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Moving substances between cells

Living things have to transport water, nutrients and gases into and out of cells and between
the cells in their bodies. The cell membrane is responsible for these processes. The cell
membrane covers a cell, separating it from its surroundings while controlling the movement of
substances in and out of the cell.
The cell membrane is made up of two components: Phospholipids and proteins. The cell
membrane is mostly made of a double layer (bilayer) of phospholipids molecules and some
protein molecules. It controls which substance enter and leave the cell, and in what quantities.
The phospholipids give the membrane fluidity and are responsible for permeability. Substances
like water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, fatty acids and glycerol move through the phospholipids.

This movement is possible because the cell membrane is both partially and selectively
permeable. Materials that are permeable allow substances to pass freely through them. Those
that are impermeable allow nothing to pass through them. Partially permeable materials such
as cell membrane allow small molecules of water and certain solutes to pass through them,
but they block the passage of large solutes molecules. The cell membrane is also described
as selectively permeable because it controls what goes in and what comes out of a cell.
A membrane that allows all materials to cross it, like a cell wall, is called fully permeable.

The movement of particles across the selectively permeable membrane allows cells to :
▪ To obtain nutrients
▪ Excretes waste
▪ Maintain a pH suitable for the action of enzymes
▪ Maintain optimum concentration of ions.
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Substances can be transported across the cell membrane by one or two mechanism:

⮚ Passive transport happens on its without needing energy. In passive transport

substances move down the concentrated gradient from an area of higher
concentration to where they are in lower concentration. Diffusion and Osmosis are
the two types of passive transport processes that occur in a cell.

⮚ Active transport is the movement of particles in or out of a cell through the cell
membrane against their concentration gradient using energy released during
respiration. This means that the particles move up the concentration gradient from a
region where they are in low concentration to a region where they are in high
concentration.

DIFFUSION

Diffusion is the movement of molecules, ions, or particles from an area of high concentration to
one of low concentration down what is called a concentration gradient. A concentration
gradient is a gradual change in the concentration of solutes in a solution between two regions.
As an example, consider taking a beaker of distilled water and adding a few grains of potassium
permanganates or one drop of ink that sink to the bottom of the beaker. Because the beaker has
a relatively high concentration of potassium permanganate at the bottom and a low
concentration on top, we can say there is a concentration gradient for potassium permanganate.
Indeed, potassium permanganate on both sides is moving around randomly down its
concentration gradient to fill areas with lower concentration. These molecules will travel
through the water until it becomes purple completely, at which point the molecules are equally
distributed and the water has reached a state called equilibrium.

Another common test to determine the pH balance (acidic or basic) of a solution also
demonstrates diffusion. Ammonia causes wet red litmus paper(a pH test strip) to turn blue,
through diffusion because ammonia is a basic solution.
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Think about what happens if one sprays a perfume at one corner of the room. Very soon the
perfume can be smelt all over the room. This illustrates the point that the perfume molecules
(gas molecules) had moved from the region where they were more concentrated to where they
were not present at all. Perfume molecules were concentrated where the perfume was sprayed
and after some time they were spread evenly around the room. That is the reason why you smelt
the perfume even though you did not go to the corner where it was sprayed.

Diffusion is a passive process meaning that it does not require energy. Instead, it depends on the
motion of the molecules and continues until the arrangement of the molecules reaches a state of
equilibrium, which means that the molecules are evenly distributed throughout the system.
Substances like oxygen, carbon dioxide, fatty acids, urea and glycerol move through the
phospholipids of the cell surface membrane in and out of cells by diffusion. Glucose and Na+
move by diffusion through the channel proteins of the cell surface membrane. In biology
diffusion takes place across cell membranes . This is because the cell membrane is partially
permeable only certain small molecules are able to enter and leave the cell by diffusion.

Several factors affect the rate of diffusion:

1. Temperature - when the temperature is high, the molecules have more energy and
move faster.
2. Concentration gradient - the steeper the concentration gradient the faster molecules
will move.
3. The size of particles - when particles are small the molecules will move faster than
the larger ones.

EXAMPLES OF DIFFUSION IN LIVING THINGS

▪ Carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis diffuses into plants leaves from the air through
pores called stomata. This happens because there is more carbon dioxide outside than
there is inside the leaves.
▪ Oxygen in the air sacs in our lungs diffuses into the blood by diffusion. Again this is
because the level of oxygen in the air sacs is higher than that in the blood.
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▪ Gaseous exchanges in the alveoli and blood capillaries; also between the blood capillaries
and tissues.
▪ Diffusion of digested food in the small intestine (ileum).

OSMOSIS

Osmosis is a special type of diffusion that takes place through a membrane using water.
Osmosis is the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration through a selectively permeable membrane.

In the diagram above, there is a high concentration of water on the outside of the cell membrane
and a low water concentration on the inside. Therefore, the water moves from the outside to the
inside by osmosis. There is also a starch solution inside the cell that reduces the water’s
potential to move.

Osmosis in Cells

Each cell in living things is surrounded by a cell membrane. Inside the cell there are many
different molecules. If you think of the cell membrane as a bag and the molecules inside the cell
as groceries, it should help you to understand how the molecules are contained in a cell
membrane.
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The distinguishing factor between osmosis and diffusion is that in osmosis substances pass
through a semi-permeable membrane while in diffusion there is just free movement of particles
of any size.

OSMOMETER
Selective permeability of the visking tube allows only water to pass through from the region of
high water concentration (pure water) to the region of low water concentration (concentrated
sugar solution). The volume of the visking tube increases and pressure causes a rise in the
solution level.

A plant cell in distilled water will take in water by osmosis through a partially permeable
membrane of the cell. As the water enters, the vacuole swells and pushes the cytoplasm and the
cell membrane up against the cell wall, but the strong cell wall prevents the cell from bursting.
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PLANT CELL

The plant cell that is full of water is said to be turgid and turgid cells helps to support soft parts
of a plant such as the stem, leaves and flowers and keep them firm. This is why plants often wilt
when they do not have enough water. Turgid cells are important in plants that are not supported
by something else. However, when a plant cell is placed in a concentrated solution, for example
a salt solution or concentrated sugar solution, the water potential within the plant cell is greater
than the outside (hypertonic) solution. The water will move out from the cell through osmosis
and the cytoplasm and vacuole will shrink away from the cell wall. In the diagram below, look
at the dented cell wall, detached cytoplasm and a small vacuole.
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PLANT CELL IN CONCENTRATED SOLUTION

Cells that have lost water are said to be plasmolysed. A cell in this state is said to be flaccid. If
the plant cells do not regain water, the whole plant will shrink and eventually die.

EFFECTS OF OSMOSIS ON ANIMAL CELLS

Unlike plant cells, animal cells do not have a rigid cell wall and may burst when placed in pure
water. The cytoplasm inside an animal cell is a fairly concentrated solution. Proteins and many
other substances dissolved in it are too large to get through the cell membrane, but water
molecules can get through. Water molecules will diffuse through the cell membrane from the
pure water into the cell. As more and more water enters, the cell swells and stretches the cell
membrane. Eventually, the pressure may become too much and the cell bursts.
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NORMAL CELL

When placed in solutions more concentrated than the cytoplasm such as a salt solution, the water will
diffuse out of a cell and animal cells shrink. As water molecules move through the cell membrane, the
cytoplasm shrinks and the cell shrivels up as in the diagram below.

FFECTS OF OSMOSIS
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Active Transport

There is another transport (movement) that exists in living things. In this type of movement
particles move from points of low concentration to that with high concentration. This movement
is said to be against a concentration gradient. For this to happen, energy has to be used. In
osmosis and diffusion movement is along a concentration gradient. This movement of
molecules from an area where they are few to an area where they are many is called active
transport. An example of where this happens is in the roots of a plant. If you pull out a plant
from the soil and observe the roots of that plant you will notice that the roots of that plant have
got some hairs in them. Those are meant to absorb mineral salts from the soil. Mineral salts are
normally present in the soil in very low quantities and under normal circumstances (by osmosis)
these minerals salts are supposed to move from the plant into the soil. But then the root hairs
take up the mineral salts from the area of low concentration to the area of high concentration,
that is, against the concentration gradient. What this means then is that you need a lot of energy
for this to happen, and therefore active transportation can only take place in living things. If a
cell dies it can’t produce energy and therefore active transport stops.