh is the actual horizontal surface wind
Vh Coriolis
As cooling at the ground commences Force
CF
• During the evening hours, the boundary layer
decouples as the surface cools PGF F
• While the winds at the ground weaken
significantly, within the developing inversion, Pressure Frictional
this is not true in the upper parts of the Gradient Force
Force
nocturnal boundary layer and residual layers.

• Therefore, friction is no longer important for the

flow in the upper boundary layer
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer
 Nocturnal Low-Level Jet (LLJ)
Vg
As cooling at the ground commences
Vh
• Therefore, friction is no longer important for the
flow in the upper boundary layer CF

• The flow that was in balance earlier in the day PGF

(PGF + CF + F = 0) is no longer in balance
since F = 0.

• Therefore, an inertial oscillation is generated

that modifies the ageostrophic flow to bring the
system into a new balance.

• The inertial oscillation is relative to the “new”

equilibrium state (i.e., geostrophic balance)

• This ageostrophic flow helps to create the LLJ.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer

 Nocturnal Low-Level Jet (LLJ)
Inertial Oscillation
The horizontal wind (𝐯𝐡 ) can be divided into geostrophic (𝐯𝒈 )
and ageostrophic (𝐯𝒂 ) parts: 𝐯𝐡 = 𝐯𝒈 + 𝐯𝒂
When friction is removed, 𝐯𝒂 does not just vanish. Rather, it
oscillates around 𝐯𝒈 . Why is this?
𝑓 = 2Ω sin 𝜙
Ω ≡ Earth s angular velocity (7.3x10−5 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠 −1 )
′

𝜙 ≡ Earth′ s latitude
Horizontal equations of motion:
𝑑𝑢 1 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑢𝑔 𝑑𝑢𝑎 1 𝜕𝑝
=− + 𝑓𝑣 → + =− + 𝑓(𝑣𝑔 + 𝑣𝑎 )
𝑑𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑣 1 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝑣𝑔 𝑑𝑣𝑎 1 𝜕𝑝
=− − 𝑓𝑢 → + =− − 𝑓(𝑢𝑔 + 𝑢𝑎 )
𝑑𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝐯𝐠 1 𝜕𝑝 1 𝜕𝑝
Assuming that = 0 , 𝑢𝑔 = − and 𝑣𝑔 = leads to:
𝑑𝑡 𝜌𝑓 𝜕𝑦 𝜌𝑓 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑢𝑎 𝑑𝑣𝑎
= 𝑓𝑣𝑎 and = −𝑓𝑢𝑎
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer
 Nocturnal Low-Level Jet (LLJ)
Inertial Oscillation
Solve for 𝑢𝑎 and 𝑣𝑎 by creating an ordinary differential equation:
𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑎 𝑑 2 𝑢𝑎 𝑑 𝑑𝑣𝑎 2
= 2
= 𝑓𝑣𝑎 = 𝑓 = 𝑓 −𝑓𝑢𝑎 = −𝑓 𝑢𝑎
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
If 𝑓 is assumed constant, then this equation has a solution of the
form 𝑢𝑎 = 𝐶1 cos 𝑓𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 𝑓𝑡 where 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are constants
1 𝑑𝑢𝑎 1 𝑑
Since 𝑣𝑎 =
𝑓 𝑑𝑡
→ 𝑣𝑎 =
𝑓 𝑑𝑡
(𝐶1 cos 𝑓𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 𝑓𝑡)

1
𝑣𝑎 = −𝐶1 𝑓 sin 𝑓𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑓 cos 𝑓𝑡 = −𝐶1 sin 𝑓𝑡 + 𝐶2 cos 𝑓𝑡
𝑓

At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑢𝑎 = 𝑢𝑎0 = 𝐶1 and 𝑣𝑎 = 𝑣𝑎0 = 𝐶2 , which leads to

𝑢𝑎 = 𝑢𝑎0 cos 𝑓𝑡 + 𝑣𝑎0 sin 𝑓𝑡 where the product (𝑓𝑡)

𝑣𝑎 = 𝑣𝑎0 cos 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑢𝑎0 sin 𝑓𝑡 is in units of radians

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer

 Nocturnal Low-Level Jet (LLJ)
As time continues, Va moves around the inertial circle. In the example
below, note that Va + Vg gives a supergeostrophic flow (Vh > Vg) that is
strong and southerly at ~6.2 hours (at 40°N) after the time the
boundary layer first decouples.

@40N
6.2 hours
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer
 Nocturnal Low-Level Jet (LLJ)

Inertial Oscillation

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer

 Nocturnal Low-Level Jet (LLJ)
Effect of sloping terrain
• Assume a geostrophic wind
directed toward the north.
• Over the Central Plains, the
terrain slopes upward as one
moves to the west.
• The sloping terrain creates
diurnally-dependent zonal
temperature gradients.
• This can help to enhance the
LLJ at night by producing a low-
level southerly thermal wind:

Thermal wind (𝑣𝑇 ): Vertical shear of geostrophic wind (𝑣𝑔 )

𝜕𝑣𝑔 𝑅 𝜕𝑇 The thermal wind flows parallel to
𝑣𝑇 = − =
𝜕𝑝 𝑓𝑝 𝜕𝑥 𝑝
isotherms, with colder air on the left
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: The Boundary Layer