TWO films, usually of different speeds, that
are loaded and exposed together in a single
holder are sometimes viewed separately. The
advantages of this technique are evident in It is especially important in the RT of
situations where the material thickness or multithickness parts to understand thoroughly
absorptivity cannot be precisely determined or how to use the curves of films
where the object contains large differences in and the exposure charts for the available
thickness. radiation sources. Proper use of these aids can
Double or triple loading refers to the number greatly increase efficiency and reduce the
of radiographic films placed in a single film costs and time for RT.
holder. Different film speeds are used to obtain
acceptable film densities over a wide range of
cross sectional thicknesses. Each film
Recommended Reading
Subject Reference*
radiographic film exposures HB: 188; CT: 2-16
radiographic film densiw HB: 179, 384; CT: 4-6
subject HB: 227, 322; CT: 4-3
HB: 224-226
film
radiographic sharpness/unsharpness HB: 264; E 1165
filters and masldng HB: 209, 663; CT: 6-8, 6-11
shadow formation 1-1B: 192
p
intensiWing screens
HB: 276; cr: 6-9, 6-30
inverse square law HB: 197; CT: 2-11, 6-24
1-1B: 222
exposure charts
characteristics 1--1B: 221-226
*See Introduction for explanation of references.
effectively images a separate of interest that,
when combined, provides total coverage of
the object and enhances latitude.
Image Quality fridicators
Image quality indicators (IQIs) provide assurance that satisfactory radiographic image quality
has been obtained. The most commonly used type of IQI is the penetrameter. It is a small test
piece of standard design, made of material that is radiographically similar to the object, that is
radiographed together with the object. It is placed on the source-side of the object whenever
possible, so that its image represents the largest object-to-film distance, and thus the largest
unsharpness, displayed by that radiograph- It is a good practice to provide the image of at least
one penetrameter on each radiograph and more often than not, it is required.
There are many standard designs of penetrameters. The most commonly used designs
small shims (plaques) containing
holes and sets of dimneter wires, The dimensions of penetrameter features are some
small percentage of the thickness of the object, and image quality is judged by the smallest
visible penetrameter feature, such as hole size or wire diarneter. Important: during typical
usage, penetrameters do not provide positive measurement of image quality. The
penetrameter image on a radiograph indicates only that the image quality is not poorer than
some ninimum requirement.
There are two plaque-type penetrameters commonly used in the United States, ASTWASIVIE
penetrameters conforming to ASTM E 1025 and NIL-STD-453
penetrameters. Wire penetrameters confonning to ASTM E 747 are gaining in popularity in the
United States. These are (but not identical) to the DN or ISO penetrameters widely used in
Europe. The image quality or sensitivity values from the various types of axe not identical,
but they are mathematically related. The relationship for ASTM plaque and wire types is
charted in ASTM E 747.
When specifications require particular types or sizes of penetrameters that ue not readily
available, it is useful to be able to determine the characteristics of equivalent penetrameters.
For plaque penetrameters, ASTM E 1025 provides an equation and a nomogram for
determining equivalent penetrameter sensitivity.
The penetrameter image is not intended to be used to judge the size or acceptability of
discontinuities.
Identificaåon Markers
Radiographs must be marked in such a way
that each one can be identified with the object that it represents. For objects requiring more than
one radiograph, each one must be identified with the part of the object that it represents, so the
film can be matched to the corresponding region of the object, Lead letters and numbers placed
on the object are usually used for this purpose because their high radiographic absorption allows
them to be imaged on the radiograph. The exact locations of the lead markers may be
permanently marked on the object or their locations may be keyed to a map of the object and
retained as a permanent record.
Identification and location markers are
obviously essential in order to correlate the radiographic images of any discontinuities with
their location in the object- Specific requirements for marking vaxy considerably from
customer to customer. Typical requirements mae available in standards such as ASTM E 94.
ASTM E 1030, various codes, and other specifications-
Film Film Handling
Industrial radiographic film consists of a thin sheet of transparent plastic called the "base"
that is coated, usually on both sides, with photosensitive material called the "emulsion?' The
emulsion is a solid, gelatinous material approximately 0.03 rnrn (0.001 in.) thick containing
nicroscopic particles of silver halide. When the silver halide absorbs electromagnetic
radiation, including visible light, it is modified so that the present in photographic
developer can change the silver halide to metallic silver. The developer does not change the
silver halide that did not absorb radiation. After developing, the remaining halide is removed
by photographic fixer, leaving just the metallic silver, Areas of the emulsion that contain little
silver are relatively üansparent to light, while those where there is much silver are less
transpuent, or denser,
Film Graininess
Nficroscopic grains of silver form the radiographic image. However, for various reasons,
these particles tend to clump together in relatively large masses that are sometimes visible to
the naked eye as "graininess." All films exhibit graininess to some degree. Slow speed, fine
grain films exhibit lower levels of graininess and higher definition. is reduced
when the radiation energy that produced the image is low; increasing the radiation energy
increases the graininess. Graininess is also be affected by the film development process.
Film Selection
Choosing the tight film for a particular application is the radiographer's responsibility. The
composition, size, and thickness of the object, energy, and output of the radiation
source, the criticality of the inspection, and the required level of sensitivity must be considered
when selecting the type of film. The time and cost saving advantages of higher speed films
must be weighed against their poorer contrast and sharpness as compared to slower films. The
possibility of using relatively slow film but decreasing the exposure time by using intensifying
screens must be considered. However, fluorescent screens should only be used
when the highest possible photographic speed is required and the lower sensitivity can be
tolerated-
Available Forms of Film
Industrial radiographic film is typically available in individual sheets with or without
interleaves (separating paper) in a vmeiety of sizes ranging from 127 x 178 to 356 x 432 nun
(5 x 7 to -14 x 17 in.). When smaller pieces are needed for insertion into confined spaces, such
film is easily cut in the darkroom; of course it
must be inserted into a light-tight envelope, usually made of black plastic sheet, and sealed
with black tape before leaving the darkroom.
Pre-packaged film is available in sealed, light-tight envelopes, with or without lead oxide
screens, and it is ready for exposure without removing it from the envelope. The advantages of
pre-packaged films are the elimination of the time for loading film holders, and the
convenience of using it in situations where a darkroom is not readily available (i.e., field RT).
However, compared to standard sheet film, pre-packaged film is expensive, so it should be
used only where the advantages justify its cost.
Film is also available in long rolls. Roll film is advantageous for inspecting large
circumferential welds or other cylindrical objects. The film is wrapped around the outside of
the cylinder while the radiation source is centered inside, Unless the object is extremely
large, only one exposure is needed with this technique. The advantages of roll film for such
work include reduction of the required setup time and reduction of the number of
identification and location markers required.
Fum Handling and Storage
Film must be handled carefully to avoid damaging the emulsion layers. Pressure marks,
creases, finger prints, scratches, static marks, humidity, heat, moist/contmünated hmds,
md splashes or spills of processing chemicals cm produce artifacts that may render a radiograph
unacceptable.
To avoid problems, always wear cotton gloves when handling dry film, handle it only by the
edges, slide it slowly (not rapidly) out of
its box or fill'n holder, keep processing chemicals away from the loading bench, and promptly
wipe up any spills or splashes. Store films in a cool, preferably air-conditioned location, away
from penetrating radiation, and store only the amount of film that can be used by the film
expiration date.
Film Procesing
After exposure, film must be processed to develop the image and fix it so that the image
will not deteriorate as it ages. Both developing and fixing are chemical processes that must
take place in a darkroom or other location where there is little light or other radiation.
Developer chemicals are alkaline organic compounds that convert exposed silver halide into
silver, while fixers are acidic inorganic compounds that convert the remaining silver halide
into compounds that can be dissolved in water so that they can be removed from the film.
Both developers and fixers also have other functions such as hardening the emulsion so that is
not easily damaged during processing and subsequent handling.
Darkrooms
Darkrooms vary in size and layout, but all must be lightproof, radiation free, equipped
with safelights, and have a convenient, clean work area.
White light and penetrating radiation must not be present in the darkroom because they
can ruin any undeveloped film, including undeveloped radiographs that may be present.
Darkrooms should be equipped with low-
wattage lights with red filtefs (safelights)Safelights should be 0.9-1.2 m (3-4 ft) from any part
of the darkroom where undeveloped film will be exposed. These lights will provide sufficient
visibility for cutting film, loading and unloading film holders, mmual film processing.
A workbench for cutting film and loading
cassettes and film holders should be located a considerable distance away from the processing
machine or tanks. The bench must be kept clean and free from chemical spills and dirt that
may scratch the film emulsion and it should be large enough to facilitate the workload.
Sufficient storage areas for film, cassettes, screens, and film hangars must also be available
and conducive to the workflow.
Manual
For manual processing, the film is placed on a frame or film hanger where it is to
until it has been dried after fixing. The film is then immersed in the developer for a time that
depends on the temperature of the developer. Typically, development for 5 minutes at 20 Q C
(68 OF) is used for manual processing, with shorter times at higher temperatures and longer
times at lower temperatures. The film hanger should be tapped against the immediately
after the film is completely submerged in developer to dislodge air bubbles adhering to the
film. During development, the developer or the film must be agitated to allow fresh solution
to contact the film emulsion frequently. If the film is developed without agitation, each area
of the film will affect the development of the areas below it, causing uneven development
and streaking.
At the end of the proper development time, the film is removed from the developer, allowed
to drain for a few seconds, and then immersed and agitated for 30-60 s in a "stop bath" to halt
the development process. Stop bath is an acid solution that neutralizes the residual developer in
and on the film, and helps to prevent the film from streaking during fixing.
After the stop bath, film is placed in the fixer and agitated for 10-15 s. When the film is
initially submerged in the fixer, it takes on a cloudy, milky-white appearance that should
clear in about 1 ninute if the fixer is at 20 0 C (68 OF). After the film has cleared, it should
remain in the fixer for an additional time equal to twice the time required for it to clear. If
the film is not fixed thoroughly, it will discolor as it ages. Keep in mnd that overfixing
reduces the image contrast and density.
When fixing is complete, the film is washed in running water with a sufficient flow to
rapidly carry away the fixer. The emulsion shöuld remain contact with constantly changing
water that covers the top of the hanger. The washing time should be at least twice the fixing
time to prevent later staining and fading of the image.
The film is then placed in a circulating warm-air drying cabinet, which should not exceed
49 o c (120 OF). Film should be removed from the dryer as soon as it is completely dry. A
film is adequately dry when
there is no moisture remaining underneath the hanger clips that could possibly drip down the
film and cause streaking.
It is very important to control the temperature of the developer, stop-bath, fixer, and wash
water during processing, and to time the exposure of the film to these liquids. The various
processes occur at different speeds depending on the temperature, Temperatures of 18-24 oc
(65-75 OF) are preferable. If higher temperatures unavoidable, special precautions should be
taken to avoid damaging the filme These may include use of special fonnulations of the
chemicals or shorter processing times. Do NOT use ice in the chemical tanks because it will
dilute the
It is also important to avoid having large temperature differences between the various
liquids to avoid reticulation, frilling, or other damage to the film emulsion.
Automatic Processing
When a large number of films must be processed each day, a film processing machine or
automatic film processor will provide economic advantages. Automated film processing reduces
the manpower required in the darkroom, reduces the time required for processing, and aids in
assuring consistent, high-quality processing.
Exposed film is placed directly into the processor without the need for film hangers, A series
of rollers moves the film at a controlled speed through each step of the process. The processor
maintains the chemicals at the proper temperatures, agitates and replenishes the solutions
automatically, and dries the film. By using special chemicals and high temperatures, overall
processing time can be greatly reduced. A total time as little as 5 nfrlute.s from dry-todry is
possible with some loss of radiographic quality and a total time as little as 1 1 minutes can be
attained with negligible loss of quality, As with any machine, maintenance is important, but an
hour of maintenance once a week by a trained technician is usually sufficient to avoid problems.
Exposure Techniques
Whenever possible, RT is performed with a technique in which the radiation passes through
only one thiclQess or wall of an object. This single-wall RT requires that the source be
located on one side of the object and the film on the other side, with no intervening material.
Single-wall RT simplifies exposure calculations and interpretation of the resulting radiographic
image. Nevertheless, complex shapes variations in wall thickness may make it difficult to
select the proper radiation energy, filters, screens, and film types, as well as film placement and
other variables.
RT of hollow parts (i.e., pipes and pressure vessels) often cannot be perförmed with the
single-wall technique because either the source or the film cannot be placed inside the
object. When this occurs, it is necessary for the radiation to pass tkn•ough two, and sometimes
more, walls of the object. This is called doublewall RT. Most specifications detail special
requirements for double-wall RT to assure that adequate sensitivity is obtained for both walls and
to assist in the interpretation of the radiographs,
For large spherical or cylindrical objects where both the inside and outside surfaces are
accessible, the panoramic technique is useful to reduce exposure time. Figures 1 I and 1.12
show the general arrangement of the source and the film for a cylinder and a
hemisphereAlthough welds are discussed, the technique is equally useful for parts of similar
shapes that are not welded. The major requirement is that the wall thickness be relatively
constant for all films exposed at the same time and that the
source-to-film distance be sufficient so that the
Figure 1 .11 : Weld
radiography of larger
diameter pipes and pressure
vessels
outside
geometric unsharpness will be satisfactory using the intended source location. The
panoram_ic technique is also useful for the RT of many small similar parts at the same time,
as shown in Figure 1.13.
Figure 1.12: Hemispherical
orangepeel head exposure
arrangement
Film
Source
Reprinted from ASNT's NDT Handbook, second
edition:
Volume 3, Radiography and Radiation Testing
Figure 1.13: Panoramic exposure
arrangement
Film
Specimens
Reprinted from ASNT's NDT Handbook, second
edition:
Volume 39 Radiography and Testing
Recommended Reading
Subject Reference*
image quality indicators HB•. 229-232; ASTM,
ASME and ML standards
markers HB: 441; CT: 6-50
films md filin handling 1--1B: 174-184
film grainmess HB: 182; CT.• 4-8, 6-30
film selecüon 1--1B: 202; CT: 4-10
fihn handling and storage HB: 237; CT: 4 16
film processing HB: 300, 317, 327
1 1,
4-16
darlaoom and equipment HB: 313-314;CT: 4-16
*See Introduction for explanation Of references.
Disconünuity Depth Detenninaüons
Knowledge of the depth that a discontinuity lies below the surface of a part can be very
useful to manufacturing personnel who must remove the discontinuity or to engineers who must
deternüne its acceptability. There are several RT techniques that can be used for
techniques, the rigid formula, the single-marker
technique, and the double-marker technique.
The rigid formula single marker techniques
both rely on malöng two exposures on the
same flhn. Therefore, they are useful only
when the discontinuity is contrasty enough to
be visible on a double-exposed radiograph
(i,e-, one film exposed twice, with each
exposure being half of the normal exposure
time). The double marker system does not have
this limitation, which makes it the most
generally applicable technique.
As shown in Figure I . 14, the double-marker
technique uses lead markers placed on both the
source and the film side of the object. Then,
two normal exposures are made.
One film is exposed with the source in its
normal position and the second is exposed with
the source shifted an appreciable amount (20-
30% of the source-to-object distance) parallel to
the film plane. the case of cracks, the source
shift must also be parallel to the
determining the depth of a discontinuity.
