ZILOG BASIC INTERPRETER USER'S MANUAL 78116 REVISION ASECTION IT: SECTION III: TABLE OF CONTENTS SECTION I: INTRODUCTION TO BASIC. . . 1.1 SPECIAL KEYS ...-..--- 1.2 PROMPT CHARACTERS . . 13 STARTING AND STOPPING A BASTC SESSION CORRECTING TYPOGRAPHICAL ERRORS . 4 BASIC COMMANDS AND STATEMENTS LISTING A PROGRAM 1.6 ao 1.7 USER'S WORK AREA. 1.8 . 1.9 RUNNING A PROGRAM . ried aed Q DELETING A PROGRAM 1 DOCUMENTING A PROGRAM EXPRESSIONS .. 2... - 2.1 CONSTANTS. 2.2... --- 2.1.1 Pir} NUMERIC CONSTANTS . . . LITERAL STRINGS . . . . 2.2 VARIABLES... 2... 2.3 PUNCTIONS...-.... 2.4 OPERATORS... 2... 2:5 EVALUATING EXPRESSIONS | STATEMENTS .. 2... ASSIGNMENT STATEMENT: LET . . END/STOP STATEMENTS . . . . LOOPING STATEMENTS: FOR. GOTO/ON, GOsUB. CONDITIONAL STATEMENT: INPUT STATEMENT . 2... -RETURN STATEMENTS . . NEXT «GOTO STATEMENTS . .°. IF... THEN 1.5.1 COMMANDS ... 1... eee 1.5.2 STATEMENTS . 2... eee eee 1.5.3 ERROR MESSAGES .. . 1.5.4 CHANGING OR DELETING A STATEMENT BASIC PROGRAMS . a3.8 PRINT STATEMENT 3.8.1 wwe bbe RES SYSTEM STATEMENT SECTION IV: COMMANDS ~ TAB FUNCTION READ/DATA/RESTORE STATEMENTS COMMENTS: REM STATEMENT AND RANDOMIZE STATEMENT . . . 4.1 PROGRAM EXECUTION COMMANDS 4.1.1 RIN... 4.1.2 xEQ.. - 4.1.3 4.1.4 QUIT .. 4.2. EDITING COMMANDS LIST . WEW. . DELETE . RENUMBER, SIZE. . CLEAR . . NNNNNN aie 4.3 DISK RELATED COMMANDS . - SAVE ASAVE RSAVE Ger. XEQ APPEND . OBTAINING CS Duane wie a be ba Uo ba ba ba SECTION V: A LIST oF DELETING FILES . RUN s RESUMING PROGRAM EXECUTION: CONTINUE, STEP, KEYBOARD EXECUTABLE STATEMENTS Gfioo0ddo 3-23 3-24 3-26 3-29 3-30 3-31SECTION 6.2 6.2 anaanana DUO SECTION Tel 7.2 Tes) SECTION. 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 VI: NUMERIC TYPES .....-. TYPE SPECIFICATION ..--. - NUMERIC CONSTANT FORMS . .. . 6.2.1 INTEGER FORM . . 6.2.2 ‘PLOATING POINT FORM | ¢ NUMERIC EXPRESSIONS .. . . . CONDITIONAL NUMERIC EXPRESSIONS NUMERIC ASSIGNMENT . 2... INPUTTING NUMERIC DATA 5 OUTPUTTING NUMERIC DATA NUMERIC FUNCTIONS . . . ABS . . AIN. . cos... EXP . INT. LOG . RND SGN SIN SOR TAN DAAAAAAAADD Brom uaueune BS Vite ARRAYS) eee DIM STATEMENTS .... 2. ee STORING DATA IN ARRAYS .. ~~ PRINTING DATA FROM ARRAYS . . VIII: STRINGS . 2... - ee LITERAL STRINGS .....- STRING VARIABLES . . DIM STATEMENT WITH STRINGS STRING EXPRESSIONS . ~~ t & on ap aa m Te oa we td FSeata ow an8.5 STRING-RELATED FUNCTIONS .......+.+..+ 8-11 8.5.1 CHR$ FUNCTION... -.. +--+ e+e + 8-11 ie eee) Goo gon obooGod kl pee eine) Goo g0cGG5 0000 tel 8.5.4 POS FUNCTION ... 2... +--+ eee + + 8-12 8.5.5 VAL FUNCTION ..----- +--+ + - 8-12 8.5.6 STR$ FUNCTION... .-- +--+ ++ + + 8-12 Geo sige CLEP TS PEUNCTIONS sce pe yee edo) 8.5.8 RIGHTS FUNCTION. -...... +--+. 8-13 8.5.9 SEGS FUNCTION... 2... +e eee 8-13 8.5.10 KEYS$ FUNCTION ...----.- ++. 8-14 8.6 COMPARING STRINGS -..-. +--+. --+-++-4 8-14 BS] STRINGEASSIGNMENT Cyt) fest oe tees 0-6) 8.8 STRING INPUT STATEMENT .-.-~.- +--+ +--+ 8-19 8.9 STRING LINPUT STATEMENT... .-.- +--+. 8-20 8.10 STRING PRINT STATEMENT ....... +--+ + 8-21 8.11 STRING READ/DATA/RESTORE STATEMENT . . . . . 8-22 SECTION IX: USER-DEFINED FUNCTIONS ..-----.- + 9-1 9.1 ONE-LINE FUNCTIONS ..-. eee ee ee ee 92 9.2 MULTI-LINE FUNCTIONS . . Sbogoga 9-4 9.3 - CALLING A USER-DEFINED FUNCTION | 122222 9-7 BECTION Sc) OCLESE ee 10-1 10.1 PILE TYPES AND ATTRIBUTES... ~~... +... 10-2 LO let ASCTI PTLES eee ere) eee 102) 10.1.2 BINARY FILES ...--- eee ee ee 10-2 10.1.3 FILE NAMES ..-.. eee ee eee 10-2 10.1.4 FILE ATTRIBUTES AND STRUCTURE... . . 10-2 10.2 OPENING PILES: FILE STATEMENT... ..... 10-4 10.3 CLOSING FILES: CLOSE STATEMENT ......-.- 10-8 10.4 DELETING FILES: ERASE STATEMENT... .... 10-9 L0e5| TRUNCATE, STATEMENTE CS) © oct cs); 2 es - 10-1) 10.6 SPACE STATEMENT... -.- +--+ + e+ ee + - 10-12 Me? petiecrnt oe 6 go mo 6 Coon doo Go ome 10.7.1 SEQUENTIAL FILE READ, INPUT AND LINPUT .. . soe ee es 10-14 10.7.2 SEQUENTIAL PILE PRINT AND WRITE | |] ] 10-16 10.7.3 FILE RESTORE STATEMENT ... ~~... . 10-17 10.714 RANDOM PILE READ, INPUT, AND LINPUT | | 10-18 10.7.5 RANDOM PILE PRINT AND WRITE... . . . 10-1910.8 PILE RELATED FUNCTIONS .........- . 10-21 10.8.1 EOF FUNCTION .... 2.2.2... 10-21 SECTION XI: FORMATTED OUTPUT. -....-. +++. Ll-L 11.1 PRINT USING STATEMENT... . +. +--+ + 11-2 ted | PORMAT GTRIWGd | freee eee lee SECTION XII: TRAPPING ee iad 12,1 TRAP STATEMENT 2 2. 1 eee ee ee ee ee 122 gebot REYSs ee ee eed U2se2 ESTs 2 2 5 2 eS ee. - 12-4 22-3 BBC. se ee tt tt te ww wt ~ (LSM ged CRB etree oe) te 12-5 T2215 SEOR 2) elete ce eis louse ec stems L2s5 12.1.6 ENVIRONMENTS AND TRAPS ... 2... + 12-5 12.2 TRAP RELATED FUNCTIONS .......+.-. 12-7 Dee ee leer 12.2.2 BSC... eee ee ee ee ee ee ee 127 12.2.3 KEYSS . . eee ee ee ee ee ee ee 1D 122204 ERR; - © 2 ee ee ee te ee - 6LORT SECTION XIII: SEGMENTATION... 1... eee ee ee 132 dee (CHATN STATEMEN De eee 1 ee 132 13.2 COM STATEMENT . 2. 1. 1 ee ee ee ee ee 19 SECTION XIV: COMMUNICATION WITH NON-BASIC PROGRAMS . . 14-1 Vek OVA wii Geo ooooogaopooo eitAPPENDIX APPENDIX APPENDIX APPENDIX APPENDIX APPENDIX APPENDIX APPENDIX APPENDIX APPENDIX ASCII CHARACTER SET SUMMARY OF ZILOG BASIC STATEMENTS SUMMARY OF ZILOG BASIC COMMANDS BUILT-IN FUNCTIONS ERROR MESSAGES BASIC, PLZ AND ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE LINKAGE EXAMPLE: ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE CALL-SYSTEM STATEMENT PROCESSORS EXAMPLE: A USER PROCEDURE CALL A PROCEDURE FOR PRINTING TO A PRINTER EXTERNAL INTERRUPT LINKAGESECTION I INTRODUCTION TO BASIC Zilog BASIC is a programming language designed for use at a keyboard terminal. It consists of statements for writing programs and commands for controlling program operation. There are two versions of Zilog BASIC. The difference between them is the math package. BINBASIC includes a binary math package with seven significant bits of precision. BASIC includes a BCD math package with 13 significant digits. Section 6.2.2 describes the two floating point representations. The examples shown in this user's manual will primarily reflect the BASIC BCD math package. The use of the word BASIC in this manual will refer to both BASIC and BINBASIC. This section describes how to begin and end a BASIC session, how to enter commands and statements and make corrections. A few simple programs are used for illustration. The actual programming language is described in following sections. This manual assumes that the user knows how to connect his terminal, and is familiar with his terminal’ keyboard. Special keys with particular functions in Zilog BASIC are described in this section.1.1 SPECIAL KEYS RETURN LINEFEED CTRL CTRL-# RUBOUT (DEL) ESCAPE (ESC) ” Must be pressed after every command and statement. It terminates the line and causes the cursor to return to the first print position. Causes insertion of a space in the text and moves. the cursor to the beginning of the next line. When pressed simultaneously with another. key, converts the key to a control character that is usually non-printing. Control-# is accomplished by pressing the Control and # keys simultaneously. Deletes the previous character in a line. The cursor, is moved back one position for each character deleted. (See RIO manual). Cancels the line currently being typed. Cancels the current line if typed during command or statement input; stops the currently executing program if typed during run mode. (May not work on a ZDS system-because there is no hardware __ Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART)) . Causes output to pause and continue if typed while terminal is outputting information. (May not work on a ZDS system because there is no hardware UART). 1-21,2 PROMPT CHARACTERS Zilog BASIC uses a set of prompting characters to signal to the user that certain input is expected or that certain actions are completed. > The prompt character for the Zilog BASIC _ Interpreter; a BASIC command or statement is expected. & The prompt character for the RIO Operating System; RIO commands such as CAT or BASIC are expected. 0 User input is expected during execution of an INPUT statement. 1-31.3 STARTING AND STOPPING A BASIC SESSION STARTING A SESSION Once the terminal is connected and ready, the user presses the carriage return. RIO responds with a Percent sign (%) at the beginning of the line. The user may now begin. (Note: T£ you are using a printer, it must be activated before entering BASIC. See Appendix I.) ENTERING BASIC The RIO Operating System signals it is ready for the next command by printing: To enter BASIC, type: BASIC signals that it has control by printing: followed by the prompt character: To enter BINBASIC, type: BINBASIC signals that it has control by printing: followed by the prompt character: SBASIC ZILOG BASIC version date BCD ARITHMETIC SBINBASIC ZILOG BASIC version date BINARY ARITHMETIC > BASIC commands and statements can now be entered. Each command or statement is prompted by the greater-than sign at the start of a new line. 14ENDING A BASIC SESSION When the user is through, he or she returns control to RIO with the QUIT command. To leave BASIC, type: >QuIT RIO signals that it has resumed control by printing: Ag 1-51.4 CORRECTING TYPOGRAPEICAL ERRORS Corrections can be made while the line is being entered if the error is noticed before RETURN is pressed. The control character CTRL-# can be used to correct a few characters just typed, or the character RUBOUT (DEL) can be used to cancel the line and start fresh. Suppose the user misspells the command, RUN >ROM CTRL-# will delete the last >RU (Note: CTRL-E was character pressed once) The user retypes the character correctly and finishes the line. when RETURN is pressed, the line is entered correctly. >RON If several characters have been typed after the error, CTRL-H must be typed for each character to be deleted. >10 PXINT >10 B (Note: CTRL-H was pressed 4 times) >10 PRINT In this case four characters were deleted. Another method is to use RUBOUT (DEL) to cancel the line, RUBOUT (DEL) must be typed before return is pressed. To cancel the line, type >10 PXINT RUBOUT (DEL). The user > (Note: RUBOUT (DEL) retypes the line was pressed) >10 PRINT1.5 BASIC COMMANDS AND STATEMENTS 1.5.1 Commands Zilog BASIC commands instruct the Zilog BASIC Interpreter to perform certain control functions. Commands differ from the statements used to write a program in the Zilog BASIC language. A command instructs the interpreter to perform some action immediately, while a statement is an instruction that normally performs an action only when a program is run. Similar to commands, some statements can be executed immediately. Any Zilog BASIC command can be entered following the BASIC prompt character ">". Each command is a single word. If misspelled, the computer will give an error message. Some commands have parameters to further define command operation. For instance, QUIT is a command that signals completion of a BASIC programming session and return to the operating system. It has no parameters. Another command, LIST, prints the program currently being entered. It may have parameters to specify that only part of the program is to be listed. -5.2 Statements Statements are used to write a Zilog BASIC program that will subsequently be executed. Hach statement performs a particular function. Every statement. entered becomes part of the current program and is kept until explicitly deleted or the user exits from BASIC with QUIT. A statement in a BASIC program is always preceded by a statement number. This number is an integer between 1 and 9999. The statement number indicates the order in which the statements will be executed. statements are ordered by BASIC from the lowest to the highest statement number, thus it is not necessary for the user to enter statements in execution order.Following each statement, RETURN must be pressed to inform the interpreter that the statement is complete. The interpreter generates a LINEFEED and. prints the prompt character ">" on the next line to signal that the statement is accepted. If the entered statement is in error, the computer prints an error message. Zilog BASIC statements have a free format. This means that blanks are ignored. For instance, all these >20 LET 87=25 statements are equivalent. >20LETB7=25 >20LETB7=+25 >20 LET B7 = 25 1.5.3 Error Messages If an error is made in a line and the line is entered with RETURN, the interpreter types a message. The message consists of the word ERR followed by a number indicating the nature of the error. See Appendix E for a list of the error and warning numbers and their meaning. 1.5.4 Changing or Deleting 2 Statement If an error is made before RETURN is pressed, the error can be corrected. with CTRL-H or the line may be cancelled with RUBOUT (DEL) (See section 1.4). After RETURN is pressed, the error can be corrected by deleting or changing the statement. To change a statement, simply type the statement number followed by the correct statement. To change this statement: >20 LET B7=25 retype it as: >20 LET B7=37 A change such as this can be made any time before the program is run. To delete a statement, type the statement number followed by return. Statement 20 is deleted: >20 The DELETE command, described in section 4.2.3, is useful to delete a group of statements. 1-81.6 BASIC PROGRAMS Any statement or group of statements that solves a problem constitutes a program. The process whereby the computer uses the program to solve the problem is called executing or running the program. A program can consist of only one statement. This is an example of a program with only one statement. 100 is the statement number. >100 PRINT "5 * 10 = ";5*10 PRINT is the key word or instruction that tells the interpreter the kind of action to perform. expression "5 + 10 that follows. evaluated by the interpreter. run, the result is printed. In this case, it prints the string *" and the result of the expression 5*10 is an arithmetic expression that is When the program is The statement 100 PRINT "S * 10 = ";5*10 is a complete program since it can run with no other statements and produce a result. one statement. These four statements >1o are a program: >20 >30 >40 This program, which calculates is shown in the order of its execution. Usually a program contains more than INPUT A,B LET C=A+B PRINT PRINT A;" +"; the sum of two numbers, It could be entered in any order if the statement numbers assigned to each statement were not changed. This program runs >20 exactly like the >1o program above. >30 >40 It is generally a good idea to increments of 10. This allows LET C=A+B INPUT A,B PRINT PRINT A;" +";B7" ="7C number statements in room to intersperse additional statements as needed. 1-91.7 USER'S WORK AREA When statements are typed at the terminal, they become part of the user's work area (the area in memory in which the user writes and runs programs). All state- ments in the user's work area constitute the current program. Any statement in the user's work area can be edited or corrected; the resulting statement will then replace the previous version in the user's work area. When the user exits from BASIC with the QUIT command, the work area is cleared. The program in the work area can be saved on the user's disk. See section 4.3 for complete details. 1-101.8 LISTING A PROGRAM At any time while a program is being entered, the LIST cémmand can be used to produce a listing of the statements that have been accepted by the computer. LIST causes the computer to print a listing of the current program at the terminal. After deleting or changing a line, LIST can be used to check that the deletion or correction has been made. >10 INPUT A,B >20 LET C=A+G A correction is made >20 LET C=A+B while entering a >30 PRINT program: >40 PRINT A;" +"7B;" >LIST 10 INPUT A,B To check the 20 LET C=A+B correction, list 30 PRINT the program: 40 PRINT A;" +";B;" > Note that the greater-than sign prompt character is not printed in the listing, but is printed when the list is complete to signal that BASIC is ready for the next command or statement. Should the statements have been entered out of order, the LIST command will cause them to be printed in ascending order by statement number. , >40 PRINT Az" +";B;" =";7C For instance, the >20 LET C= program is entered >30 PRINT in this order: >10 INPUT A,B >LIST The list is in correct 10 INPUT A,B numeric statement order 20 LET C=A+B for execution: 30 PRINT 40 PRINT A;" +! > 1-111.9 RUNNING A PROGRAM After the program is entered and, if desired, checked with LIST, it can be executed with the RUN command. RUN will be illustrated with two sample programs. The first program has one line >100 PRINT "5 * 10 =";5*10 When run, the result of = >RUN the expression 5*10 is 5 * 10 50 printed: READY > Because the program contains a PRINT statement, the result is printed when the program is run. The second sample Program adds two >L0 INPUT A,B numbers. The numbers 520 LET C=a+3 must be input by the >30 PRINT use >40 PRINT a;* +" The two letters following the word INPUT, and separated by a comma,. name variables that will contain a value input by the user from the terminal. When the program is run, the interpreter signals that input is expected by printing a question mark. The user enters the values following the question mark. They are entered with a comma between each successive value. The statement LET C=A+B assigns the value of the expression to the right of the equal sign to the variable C on the left of the equal sign. The expression adds the values of variables A and B together. The result is the value of C. When the program is run, the user enters input >RUN values and the computer ?1078,5.3 prints the result 1078 + 5.3 = 1083.3 > 1-121.10 DELETING A PROGRAM If a program that has been entered and run is no longer needed, it can be deleted with the NEW command. Typing NEW deletes whatever program has been entered by the user during the current session. The first program éntered was 100 PRINT "5 * 10 ="75410. After it has been run, it should be deleted before entering the next program. Otherwise both programs will run when RUN is typed. They will run in the order of their statement numbers. For instance, if both programs are currently in the user's work area, the program with numbers 10 through 40 executes before line 100. >100 PRINT "5 * 10 =";5*10 >10 INPUT A,B >20 LET C=A+B >30 PRINT Both programs will run >40 PRINT A;" +" when RUN is typed >RUN 71078,5.3 1078 + 5.3 = 1083.3 5 * 10 = 50 Bet anyC To avoid confusing results, a program that has been entered and run can be deleted with NEW: >100 PRINT "5 * 10 =";5*10 After entering >RUN and running: >5_* 10 = 50 the program is deleted: >NEW The user's work area is now cleared and another program can be entered. >10 INPUT A,B >20 LET C=A+B The second program >30 PRINT A;" is entered: >RUN 2343 ,275 343 + 275 = 618 Unless this program is to be run again, it can now be deleted and a third program entered. 1-131.11 DOCUMENTING A PROGRAM Remarks that explain or comment can be inserted in a program with the REM statement. Any remarks typed after REM will be printed in the program listing but will not affect program execution. As many REM statements can be entered as are needed. The sample program > 5 REM...THIS PROGRAM ADDS to add 2 numbers can > 7 REM 2 NUMBERS be documented with >15 REM...2 VALUES MUST BE INPUT several remarks: >35 REM C CONTAINS THE SUM The statement numbers determine the position of the remarks within the existing program. A list will show them in order: >LIST 5 «THIS PROGRAM ADDS 7 «2 NUMBERS 10 INPUT A,B List of sample 15 REM...2 VALUES MUST BE INPUT program including 20 LET C=A+B remarks: 30 PRINT 35 REM...C CONTAINS THE SUM 40 PRINT A;" +"7B;" =";C When run, the program will execute exactly as it did before the remarks were entered. Comments may also appear on the same line as a statement. This is done by preceding the comment with the character "\" (backslash). Characters after the backslash are not processed as part of the statement but are stored along with the program statement. Comments that follow a statement in this manner cannot be used on the same line as a DATA statement (Section 3.9). Sample program with >10 INPUT A,B \INPUT 2 NUMBERS comments following >20 LET C=A+B \FIND SUM OF A AND B statements: >30 PRINT \CARRIAGE RETURN AND LINE FEED >40 PRINT A;" +";B;" =";C \PRINT SUM, 1-14SECTION IT EXPRESSIONS: An expression combines constants, variables, or functions with operators in an ordered sequence. When evaluated, an expression must result in a value. For example, an. expression that, when evaluated, is converted to an integer, is called an- integer expression. Constants, variables, and functions represent values; operators tell the computer the type of operation to perform on these values. Sections VI and VII describe numeric and string types in detail. Some examples of expressions are: (A*3)-(B+10) A and B are variables that must have been previously assigned a value. 3 and 10 are constants. Parentheses group those portions of the expression evaluated first. If A=6 and B=4, it is an integer expression with the value 4. (X* (Y=2)) +2 .%, ¥, and Z must all have been assigned values. *, + and - are the multiply, add and subtract operators. The innermost parentheses enclose the part evaluated first. If X=7, Y=4, and %=3, the value of the integer expression is 17. 2-12.1 CONSTANTS A constant is either numeric or it is a literal string. 2.1.1 NUMERIC CONSTANTS A numeric constant is a positive or negative decimal number including zero. When using BINBASIC (binary math package), a numeric constant consists of seven sign. digits. When using BASIC (BCD math package), a nume: constant consists of 13 significant digits. It may be written as an integer, a fixed point number, or a floating point number. See Section 6.2.2 for a description of floating point representation for each BASIC. Integers are a series of digits with no decimal point. BINBASIC Integers BASIC (BCD) Integers 1234567 1234567890123 7321465 1234567890123 0 Q 60 56789 Ploating point numbers are a number followed by the - letter E and an optionally signed integer. In the floating point. notation, the number preceding 2 is a magnitude that is multiplied by some power of 10. ‘The integer after E is the exponent; that is, it is the power of 10 by which the magnitude is multipled. The exponent of a floating point number is used to position the decimal point. Without-this notation, describing a very large or very small number would be cumbersome: 18435 4 100000000000000000000000000000000000 1B-35 + 00000000000000000000000000000000001Examples of Floating Point Numbers: 12+23 =lx ae = 100000000000000000000000 1,023 (same as above) -O001E26 (same as above) T 1.02E+7 = 1,02 x 10 =10200000 1.02E-7 = ,000000102 Within the computer, all these constants are represented as floating point real numbers whose size is between 12-128 and 1E+127, The precision is determined by the type of BASIC math package. BINBASIC BASIC (BCD) floating point numbers floating point numbers 123. 4567E+35 123456 .7890128+20 1234567E-36 -1234567890123E+5 -.0128+20 123456.0789E-5 2.1.2 LITERAL STRINGS A literal string consists of a sequence of characters in the ASCII character set enclosed within quotes. The quote itself and the character “<" are the only characters excluded from the character string. Blank spaces are significant within a string. "ABC" "LIWHAT A DAYII"™ "XY 2" we (a null, empty, or zero length string) (a string with two blanks) 2-32.2 VARIABLES A variable is a name to which a value is assigned. This value may be changed during program execution. A reference to the variable acts as a reference to its current value. Variables have either numeric or string values. Real variables are a single letter (from A to Z) or a letter immediately followed by a digit (from 0 to 9). aA AQ PB BS x x9 A variable of this type always contains a numeric, value that is represented in the computer by a real floating point number. Variables can also hold values internally represented as 16-bit integers. Names -of such variables are similar to those above except that their names have a suffix of 7: AS BSS xB x38 Variables may also contain a string of characters. This type of variable is identified by a variable name similar to those above except that their names have a suffix of "$": AS AOS PS PS$ The value of a string variable is always’a string of characters, possibly null or zero length. String variables cannot be used without being declared with a BIM statement (see Section 8-3). 24I£ a variable names an array (see Arrays, Section VII), it may be subscripted. When a variable is subscripted, the variable name is followed by one or two subscript values enclosed in parentheses. If there are two subscripts, they are separated by a comma. A subscript may be an integer constant, a variable, or any expression which is rounded to an integer value: A(1) AQ (NS,/MS) P(1,1) P5%(Q5,N/2) X(N+1) x9 (10,10) A simple numeric variable and a subscripted numeric variable may have the same name with no implied relation between the two. The variable A is totally distinct from variable A(1,1). Simple numeric variables cam be used without being declared. Subscripted numeric variables must be declared with a DIM statement (see Section 7.1) if the array dimensions are greater than 10 rows, or 10 rows and 10 columns. The first subscript is always the row number, the second the column number. The rounded subscript expressions must result in a value between 1 and the maximum number of rows and columns. String arrays differ from numeric arrays in that they have only one dimension, and hence only one subscript. Also, the name of a string array and a simple string variable may not be the same (see String Arrays in Section VIII). Examples of subscripted string array names are: AS (1) AOS(N) BS$(Z%) 2-52.3 FUNCTIONS A function names an operation that is performed using one or more parameter values to produce a single value result. A numeric function is identified by a multi- letter name (or a multi-letter name followed by a 3) followed by one or more formal parameters enclosed in Parentheses. If there is more than one parameter, they are separated by commas. The number and type of the parameters depend on the particular function. The formal parameters in the function definition are replaced by actual parameters when the function is used. Since a function results in a single value, it can be used anywhere in an expression where a constant or variable can be used. To use a function, the function name followed by actual parameters in parentheses (known as a function cali) is placed in an expression. The resulting value is used in the evaluation of the expression. Examples of common functions: INT(X) where X is a numeric expression. When called, it. returns the largest integer less than or equal to x. For instance, INT(8.35) SGN(X) where X is a numeric expression. When called, it returns 1 for X>0, 0 for X=0 and-1 for xX<0. For instance, SGN (4*~3) =-1. og BASIC provides many built-in functions that perform common operations such as finding the sine, taking the Square root, or finding the absolute value of a number. The available numeric functions are listed in Appendix D and described in Section 6.8. In addition, the user may define and name functions if there is a need to repeat a particular operation. How to write functions is described in Section IX, User-Defined Functions. The functions described so far are numeric functions that result in a numeric value. Functions resulting in string values are also available. These are identified by a multi-letter name followed by a "§". String functions are described with user-defined functions in Section ix. Available built-in string functions are listed in Appendix D and described in Section 8.6.2.4 OPERATORS An operator performs a mathematical or logical operation on one or two values resulting in a single value. Generally, an operator is placed between two values, but there are unary operators that precede a single value. For instance, the minus sign in A - 8 is a binary operator that results in subtraction of the values; the minus sign in -A is a unary operator indicating that A is to be negated. The combination of one or two operands with an operator forms an expression. The operands that appear in an expression can be constants, variables, functions, or other expressions. Operators may be divided into two types depending on the kind of operation performed. The main types are arithmetic, relational, and logical (or Boolean) operators. The arithmetic operators are: + Add (or if unary, positive) A+B oor +A - Subtract (or if unary, negative) A - B or -A * Multiply AxB Y Divide A/B 7 Exponentiate ae In an expression, the arithmetic operators cause an arithmetic operation resulting in a single numeric value. The relational operators are: = Equal =B < Less than ACB > Greater than ADB <= Less than or equal to >= Greater than or equal to AD=B ° Not equal AOB 2-7When relational operators are evaluated in an expression they return the value 1 if the relation is found to be true, or the value 0 if the relation is false. For instance, A=B is evaluated as 1 if A and B are equal in value; aS 0 if they are unequal. Logical or Boolean operators are: & Logical "and" ASB 1 Logical "or" ALB - Logical complement mA Like the relational operators, the evaluation of an expression using logical operators results in the value of 1 if the expression is true, or the value of 0 if the expression is false. Logical operators are evaluated as follows: AgsB = 1 (true) if A<>0 and B<>0 Q (false) if A=0 or B=0 AIB = 1 (true) if A<>0 or B<>0 0 (false) if A=0 and B=0 “A = 1 (true) if a=0 0 (false) if ac>0 A string operator is available for combining two string expressions into one: na Concatenation AS+BS The values of A$ and BS are joined to form a single string; the characters in B$ immediately follow the last character in AS. If A$ contains "ABC" and BS contains "DEF", then A$+B$="ABCDEF" (see Strings, Section VIII) . 2-82.5 EVALUATING EXPRESSIONS An expression is evaluated by replacing each variable with its value, evaluating any function calls, and performing the operations indicated by the operators, The order in which operations are performed is determined by the hierarchy of operators: Highest unary +, unary -, af binary +, binary — Relational (=, <, >, <=, >=, <>) at Lowest The operator at.the highest level is performed first, followed by any other operators in the hierarchy shown above. If operators are at the same level, the order is from left to right. Parentheses can be used to override this order. Operations enclosed in parentheses are performed before any operations outside the Parentheses. When parentheses are nested, operations within the innermost pair are performed first. For instanc z 5+6*7 is evaluated as 5+(6*7)=47 7/14*2/5 is evaluated as ((7/14)*2)/3=.2 If A=l, B= , C=3, D=3.14, E=0 then: A+B*C is evaluated as 'B*C) =7 A*B+C is evaluated as (A*B)+C=5 A+B-C is evaluated as (A+B)-C=0 (A+B) *C is evaluated as (A+B) *C=9In a relation, the relationai operator determines whether the relation is equal to 1 (true) or 0 (false). If A, B and C have the values given above: (A*B) <(A-C/3) is evaluated as 0 (false) since A*B=2 is not less than A-C/3=0. In a logical expression, other operators are evaluated first for values of zero (false) or non-zero (true). The logical operators determine whether the entire expression is equal to 0 (false) or 1 (true). If A, B, C, D and B have the values given above: E&A-C/3 is evaluated as 0 (false) since both terms in the expression are equal to zero (false). ASBEAtB is evaluated as 1 (true) since both terms in the expression are non-zero (true). A=BIC=SIN(D) is evaluated as 0 (false) since both expressions are false (0). ALE is evaluated as 1 (true) since one term of the expression (A) is not equal to zero. is evaluated as 1 (true) since E=0. For rules governing the evaluation of expressions using strings, see. Comparing Strings in Section 8.7. 2-10SECTION III STATEMENTS Statements essential to writing a program in BASIC are described here. A general description of statements is given in Section 1.5.2. Tt should be recalled that all statements in a program must be preceded by a statement number and are terminated by pressing the RETURN key, These statements are not executed until the program is executed with a RUN command. Some statements may also be executed immediately and are useful for debugging (see Section V).. 3-13.1 ASSIGNMENT STATEMENT This statement assigns a value to one or more variables. The value may be in the form of an expression, a constant, a string, or another variable of the same type. Format When the value of the expression is assigned to a single variable, the forms are: variable=expresson LET variable-expression Several assignments can be made in one statement if they are separated by commas: variable-expression,...,variable=expression LET variabie-expression,...,variable=expression Note that the word LET is an optional part of the assignment statement. Description In this statement, the equal sign is an assignment operator. It does not indicate equality, but is a signal that the value on the right of the assignment operator be assigned to the variable on the leit. When a variable to be assigned a value contains subscripts, these are evaluated first from left to right, then the expression is evaluated and the resulting value moved to the variable. Examples: 10 LET 21=34.567 20 21=34.567 The variable Z1 is assigned the value 34.567. Statements 10 and 20 have the same result. 3-250 N=0 60 LET N=N+1 70 LET A(N)=N Statements 50 through 70 set the array element A(1) to 1. By repeating statements 60 and 70, each array element can be set to the value of its subscript. 80 A=10.5,8=7.5 90 BS="ABC",CS$=BS 100 D$=5,B18=10 The real variable A is set to 10.5, then B is set to 7.5. The string variable B$ is assigned the' value ABC, then C$ is assigned the value of BS (or ABC). The integer variable Ds is assigned the value 5, then E1$ is assigned the value 10. Strings and string assignments are described in Section VIII. 3-33.2 END/STOP STATEMENTS The END and STOP statements are used to terminate execution of a program. Either may be used, neither is required. An END is assumed following the last line entered in the current program. Format =ND STOP The END statement consists of the word END; the STOP statement consists of the word STOP. Description Both END and STOP terminate program execution. END has a different function from STOP in that END causes all files to be closed and the message "READY" to be printed. STOP causes the message "STOP AT nnnn™ to be printed where nnnn is the statement label of the STOP statement. After a STOP, program execution can be resumed (see Section 4.1.3). Examples These three programs are effectively the same: 10 DIM AS[5], BS[15], C$[15] 20 LET AS="HELLO", B$="THERE" 30 CS=AS+" "+BS 40 PRINT C$ >RUN HELLO THERE READY > 10 DIM AS(5], BS[15], CS[15] 20 LET AS="HELLO", BS="THERE" 30 CS=AS+" "+BS 40 PRINT CS 50 END >RUN HELLO THERE READY > 3410 DIM AS{15], BS[15], CS[15] "HELLO", B$="THERE" Se" "aRS 40 PRINT C$ 50 STOP >RUN HELLO THERE STOP AT 50 > When sequence is direct and the last statement in the current program is the last statement to be executed, END or STOP are optional. The message "READY" prints as with END, but open files will remain open. END and STOP have a use, however, when sequence is not direct and the last statement in the program is not the last statement to be executed: 100 INPUT x 110 PRINT 120 GOSUB 140 130 END 140 IF X>0 THEN PRINT "xX > 0" 150 ELSE PRINT "X <60>= 0" 160 RETURN >RUN The subroutine at line 140 follows the END statement. 3-53.3 LOOPING STATEMENTS: FOR...NEXT The looping statements FOR and NEXT allow repetition of a group of statements. The FOR statement precedes the statements to be repeated, and the NEXT statement directly follows them. The number of times the statements are repeated is determined by the value of a simple numeric variable specified in the FOR statement. Format FOR variable=expression TO expression FOR variable=expression TO expression STEP expression The variable may be either a real or integer variable. It is initially set to the value resulting from the expression after the equal sign. When the value of the variable passes the value of the expression following 70, the looping stops. If STEP is specified, the variable is incremented by the value resulting from the STEP expression each time the group of statements is repeated. This value can be positive or negative, but should not be zero. If a STEP expression is not specified, the variable is incremented by 1. The NEXT statement terminates the loop: NEXT variable The variable following NEXT must be the same as the variable following the corresponding FOR. Description When FOR is executed, the variable is assigned an initial value resulting from the expression after the equal sign, and the final value and any step value are evaluated. Then the following steps will occur: 1. The value of the FOR variable is compared. to the final value; if it is greater than the final value (or is less than the final value when the STEP value is negative), control skips to the statement following NEXT. Otherwise, processing continues with the statement immediately following the FOR statement. 3-62. All statements between the FOR statement and the NEXT statement are executed. The FOR variable is then incremented by 1, or, if specified, by the STEP value. 4. Return to step 1. Each time a FOR loop is begun, BASIC checks to see if there are already any active FOR loops with the same FOR variable. If so, all active loops within and including the duplicated entry are deactivated and processing proceeds as described above. The user should not execute statements in a FOR loop except through a FOR statement. Transferring control into the middle of a loop can produce unpredictable results. FOR loops can be nested if one FOR loop is completely contained within another. They must not overlap. Examples Each time the FOR statement executes, a smaller fraction is printed. >10 FOR A=1 TO 16 >20 PRINT 1/(107A) >30 NEXT A >RUN et +01 -001 +0001 -00001 +000002 -0000001 , «00000001 -000000001 +0000000001 - 00000000001 +000000000001 = 0000000000001 1,000000000000E-014 1.000000000000E-015 1.000000000000E-016 Note: In BINBASIC, the number would begin printing in E-form after the line containing .000001 3-7The following FOR loop executes six times, decreasing the value of X by 1 each time: 10 FOR X=0 TO -5 STEP -1 20 PRINT X 30 NEXT X >RUN The first X elements of the array P(N) are assigned values. When N=X, the loop terminates. In this case, the value of X is input as: >10 INPUT X >20 PRINT >30 FOR N=1 TO x >40 9 LET P(N)=N*1O >50 PRINT P(N) >60 NEXT N >RUN 26 10 20 30 40 50 60 The examples below show legal. and illegal nesting. A diagnostic is printed when an attempt is made to run the second example: 10 REM..THIS EXAMPLE IS LEGAL 20 DIM ¥[7,16] 30 FOR A=1 TO 7 STEP 2 40 FOR B=1 T0 16 STEP 2 50 LET ¥(A,B)=-1 60 NEXT B 70 NEXT A 3-810 REM..THIS EXAMPLE IS ILLEGAL 20 DIM ¥[{7,16] 30 FOR A=1 TO 7 STEP 2 40 FOR B=1 TO 16 STEP 2 50 LET ¥(A,B) 60 NEXT A 70 NEXT B >RUN ERR:60 AT. 70 This example illustrates a complexity that can arise when loops are exited via GOTO statements rather than by normal completion. 10 FOR I=1 To 20 20 FOR J=1 T0 5 30 PRINT I, 40 IF J>2 THEN 70 50 NEXT J 60 NEXT I 70 REM THE LOOPS ABOVE ARE EXITED 80 FOR K=1 TO 10 90 FOR I=1 T0 3 100 PRINT K,I, "LATER" 110 NEXT I 120 NEXT K >RUN 1 ~ & 2 1 L LATER 1 2 LATER L 3 LATER ERR 60 AT 120 Because the upper loop was exited prematurely, the first two loops (FOR I, FOR J) were left active and the second FOR I in line 90 caused all active loops (at this point, FOR I, FOR J, and FOR K) to be deactivated (see discussion above). An error was then generated in line 120 because there was no active loop for K. The implication here is that care should be exercised as to what loop variables are chosen and in what order they are used. 3-93.4 GOTO/ON...GOTO STATEMENTS GOTO and ON...GOTO override the normal sequential order of statement execution by transferring control to a specified statement. The statement to which control transfers must be an existing statement.in the current program. Format GOTO statement label ON integer expression GOTO statement label, statement label... GOTO may have a single statement label, while ON...GOTO may be multi-branched with more than one statement label. Ig the multi-branch ON...GOTO is used, the value of the integer expression determines the label in the list to which control transfers. Description If the GOTO transfers to a statement that cannot be executed (such as REM), control passes to the next Sequential statement after that statement. GOTO cannot transfer into or out of a function definition (see Section 1X). If it should transfer to the DEF statement, control passes to the line following the function definition. (The function would be redefined in this case -- see DEF statement, Section IX). The labels in a multi-branch ON...GOTO are selected by numbering them sequentially starting with 1, such that the first label is selected if the value of the expression is 1, the second label if the expression equals 2, and so forth. If the value of the expression is less than 1 or greater than the number of labels in the list, then the GOTO is ignored and control transfers to the statement immediately following ON. If the expression is not an integer, it is rounded to the nearest integer and that value is used to select a label. 3-10