Andrade (2010)
Aim
To find out whether doodling assisted information processing by increasing
attentiveness or by enhancing memory.
Background
Research shows we perform less when our attention is divided. However, doodling
might aid concentration.
Wilson and Korn (2007) suggested that doodling may help to maintain arousal as we
are doing something physical while thinking.
Andrade defines doodling as sketching patterns or figures that are unrelated to the
primary task.
Research Method
Laboratory experiment (unnatural settings)
Research Design
Independent measures design implemented as participants were either in the
doodling or control group.
Sample
40 participants who were members of the Medical Research Council of the Applied
Psychology Unit were chosen through the method of opportunity sampling. They
were aged 18-55 years, mostly women, and were paid a small sum for participation.
In each experimental condition, there were 20 participants. They had just completed
participating in a study and were about to go home when they were asked if they
could spare 5 minutes in Andrade's study.
Procedure
All participants listened to a dull telephone call about a party for 2.5 minutes, at a
recorded speed of 227wpm (words per minute). The independent variable was
whether they doodled or not. The responses to the 2 tasks to measure recall, was the
dependent variable. They were in a dull quiet room.
Participants were told that they would be tested on the names of the partygoers —
Monitoring task. There was a surprise task where they were tested on the names of
places mentioned — Recall task. The order of tests were counterbalanced to reduce
order effects. The dependent variable was operationalised as plausible mishearings
were counted as correct; totally wrong names as false alarms; other words relating
to people were ignored. The final score was the number of correct names minus the
number of false alarms.
The call had 8 names of partygoers, and 3 people and a cat who didn't attend. 8 place
names were mentioned. Participants were given standardised instructions. A4 sheets
were given to participants in the doodle group with alternating rows of squares and
circles, ten per row. It had a wide margin on the left to record targeted information.
Participants were asked to shade while listening to relieve boredom. Participants in
the control group were given a lined paper.
All participants listened at a comfortable volume. The experimenter apologised for
conducting a surprise task and then conducted the 2 tasks. New names and the
names mentioned on the tape as slurs were counted as false alarms.
Results
Doodle group — mean no. of shapes shaded was 36.3 from a range of 3-110. No
participants in the control group spontaneously doodled.
The control and doodling group made an average false alarm of 0.3 in the Recall task.
Task 1: Monitoring Task Results
Participants of the control group recalled a mean of 7.1 names. 5 people made a false
alarm.
Participants of the doodling group recalled a mean of 7.8 names. 1 person made a
false alarm.
Overall Results
Doodling participants recalled a mean of 7.5 names and places, 29% more than the
mean of the control group (5.8).
Recall for both tasks was better for doodlers, even when participants suspected of
demand characteristics were excluded.
Conclusions
Doodling helps concentration on a primary task as doodling participants performed
better than participants who only listened to the primary task.
Doodle group performed better on both tasks. There are 2 possible explanations:
i) either doodling affected attention or,
ii) doodling improved memory by encouraging deeper information processing.
However, without a measure of daydreaming, it is difficult to distinguish between the
2 explanations. Daydreaming could have been measured either through a self-report or
by using brain scans to identify reduced activation of the cortex. The cortex is
associated with daydreaming.
Strengths and Weaknesses
Extraneous variables could be controlled as it was a lab experiment. For example,
people listened at a comfortable volume so there were no differences in stress on
words
The standardised procedure made all participants equally likely to be bored and
therefore daydream. For example, the same monotonous recording was used and all
participants were sat in a dull quiet room. This improves validity as differences in
results were due to doodling or not. There is high reliability as all participants were
similarly bored.
The operationalisation of doodling was standardised by using the doodling sheets and
this increases validity. The dependent variable had been operationalised in terms of
false alarms and score calculation.
Participants' age ranged from 18-55 years thus, were representative. However, they are
from a recruitment panel and may be very similar. For example, they all may be
interested in psychology. This could bias the sample, therefore lowers validity.
Further, most of the participants were females.
The study collected quantitative data, the number of names and places. This is an
objective record of memory. It would have had been helpful to ask participants for
self-reports of any daydreaming to understand whether differences in results were due
to attention or daydreaming.
Ethical Concerns
Participants did not give informed consent fully for the recall task. This may have
caused psychological distress. However, participants were debriefed and apologised
to by the researchers.
Application to Everyday Life
When listening to a lecture, doodling might be advantageous. However, deliberately
drawing something may be counterproductive.
Individual vs. Situational Explanation for Behaviour
As doodling affected recall, this shows a situational effect on information processing.
However, people do not doodle in the same way. This shows an individual difference
behind doodling behaviour.
Laney et al. (2008)
Background
Braun et al. (2002) reported that it is possible to implant false memories by
convincing individuals that they met Bugs Bunny at Disneyland.
Bernstein et al. (2005) showed that memory alteration has consequences from
implanting false memories about participants being sick after eating pickles or eggs.
This changed the likelihood of participants eating them again.
Laney et al. wanted to find out whether the implantation of positive memories could
create positive consequences.
Questionnaires
Food History Inventory (FHI) – participants had to rate 24 items on a scale of 1-8 in
terms of how sure they were that the event stated happened. Example: ‘loved
asparagus the first time you tried it'. 1 = definitely did not happen; 8 = definitely did
happen.
Restaurant Questionnaire (RQ) – participants had to rate 32 dishes presented on a
menu-like form with five courses on a 1 to 8 scale in terms of how likely they would
be to order each dish at dinner, regardless of its price.
Food Preference Questionnaire (FPQ) – participants rated 62 items in terms of how
much they like to eat each item.
Food Cost Questionnaire (FCQ) – participants had to choose the price they were ready
to pay out of multiple options or select ‘would never buy’.
Memory or Belief Questionnaire (MBQ) – participants had to indicate for 3 items of
the FHI, whether they had a memory or experience, and specify whether they had a
detailed memory, vague belief, or were sure that the event did not happen.
Experiment 1
Aim
To find out whether giving participants false feedback about them loving to eat
asparagus as a child would produce a false memory/belief.
Research Method
It was a laboratory experiment, the procedure was conducted in an unnatural
setting, however, the restaurant questionnaire was formatted like a menu, so that
choices would mimic real-life scenarios ➔ mundane realism.
Research Design and Variables
The independent measures design was implemented as participants were allocated
to either the ‘love’ or ‘control’ condition. The independent variable was whether or
not the participants had a false belief about eating asparagus after receiving the false
feedback. The dependent variables were the responses to the 5-self-report
questionnaire.
Sample
128 participants (99 females, 29 males) were recruited using volunteer sampling
from the University of California. The mean age was 20.8, and they received course
credit for their participation.
Procedure
Participants during week 1, came to the lab in groups of 8 and were deceived by
being informed that they were taking part in a study investigating ‘food preferences
and personality’. This was done to prevent demand characteristics and social
desirability bias, as participants may have given false preferences to be seen as good.
5 Questionnaires were completed: FHI, RQ, Personality measure, Social desirability
and Eating Habits. The last three questionnaires were distracter questionnaires to
cover up the aim of the study.
During Week 2, they returned to the lab and were randomly allocated to either ‘love’
or ‘control’ conditions. They were given a report about their childhood experiences
based on their questionnaires. Participants in the ‘love’ condition had the critical
statement ‘you loved to eat cooked asparagus’ in their report. Those in the control
condition had 3 filler items.
Participants were asked questions about the profile to ensure that they had
processed the feedback. Following this, the participants completed the FHI and RQ to
measure any changes in responses. They also completed the FPQ, FCQ and MBQ.
Results
The 2 key issues the researchers wanted to investigate were:
• Whether false asparagus-related beliefs were formed.
• Whether the beliefs had consequences.
FHI of both groups were compared and for the love group (n=46) the average
responses rose by 2.6 points. The control group’s responses (n=51) rose by 0.2
points.
31 participants were excluded from the results as they believed they loved asparagus
and give a 5+ score on the FHI.
Memory - ability to recall specific events with some detail.
Belief - less detailed retrieval of an event.
The ‘Love’ group has a greater chance of generating a false memory/belief.
Believers:
• Gave a low rating on the FHI in week one on loving asparagus.
• Gave a high rating on the FHI in Week 2.
• Gave a positive ‘memory’ or ‘belief’ on the MBQ.
48% of participants in the love condition were labelled as believers (22 participants).
Believers increased an average of 4.5 points from week 1 to week 2 in the FHI. 10
had a memory. 12 had a belief.
Conclusions
Positive false memories can be implanted.
False beliefs have consequences on behaviour and food preference.
False belief effects:
• increased rating on loving asparagus
• increased willingness to spend on asparagus
• intention to eat in the future
• great preference for it
Experiment 2
Aim
Investigate possible underlying mechanisms of false memory consequence. To
replicate the first experiment to check the reliability of findings.
Research Method, Design and Variables
Lab experiment
Independent measures design
Independent variable: whether the participant had a false belief or not.
Dependent variable: response to the 4 questionnaires and the slideshow.
Sample
103 undergraduate students from the University of Washington who received course
credit. 64 females and 39 males with a mean age of 19.9. The 'love' group had 58
participants; the 'control' group had 45 participants.
Procedure
No deception or cover story was used. In week 1, participants completed the FHI, RQ,
FPQ, PM and SDS. Most of the first experiment’s procedure was repeated.
During week 2, participants were randomly allocated to the ‘love’ or ‘control’
condition. The report of the participants in the ‘love’ condition consisted of the
feedback: “You loved asparagus the first time you ate it”. After participants read their
profiles, they were required to give details about their memory of eating asparagus.
If they did not, they were asked what might have happened. The control group did
not do this. All participants were then asked about their most important food-related
childhood event that the food profile did not report.
Participants were also shown a slideshow that displayed 20 photos, each for 30
seconds. They were asked to rate the photos on a scale of 1 to 8 based on:
• how appetising they found it.
• how disgusting they found it.
• the artistic quality.
• the expertise of the photographer.
Participants then completed the FHI, RQ, FPQ and MBQ. They were fully debriefed
afterwards.
Result
FHI response on loving asparagus from the love group (n=40) rose by an average of
2.5 points. control group (n=33) response increased by 1.0 points. 30 participants
were excluded from the analysis.
Those who were told that they loved asparagus had a greater chance of generating a
false memory or belief. 40 participants were believers.
On the RQ, neither believers nor non-believers had an increased desire to eat
asparagus.
On the FPQ, believers reported a greater desire to eat asparagus.
On the photograph ratings, believers rated asparagus as more appetising and less
disgusting than the ratings of non-believers.
Conclusion
Participants can be given false positive food beliefs and these beliefs have
consequences on behaviour, food preference, and food memories. Believers are
more likely to rate asparagus as more appetising and less disgusting.
The false memory was the cognitive mechanism that caused participants to process
the images more positively and this is due to familiarity, or enhanced fluency.
Strengths and Weaknesses
The sample consisted of university students. This introduces participant variables that
could distort results, therefore reducing the validity of the research.
The distractor questionnaires prevented participants from knowing the true aims of the
study which in turn, controlled demand characteristics and social desirability bias.
Therefore, the research has internal validity.
The questionnaires helped to operationalize the dependent variable and, also allowed
the standardised collection of data as quantitative data was gathered. Quantitative data
helps in data analysis and in comparing results.
Completing a questionnaire and ordering in real-life restaurants may not have the
same outcome, therefore, there is little ecological validity.
As the study was a snapshot study, we cannot determine how long the effects of false
memories last. A longitudinal study would determine the durability of false memories
on food preferences and behavioural consequences.
The male-to-female ratio was not equal, so the results are not quite generalizable to
the target population.
Application to Everyday Life
Laney et al demonstrated that it's possible to impact some people's attitude towards
asparagus by giving a small amount of false information. This can be used to help
people change their diets and become healthier.
The study has helped many parents to introduce new eating habits in children who
are picky eaters by telling them they once loved to eat the food that they dislike.
Individual and Situational Explanations
The situational effect of Laney telling the experimental group that they loved
asparagus as a child can lead individuals to develop beliefs that they did in fact love
it. This shows that a piece of information from the situation had an effect on later
behaviour.
There were individual differences, however: some participants in the control group
liked asparagus while others in the 'love' condition failed to believe they liked
asparagus as a child.
Baron-Cohen et al. (2001)
Key Notes
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) = A neurodevelopmental disorder impairing a child's
ability to communicate and interact. Symptoms: repetitive behaviour, little or no eye
contact and can't recognise facial expressions. High Functioning Autism is HFA.
Aspergers Syndrome (AS) = Autism spectrum disorder that affects language and
communication skills. Symptoms: restricted & repetitive behaviours and trouble
identifying facial expressions.
Autism Spectrum Quotient Test (AQ) = self-report questionnaire with scores ranging
from 0 to 50. A high score suggests that the person has more autistic traits.
Theory of Mind (ToM) = the ability to understand the view of another.
The original study (1997)
The original study had numerous issues. Participants were presented with 25 photos
showing different eye expressions and they chose the mental state shown between 2
options.
Issues with the original study:
1. It had more female faces than male faces. Solution: equal no. of male and female
faces in the RET question.
2. Test had both basic and complex mental states. The basic ones were too
easy. Solution: Only complex mental states were used.
Aim
1. To test if the revised version of the 'Reading the Mind in the Eyes' test would be
successful at differentiating participants with AS or HFA (High Functioning Autism)
from the general population.
2. To test if there is a negative correlation in a sample of normal adults and between
the RET and the AQ.
3. To test any sex differences on the RET when normal adults take the test.
Hypotheses
1. Participants with autism will score significantly lower in the RET than the control
group.
2. Participants with autism will score significantly higher on the AQ test.
3. Females in the 'normal' group (grp 2 & 3) will score higher on the RET than males
in those groups.
4. Males in the 'normal' group will score higher on the AQ measure than females.
5. Scores on the AQ and RET will be negatively correlated.
Background
Baron-Cohen suggested that people with autism have an undeveloped 'ToM'. To
measure the 'ToM' of individuals, Baron-Cohen came up with the 'Reading the Mind
in the Eyes' task where participants would be evaluated on their ability to label
others' emotions by observing their eye expressions on photos.
Sample
Group 1: 15 male adults with AS/HFA. Self-selecting sampling from the UK National
Autistic Society through a magazine advert. Average IQ of 115; from a mix of socio-
economic and educational backgrounds.
Group 2 - Comparative control group of adults: 122 adults from the adult community
& educational classes from Exeter and public library users in Cambridge. 55 males
and 67 females. From a broad mix of occupations and education.
Group 3 - Comparative control group of students: 103 undergraduate students from
Cambridge. 53 males and 50 females. Assumed to have IQ higher than other
participants.
Group 4 - IQ matched controls: 14 randomly selected adults whose IQ matched with
that of group 1. Average IQ of 116.
Research Method, Design and Variables
Quasi-experiment.
Independent groups design
Independent Variables: Whether they had AS/HFA or were normal, and gender.
Dependent Variables: RET score, AQ score, and gender identification for group 1.
Procedure
A. Developing the Revised Eye Test (RET): Baron-Cohen and Wheelwright originated
target words and foils for 36 photos. It was piloted on 8 judges (4 males and 4
females). At least 5 judges had to agree on the target word and no more than 2
judges could select any single foil word. If this did not happen, the target word and
or foil would be repiloted until the criteria were met for each.
In pilot tests, groups 2 and 3 achieved 100% on judging gender. The control group
were tested with 40 photos but 4 were eliminated, resulting in 36 items. When
results were being calculated, only the data for the 36 eye sets were taken.
B. Implementing the Tests: Each test was individually administered in a quiet room at
either Cambridge or Exeter. There was no time limit. Each participant was given a
practice test and then presented with 36 sets of eyes and 4 possible target words.
Group 1 judged the gender of each photo as a control task. Participants in groups 1, 3
& 4 completed the AQ test. They read through the glossary of terms and were asked
to ask questions as needed; they could use the glossary during the test.
Ethics
Participants' consent was taken and they knew the nature of the study. Group 1
participants had been diagnosed in specialist centres using APA criteria. The data
collected was anonymised.
Results
• Scores ranged from 17 - 35, with a mode of 24.
• Adults with AS/HFA performed significantly worse than other groups for the RET
(H1 supported).
• On the AQ test, adults with AS/HFA performed significantly higher than the control
groups (H2 supported).
• Females scored higher on the RET (H3 supported).
• There was a significant negative correlation (-0.53) between scores on AQ and RET
(H5 supported).
Conclusions
• Current study replicated findings that AS/HFA adults are significantly impaired in
identifying the emotions of others.
• Current study replicated findings that AS/HFA adults score significantly higher on
the AQ test than the general population.
• There were gender differences found on the RET as females performed better than
men. However, it would have been more significant with a greater sample.
The Revised Eye Test was a more sensitive measure of adult social intelligence.
Strengths and Weaknesses
S1:It was a lab experiment, so confounding variables could be controlled. Thus, there
is internal validity and it is easily replicable. Everyone saw the same set of eyes.
S2:Improvements on the eyes test improved validity.
W1:The study lacks ecological validity as eye expressions in real life are quick, and
not static.
W2:The experimental sample (group 1) is small, so generalising results to those with
AS/HFA is not possible.
W3:Only the eyes were used, but normally we study the whole face (mouths are
expressive) therefore it lacks ecological validity.
W4:As this was a quasi-experiment, it wasn't possible to randomly allocate
participants to the conditions. This introduces a confounding variable as it could be
another factor causing the defence in scores between groups. Researchers try to
attend to this by having the IQ matched control group.
Application to Everyday Life
Programmes could be conducted to help people with AS/HFA in developing their
skills of interpreting emotions. The eyes test could be improved to help diagnose
individuals who may have underlying autistic disorders.
Individual vs. Situational Explanations
The AS/HFA group performed significantly worse on the RET than the 'normal' group.
This suggests that the ability to identify mental states is an individual skill that is
developed. The environment had been standardised (supports individual
explanation).
Children as Participants
Sophisticated words would not be appropriate for children. So, the 'Anne and Sally'
test was developed to understand the theory of mind of children.
